Module-01

Introduction-Branches of geology useful to civil engineering, scope of geological studies in

various civil engineering projects. Department dealing with this subject in India and their scope
of work- GSI, Granite Dimension Stone Cell, NIRM. Mineralogy-Mineral, Origin and
composition. Physical properties of minerals, susceptibility of minerals to alteration, basic of
optical mineralogy, SEM, XRD., Rock forming minerals, megascopic identification of common
primary & secondary minerals.
GEOLOGY (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science) is a branch of science dealing
with the study of the Earth. It is also known as earth science. The study of the earth as a whole,
its origin, structure, composition and the nature of the processes which have given rise to its
present position is called as geology. Geology comprises the following branches:
1. Crystallography
2. Mineralogy
3. Petrology
4. Geophysics
5. Geochemistry
6. Structural Geology
7. Stratigraphy
8. Physical Geology
9. Geomorphology
10. Paleontology
11. Hydrogeology
12. Engineering Geology
13. Photo Geology
14. Economic Geology
15. Mining Geology

Crystallography: The study of the characters of crystals is known as crystallography.

Crystals are bodies bounded by flat faces (surfaces), arranged on a definite plane due to internal
arrangements of atoms.
Mineralogy: The study of the characters of minerals (eg: quartz, pyroxene, amphibole, mica,
chlorite, garnet) is known as Mineralogy. A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous
substance, inorganically formed with a definite chemical composition, with a certain physical
properties and crystalline structures.
Petrology: The study of rocks in all their aspects including their mineralogies, textures,
structures (systematic description of rocks in hand specimen and thin sections); origin and their
relationships to other rocks.
Geophysics: The section of the earth which include the structure, physical conditions and
evolutionary history of the earth as a whole.
Geochemistry: The study of chemical composition of minerals and rocks of the earth.
Structural Geology is the study of rock structures such as folds that have resulted from
movements and deformation of the earth’s crust.
Stratigraphy: The study of the stratified rocks especially their sequence in time, the character of
the rocks and correlation of beds at different localities.
Physical Geology: It deals with the geological processes which bring about changes in the crust
and upon the surface of the earth. It also deals with the surface features of the earth (land forms)
or its topography
Geomorphology: The description and interpretation of land forms.
Paleontology is the study of ancient life, determination of environment, evolution of organisms
etc...
Hydrogeology-- the study of the geological factors relating to earth’s water.

Mining Geology deals with the method of mining of rocks and mineral deposits on earth’s
surface and subsurface.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY: the principles and methods of geology is adopted for the
purpose of civil engineering operations. Broadly speaking, engg geology has two divisions:
(1) The study of raw materials
(2) The study of the geological characteristics of the area where engineering operations are to be
carried out such as Groundwater characteristics; the load bearing capacity of rocks; the stability
of slopes; excavation; rock mechanics etc. for civil engineer.
SCOPE OF GEOLOGY: In Civil Engineering
 Geology provides necessary information about the construction materials at the site used
in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
 Geological information is most important in planning stage, design phase and
construction phase of an engineering project.
 Geology is useful to know the method of mining of rock and mineral deposits on earth’s
surface and subsurface.
 Geology is useful for supply, storage and filling up of reservoirs with water.
IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY FROM CIVIL ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW

 Before constructing roads, bridges, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs and buildings, selection of
site is important from the point of stability of foundation.
 Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials and their properties.
 The knowledge about the nature of the rocks in tunneling and construction of roads.
 The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related with geology
of the area where they are to be built.
 The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with excavation works, water
supply, irrigation and many other purposes.
 The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by surface water helps
in soil conservation, river control.
 Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many engineering projects.
 If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds are found, they have to be suitably
treated. Hence, the stability of the rock structures is important.
 Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of planning work.
Minerals, Rocks and soils constitute earth materials. They play a vital role in the site
evaluation and operations in civil engineering practice.
 Whether it is tunneling, hydro-electric projects, ground water development, foundation
for structures, study of slope stability etc... A basic understanding of the earth materials is
essential.
 Thus, study of minerals, rocks and soils forms the first step in civil engg point of view.
Hence, a civil engineer should know the introduction of Geology and its branches and
importance of a few branches such as Physical Geology, Petrology; Structural Geology
and so on ……
GSI (Geological Survey of India):-
The Geological Survey of India was established in 1851 and operates under the Ministry of
Mines, Government of India. It is the oldest and one of the most distinguished geological
organizations in the world. GSI's main objective is to conduct geological surveys and
investigations to explore and assess the mineral and geological resources of India.
Scope of Work of GSI:
1. Geological Mapping: GSI conducts systematic geological mapping across the country to
understand the distribution and characteristics of different geological formations, rocks, and
mineral resources. This information is invaluable for various civil engineering projects.
2. Geotechnical Studies: GSI undertakes geotechnical investigations to assess the physical and
mechanical properties of soils and rocks at different project sites. The data obtained helps in
designing safe and stable foundations and structures.
3. Site Investigations: GSI conducts site investigations for major infrastructure projects such as
dams, bridges, highways, and tunnels. By studying the geological conditions and potential
hazards, GSI provides critical insights for project planning and execution.
4. Geological Hazard Assessment: GSI assesses geological hazards like landslides,
earthquakes, and subsidence, providing valuable information to mitigate risks and design
appropriate safety measures for civil engineering projects.
5. Groundwater Studies: GSI carries out hydrogeological investigations to understand
groundwater availability, quality, and flow patterns. This is crucial for water-related
infrastructure projects and resource management.
6. Geological Research: GSI is involved in conducting research on various geological aspects to
expand knowledge and keep up with advancements in the field. This research helps in improving
understanding and application in civil engineering projects.
7. Mineral Exploration: Apart from civil engineering applications, GSI is responsible for
identifying and assessing mineral resources, which are essential for industrial development and
economic growth.
8. Environmental Geology: GSI also focuses on environmental geology, studying the impact of
human activities on the geological environment and proposing remedial measures to mitigate
negative effects.
9. Geoscientific Information Dissemination: GSI disseminates geological information and
maps to the public, government agencies, and industries. This helps stakeholders make informed
decisions related to infrastructure development and resource utilization.
Conclusion:
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) plays a critical role in the geology-civil engineering
interface by providing essential geological data, conducting geotechnical investigations, and
assessing geological hazards. GSI's work is instrumental in guiding civil engineering projects,
ensuring their safety, sustainability, and successful execution. As a reputable and authoritative
geological organization, GSI's contributions significantly impact India's infrastructure
development and overall economic progress.
Granite Dimension Stone Cell:-
Granite is a type of igneous rock that is widely used as a dimension stone in various construction
and architectural applications. Dimension stone refers to natural stone that has been selected and
fabricated to specific sizes or shapes for use in construction projects, such as buildings,
monuments, bridges, and other structures.
Dimension stone is natural stone or rock that has been selected and finished (e.g., trimmed, cut,
drilled, ground, or other) to specific sizes or shapes. Color, texture and pattern, and surface finish
of the stone are also normal requirements. Another important selection criterion is durability: the
 time measure of the ability of dimension stone to endure and to maintain its essential and
distinctive characteristics of strength, resistance to decay, and appearance.
A variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are used as structural and decorative
dimension stone. These rock types are more commonly known
as granite, limestone, marble, travertine, quartz-based stone (sandstone, quartzite) and slate.
Other varieties of dimension stone that are normally considered to be special minor types
include alabaster (massive gypsum), soapstone (massive talc), serpentine and various products
fashioned from natural stone. A variety of finishes can be applied to dimension stone to achieve
diverse architectural and aesthetic effects. These finishes include, but are not limited to, the
following. A polished finish gives the surface a high luster and strong reflection of incident light
(almost mirror-like).
NIRM (National Institute of Rock Mechanics):-
The National Institute of Rock Mechanics (NIRM), is an autonomous Research Institute under
Ministry of Mines, Government of India. Set up in 1988 under Societies Act, 1860, NIRM has its
Head Office (HO) at Bengaluru and Registered Office (RO) at Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.
The Institute deals with field and laboratory investigations, basic and applied research, and
solving complex problems in almost entire spectrum of Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering
related to Mining and Civil Engineering activities.

 The Institute has been developed as a Centre of Excellence for Rock Engineering, with the
following broad areas of activities
 Design of mine workings for improved safety and productivity.
 Design of rock excavations, support systems for safety and stability.
 Optimal site characterization for strategic constructions.
 Instrumentation and monitoring for ensuring stability of excavations.
 In-situ and laboratory based tests as per ISRM standards.
 Rock deformability Characteristics.
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces
images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. ... The number of
secondary electrons that can be detected, and thus the signal intensity, depends, among other
things, on specimen topography.

XRD (X-ray Powder Diffraction):- X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analytical
technique primarily used for phase identification of a crystalline material and can provide
information on unit cell dimensions. The analyzed material is finely ground, homogenized, and
average bulk composition is determined. X-ray diffraction is based on constructive interference
of monochromatic X-rays and a crystalline sample. These X-rays are generated by a cathode ray
tube, filtered to produce monochromatic radiation, collimated to concentrate, and directed toward
the sample. The interaction of the incident rays with the sample produces constructive
interference (and a diffracted ray) when conditions satisfy Bragg's Law (nλ=2d sin θ).
Applications
X-ray powder diffraction is most widely used for the identification of unknown crystalline
materials (e.g. minerals, inorganic compounds). Determination of unknown solids is critical to
studies in geology, environmental science, material science, engineering and biology.
Other applications include:
 characterization of crystalline materials
 identification of fine-grained minerals such as clays and mixed layer clays that are difficult
to determine optically
 determination of unit cell dimensions
 measurement of sample purity
Primary Minerals:
The primary minerals are those which are formed owing to the crystallization of the molten
magma. We have already seen that the earth’s crust contains dominant amount of oxygen
(46.60%) followed by silicon (27.72%).
In order to achieve neutrality between the negatively-charged oxygen and the positively-charged
silicon, there would be a greater tendency for silicon and oxygen to combine to form the basic
compound, called the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron (SiO4). This explains the dominance (>90%) of
silicate minerals (compounds containing silicon and oxygen, and one or more metal cations) in
the earth’s crust.
Secondary Minerals:
The secondary minerals are formed at the earth’s surface by weathering on the pre-existing
primary minerals under variable conditions of temperature and pressure. During weathering,
water accompanied by CO2 from the atmosphere plays an important role in processes, like
hydrolysis, hydration and solution. As a result the primary minerals are altered or decomposed.
Susceptibility to alteration is a reflection of mineral stability in soil environments, which is
determined by many factors, including temperature, moisture conditions, pH, redox conditions,
degree of leaching, and the nature, composition and grain size of the mineral.
Mineral alteration is essentially governed by the laws of thermodynamics related to energy
conservation, relevant to environmental conditions, often in presence of catalysts, the most
common and influential being water (H2O).
The degree and scales of time in which different minerals alter vary depending on the initial
product and its physical properties and susceptibility to alteration. Some minerals such
as quartz and zircon are highly resistant to alteration under normal weathering conditions. Yet
quartz may alter to stishovite with intense pressure, and zircon to crytolite (a metamict zircon)
with amount of radioactive components and time.
Mineral alteration is distinctly different than the rock alteration process metamorphism. It also
differs from weathering. However, these processes assist in mineral alteration. Some minerals
are members of a solid solution series and are samples of a range of compositional changes in a
continuum, and thus are not 'mineral alteration' products.
Examples of Mineral alteration:-
Oxidation
Hydration and dehydration
Kaolinization
Chloritization
Shock induced alteration
Radioactive decay
Serpentinization
Dolomitization
Pyritization
Opalization
Optical mineralogy is the study of minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties.
Most commonly, rock and mineral samples are prepared as thin sections or grain mounts for
study in the laboratory with a petrographic microscope. Optical mineralogy is used to identify
the mineralogical composition of geological materials in order to help reveal their origin and
evolution.
Some of the properties and techniques used include:
Refractive index
Birefringence
Michel-Lévy Interference colour chart
Pleochroism
Extinction angle
Conoscopic interference pattern (Interference figure)
Becke line test
Optical relief