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MANAGEMENT
Using Practice
and Theory to
Develop Skill
CONTENTS

Preface to the eighth edition xiii 2.8 Contingency management 51

Preface to the first edition xvii 2.9 Think clearly to connect practice, theory
Acknowledgements xix and skill 52
Publisher’s Acknowledgements xxi Develop a skill: self-awareness 54
Summary 54
Test your understanding 55
Read more 56
PART 1 Go online 56

AN INTRODUCTION
Part 1 Case: Apple Inc.
TO MANAGEMENT 57

PART 2
CHAPTER 1
MANAGING IN ORGANISATIONS 4
THE ENVIRONMENT
Case study: Ryanair 5
OF MANAGEMENT
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Meanings of management 7
1.3 Managing to add value 8 CHAPTER 3
1.4 Adding value by managing task, ORGANISATION CULTURES AND CONTEXTS 64
process and context 11
Case study: British Broadcasting
1.5 Influencing through the tasks of managing 13
Corporation (BBC) 65
1.6 Influencing through the process
3.1 Introduction 66
of managing 16
3.2 Cultures and their components 67
1.7 Influencing through shaping the context 19
3.3 Types of culture 71
1.8 Managing needs clear thinking 22
3.4 The competitive and general environment 74
1.9 Think clearly to connect practice,
3.5 Stakeholders and corporate governance 80
theory and skill 24
3.6 Think clearly to connect practice,
Develop a skill: networking 28
theory and skill 82
Summary 29
Develop a skill: present a reasoned case 83
Test your understanding 30
Summary 84
Read more 30
Test your understanding 85
Go online 31
Read more 85
Go online 85
CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT 32 CHAPTER 4
Case study: innocent drinks 33 MANAGING INTERNATIONALLY 86

2.1 Introduction 34 Case study: Carlsberg 87

2.2 Theories illuminate tasks, processes 4.1 Introduction 88
and contexts 34 4.2 Ways to conduct business internationally 89
2.3 The competing values framework 37 4.3 The contexts of international
2.4 Rational goal models 39 business – PESTEL 92
2.5 Internal process models 41 4.4 Socio-cultural 98
2.6 Human relations models 44 4.5 Hofstede’s comparison of
2.7 Open systems models 48 national cultures 101
 viii CONTENTS

4.6 Factors stimulating globalisation 105 CHAPTER 7

4.7 Think clearly to connect practice, PLANNING 166
theory and skill 106
Case study: Crossrail builds the Elizabeth Line 167
Develop a skill: mindfulness 107
7.1 Introduction 168
Summary 107
7.2 Why people plan 170
Test your understanding 108
7.3 Types of plan 171
Read more 108
7.4 Information for planning 175
Go online 109
7.5 Setting goals 177
7.6 Organising 180
CHAPTER 5 7.7 Acting and leading – to implement
CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY 110 and monitor 181
Case study: The Co-operative Group 111 7.8 Think clearly to connect practice,
5.1 Introduction 112 theory and skill 183
5.2 Corporate malpractice, philanthropy Develop a skill: planning to use your time
and responsibility 112 effectively 185
5.3 Perspectives on corporate responsibility 115 Summary 186
5.4 An ethical decision-making model 117 Test your understanding 187
5.5 Stakeholders and corporate responsibility 119 Read more 187
5.6 Corporate responsibility and strategy 121 Go online 188
5.7 Does responsible action affect performance? 125
5.8 Think clearly to connect practice, CHAPTER 8
theory and skill 127 MANAGING STRATEGY 190
Develop a skill: clarifying values 129 Case study: GKN 191
Summary 130 8.1 Introduction 192
Test your understanding 130 8.2 Strategy – process, content (task)
Read more 131 and context 193
Go online 131 8.3 Strategy processes – rational,
judgemental, negotiated, adaptive 195
Part 2 Case: BP 132 8.4 Strategy processes (2) – Strategy as practice? 199
8.5 Making sense – external analysis 201
8.6 Making sense – internal analysis 203
8.7 Making choices – strategy at business
PART 3 unit levels 206
PLANNING 8.8 Making things happen – delivering strategy 208
8.9 Making revisions – implementing and
evaluating 209
8.10 Think clearly to connect practice,
CHAPTER 6 theory and skill 210
MAKING DECISIONS 140 Develop a skill: setting clear goals 212

Case study: IKEA 141

Summary 212

6.1 Introduction 142

Test your understanding 213

6.2 Iterative elements in making a decision 143

Read more 213

6.3 Nature of a decision 148

Go online 214

6.4 The context of decisions 150

6.5 A generic theory of decision processes 153
CHAPTER 9
6.6 Biases in making decisions 156
MANAGING MARKETING 216

6.7 Think clearly to connect practice, Case study: Manchester United FC 217
theory and skill 159 9.1 Introduction 218
Develop a skill: setting success criteria 161 9.2 The internal context – a marketing
Summary 162 orientation? 219
Test your understanding 163 9.3 The external context of marketing 221
Read more 163 9.4 Marketing tasks – understanding
Go online 164 customers and markets 223
 CONTENTS ix

9.5 Choosing segments, targets, and 11.6 Recruitment and selection 286
the market offer 227 11.7 Reward management 290
9.6 Using the marketing mix 229 11.8 Equal opportunities and diversity 292
9.7 Think clearly to connect practice, 11.9 Think clearly to connect practice,
theory and skill 234 theory and skill 294
Develop a skill: identifying customer needs 235 Develop a skill: preparing for an interview 296
Summary 236 Summary 296
Test your understanding 237 Test your understanding 297
Read more 237 Read more 297
Go online 238 Go online 298

Part 3 Case: Virgin Group 239 CHAPTER 12

INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND
E-BUSINESS 300

PART 4 Case study: Google

12.1 Introduction
301
302
ORGANISING 12.2 The context of IS – digital disruption 303
12.3 The internet and e-business 307
12.4 Two applications – customers
and knowledge 310
CHAPTER 10 12.5 Adding value depends on
STRUCTURE 246 technology and organisation 315
Case study: GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) 247 12.6 Think clearly to connect practice,
10.1 Introduction 248 theory and skill 317
10.2 Structure, strategy and performance 249 Develop a skill: setting a project agenda 319
10.3 Tasks of structure – the tools 250 Summary 319
10.4 Dividing work internally – functions, divisions Test your understanding 320
and matrices 256 Read more 320
10.5 Dividing work externally – outsourcing Go online 320
and networks 260
10.6 Coordinating work 262 CHAPTER 13
10.7 Mechanistic and organic forms 266 ENTREPRENEURSHIP, CREATIVITY
10.8 Think clearly to connect practice, AND INNOVATION 322
theory and skill 268
Case study: Dyson 323
Develop a skill: coordinating work 270
13.1 Introduction 324
Summary 270
13.2 Entrepreneurship and why it matters 325
Test your understanding 271
13.3 Why do people become entrepreneurs? 326
Read more 272
13.4 Entrepreneurial tasks, processes and contexts 327
Go online 272
13.5 Creativity and innovation 330
13.6 Sources of innovation 336
CHAPTER 11 13.7 Think clearly to connect practice,
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 274 theory and skill 341
Case study: BMW 275 Develop a skill: practising everyday creativity 343
11.1 Introduction 276 Summary 343
11.2 HRM and performance – the empirical Test your understanding 344
evidence 277 Read more 344
11.3 What do HR managers do? 281 Go online 345
11.4 Human resource planning 283
11.5 Job analysis 284 Part 4 Case: Royal Bank of Scotland 346
 x CONTENTS

16.3 The communication process 405

16.4 Selecting communication channels 409
PART 5 16.5 Interpersonal skills for communicating 413

LEADING 16.6
16.7
Communicating in context
Think clearly to connect practice,
416

theory and skill 418

Develop a skill: present ideas to an audience 419

CHAPTER 14 Summary 420

INFLUENCING 354 Test your understanding 421

Read more 421
Case study: W.L. Gore and Associates
Go online 422
in Europe 355
14.1 Introduction 356
14.2 Managing and leading depend CHAPTER 17
on influencing 357
TEAMS 424

14.3 Traits models 360 Case study: Cisco Systems 425

14.4 Situational (or contingency) models 362 17.1 Introduction 426
14.5 Gaining and using power 365 17.2 Tasks and types of teams 427
14.6 Choosing tactics to influence others 368 17.3 Crowds, groups and teams 430
14.7 Influencing through networks 369 17.4 Stages of team development 435
14.8 Think clearly to connect practice, 17.5 Team processes 438
theory and skill 371 17.6 Outcomes of teams – for members
Develop a skill: setting ‘end-of-event’ goals 372 and organisations 440
Summary 373 17.7 Teams in context 442
Test your understanding 374 17.8 Think clearly to connect practice,
Read more 374 theory and skill 443
Go online 375 Develop a skill: observing team processes 445
Summary 446

CHAPTER 15 Test your understanding 446

MOTIVATING 376 Read more 447

Go online 447
Case study: The Eden Project 377
15.1 Introduction 378
15.2 Contexts of motivation 380
CHAPTER 18
15.3 The psychological contract 382
MANAGING CHANGE 448

15.4 Behaviour modification 385 Case study: Amazon 449

15.5 Content theories 386 18.1 Introduction 450
15.6 Process theories 388 18.2 Change and the social group – Kurt Lewin 452
15.7 Designing work to be motivating 391 18.3 The wider internal context 455
15.8 Think clearly to connect practice, 18.4 External contexts 458
theory and skill 395 18.5 Theories of change 459
Develop a skill: design a motivating job 396 18.6 Stakeholders and interest groups 464
Summary 397 18.7 Think clearly to connect practice,
Test your understanding 398 theory and skill 465
Read more 398 Develop a skill: identifying stakeholders
Go online 399 and their interests 466
Summary 467

CHAPTER 16 Test your understanding 468

COMMUNICATING 400 Read more 469

Go online 469
Case study: Facebook 401
16.1 Introduction 402
Part 5 Case: British Heart Foundation 470
16.2 Communicating to add value 403
 CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 20
CONTROL AND PERFORMANCE
PART 6 MEASUREMENT 500

CONTROLLING Case study: Performance management

in the NHS 501
20.1 Introduction 502
20.2 The control process 502
CHAPTER 19 20.3 Strategies for control – mechanistic
MANAGING OPERATIONS AND QUALITY 478 or organic? 505
Case study: Zara 479 20.4 Tactics for control 507
19.1 Introduction 480 20.5 How to measure performance 510
19.2 The transformation process view of 20.6 Human considerations in control 515
operations 480 20.7 Think clearly to connect practice,
19.3 Operations management and theory and skill 516
competitiveness 484 Develop a skill: monitoring progress on a task 518
19.4 Operations processes 488 Summary 519
19.5 Main activities of operations 491 Test your understanding 520
19.6 Quality 493 Read more 520
19.7 Think clearly to connect practice, Go online 520
theory and skill 496
Develop a skill: assessing what customers Part 6 Case: Tesco 521
mean by quality 497
Summary 498 Glossary 526
Test your understanding 499 References 538
Read more 499 Index 554
Go online 499
PREFACE TO THE
EIGHTH EDITION

This eighth edition takes account of helpful comments Chapter 7 (Planning (previously 6)) – more on the
from staff and students who used the sixth edition, troubles at Crossrail, and some good research on
and the suggestions of reviewers (please see below). how people plan to use their time – which is the
The book retains the established structure of six parts, new ‘Develop a skill’ topic.
and twenty chapters – though Managing Change re- Chapter 8 (Managing strategy) – more on GKN,
places Finance and Budgetary Control (still available with evidence about poor performance of senior
on the Companion Website). Within that structure managers in the time before the Melrose bid (which
each chapter has been updated where necessary, with most media comment seemed to overlook). Also
many new and current examples both in the narrative a new research-based example of a local manager
and in the Management in Practice features. New em- successfully adapting an inadequate strategic plan.
pirical research maintains the academic quality.
Chapter 10 (Structure) – empirical research on
Responding to concerns about ‘textbook fatigue’,
formalisation and how it affects whether public
this edition is shorter than previous ones, though the
employees follow rules; also more on developments
same amount of material is available to students. Each
in the Chapter case – GSK.
chapter contains what the author sees as the ‘core’
theories and approaches which will be most useful Chapter 13 (Entrepreneurship, creativity and inno-
to students at an introductory level. Other material vation) – new (two-part) Management in Practice
which is probably less essential is now included on the feature following an entrepreneur’s early years in
Companion Website, with a clear link from the text to business.
the website where needed. Chapter 14 (Influencing) – new Chapter case –
Examples of updating and revisions in chapter con- W. L. Gore and Associates in Europe, which illus-
tents are: trates their unusual, but successful, approach to
managing.
Chapters Chapter 15 (Motivating) – much of the historical
Chapter 1 (Managing in organisations) – includes material is now on the Companion Website, with
the ‘triple bottom line’ as a way of assessing per- a table summarising the research outcomes. New
formance, and introduces the new ‘Think clearly empirical research on job characteristics theory.
to connect practice, theory and skill’ feature in Chapter 18 (Managing change) – a new chapter, with
Section 1.10. The idea that managers add value by Amazon as the Chapter case. Outlines and illustrates
performing tasks and processes within a context is
Lewin’s force-field theory, forms of change and
also introduced. alternative, and complementary, theories of change,
Chapter 3 (Organisation cultures and contexts) – as well as understanding stakeholders (‘Develop a
additional empirical material in the BBC case, and skill’ feature).
another study tracing the formation of a cultures
in a call-centre which appeared to encourage mis-
Academic content This has been extended and
selling over customer care.
updated where appropriate, with over 90 new refer-
Chapter 5 (Corporate responsibility) – new empiri- ences, mostly reporting empirical research to enable
cal work applying CR principles to employees’ wel- students develop the habit of seeking the empirical
fare, and a new overview of CR research. evidence behind management ideas. Examples include
Chapter 6 (Making decisions (previously 7)) – new new research on social entrepreneurship in Chapter 1,
material in the IKEA case as it starts to make major on culture and risk taking amongst entrepreneurs in
changes to its way of working, and a study of in- Chapter 3, on task and process conflict over strategy in
vestors using instinct as well as rationality in their Chapter 8, on bureaucratic intensity and performance,
decisions. and on the ‘big five’ personality traits, in Chapter 14.
 xiv PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION

Cases These have been revised and updated where Chapter 4 – Mindfulness
appropriate, and two are completely new – W. L. Chapter 5 – Clarifying values
Gore (Chapter 14) and Amazon (Chapter 18).
Chapter 6 – Setting success criteria
Features Many of the Management in Practice fea- Chapter 7 – Planning to use your time effectively
tures have been updated and renewed, as have some Chapter 8 – Setting clear goals
Key Ideas. There are over 90 new references and ad- Chapter 9 – Identifying customer needs
ditional suggestions for Further Reading. Several of
the Case Questions and Activities have been revised Chapter 10 – Coordinating work
to connect more closely with the theories being pre- Chapter 11 – Preparing for an interview
sented. The Learning Objectives are reflected in Sum- Chapter 12 – Setting a project agenda
mary section at the end of each chapter, and in the Chapter 13 – Practising everyday creativity
‘Test your understanding’ feature.
Chapter 14 – Setting ‘end-of-event’ goals when
Test your understanding As before, there is a set of influencing
questions at the end of each chapter to help students Chapter 15 – Design a motivating job
assess their progress towards the learning objectives. Chapter 16 – Present ideas to an audience
Think clearly to connect practice, theory and Chapter 17 – Observing team processes
skill Section 1.8 in Chapter 1 presents the components Chapter 18 – Identifying stakeholders and their in-
of clear (formerly ‘critical’) thinking – assumptions, con- terests
text, alternatives and limitations. Section 1.9 presents Chapter 19 – Assessing what customers mean by
the view that these thinking skills are equally useful as quality
students evaluate a management practice, a theory about
Chapter 20 – Monitoring progress on a task
management, and as they reflect on how they develop
their management skills. The last numbered section in I do not envisage that many will work on the skills
each chapter puts this idea into practice. The table pro- in every chapter – it is a resource to be used as teachers
vides a structure for them to consider systematically an think best. The Instructors Manual includes a sugges-
aspect of management practice from the Chapter case, tion on how it could complement the academic con-
and to use the same structure to plan how they would tent of a course.
organise their answer to a typical assessment question
Read more For students who want to read more
on the subject of the chapter. The ‘Develop a skill’ sec-
about the topic. The format varies, but usually in-
tion follows, with the suggestion that they can also think
cludes a mix of classic texts, one or two contemporary
clearly as they reflect on how they approached that.
ones, and a couple of academic papers which repre-
This arrangement reflects a belief that students and
sent good examples of the empirical research that un-
employers are seeking more connections between aca-
derlies study of the topic.
demic work and employment. I hope this new section
provides a coherent way to integrate practice, theory
Go online Each chapter concludes with a list of the
and skills throughout the text, as a firm foundation
websites of companies that have appeared in it, and a
for students’ careers. For teachers, the section offers
suggestion that students visit these sites (or others in
many opportunities to build assignments, projects and
which they have an interest) to find more information
tutorial work.
related to the chapter. This should add interest and
help retain topicality.
Develop a skill As before this feature is consistently
based on two theoretical structures: (1) a theoretical Part cases The Part cases are intended to help stu-
model in the chapter showing the underlying rationale dents engage with text material throughout the Part.
for developing this skill; and (2) an established model The common principle is to encourage students to de-
of skill development, which informs the structure of velop their ‘contextual awareness’ by seeing how or-
each ‘Develop a skill’ feature. The skills are listed here ganisations act and react in relation to, amongst other
by Chapter. things, their environment. The common structure
Chapter 1 – Networking therefore is:
Chapter 2 – Self-awareness ● The company – material on the company and ma-
Chapter 3 – Present a reasoned case jor recent developments
 PREFACE TO THE EIGHTH EDITION xv

● Managing to add value – some ways in which man- graph giving examples of the skills (such as informa-
agers appear to have added value tion gathering, analysis and presentation) they have
● The company’s context – identifying between three developed from this task, and how to build this into
and five contextual factors a learning record.
● Current management dilemmas – drawing on the The other skills are developed by successive tasks
previous sections to identify pressing issues which ask them to reflect on how they worked on the
● Part case questions – now in two groups – the first ‘Business awareness’ task – solving problems, thinking
looking back to the material in the text, the second critically and so on.
more focused on the company, and so perhaps of- I do not envisage that many will work through all
fering a link to ‘employability skills’ – see below. of the tasks in every Part – it is a resource to be used as
teachers and their students think best. I hope that teach-
As well as supporting individual learning, these ex-
ers and students find this new feature valuable, and
tended cases could be suitable for group assignments
look forward to feedback and comments in due course.
and other forms of assessment.

Employability skills (Now on the Companion Web- List of reviewers We would like to express thanks to
site) This section on ‘Employability skills – preparing the original reviewers and review panel members who
for the world of work’ is a response to the growing have been involved in the development of this book.
expectations that universities and colleges do more to We are extremely grateful for their insight and helpful
improve the employability of their students. The organ- recommendations.
ising principle is to provide a structured opportunity for
David Monciardini, Senior Lecturer in Manage-
the student to develop and record evidence about six
ment, University of Exeter Business School
commonly cited employability skills:
Dr Martin Rich, Course Director, BSc Business
● Business awareness Management, Cass Business School
● Solving problems Dr Maria Elisavet Balta, Kent Business School,
● Thinking critically University of Canterbury
● Team working Julian Campbell, MBA Director, Norwich Business
● Communicating School, University of East Anglia
● Self-management Mrs Judi Morgan, Senior Lecturer in Management
To help do this, students are asked to work through Development, University of Central Lancashire
tasks which link the themes covered in the Part to the Dr Evangelos Markopoulos, Associate Lecturer,
six skills (sometimes called capabilities and attributes) Queen Mary University London, School of Busi-
which many employers value. The layout should help ness Management
students to record their progress in developing these Jane Parker, De Montfort University
skills, and articulate them to employers during the se- Dr. Shahnaz Ibrahim, Senior Teaching Fellow in
lection processes. Strategy & Entrepreneurship, University of South-
The basis of these tasks is the large Part case. The ampton
Employability section builds on this by setting alter- Simon Bishop, University of Nottingham
native tasks relating to the Part case (to be chosen by Dr Vanessa Beck, University of Bristol
the student or the instructor as preferred). That task Dr Anne Smith, Senior Lecturer, Department of
in itself relates to the business awareness theme – and Business Management, Glasgow School for
concludes by asking the student to write a short para- Business and Society
PREFACE TO THE
FIRST EDITION

This book is intended for readers who are undertaking European experience and research in management.
their first systematic exposure to the study of manage- The case studies and other material build an aware-
ment. Most will be first-year undergraduates follow- ness of cultural diversity and the implications of this
ing courses leading to a qualification in management for working in organisations with different manage-
or business. Some will also be taking an introductory rial styles and backgrounds.
course in management as part of other qualifications
(these may be in engineering, accountancy, law, infor-
Integrated perspective
mation technology, science, nursing or social work)
and others will be following a course in management To help the reader see management as a coherent
as an element in their respective examination schemes. whole, the material is presented within an integrative
The book should also be useful to readers with a first model of management and demonstrates the relation-
degree or equivalent qualification in a non-manage- ships between the many academic perspectives. The
ment subject who are taking further studies leading to intention is to help the reader to see management as
Certificate, Diploma or MBA qualifications. an integrating activity relating to the organisation as a
The book has the following three main objectives: whole, rather than as something confined to any one
● to provide newcomers to the formal study of man- disciplinary or functional perspective.
agement with an introduction to the topic; While the text aims to introduce readers to the
● to show that ideas on management apply to most traditional mainstream perspectives on management
areas of human activity, not just to commercial en- which form the basis of each chapter, it also recog-
terprises; and nises that there is a newer body of ideas which looks
● to make the topic attractive to students from many at developments such as the weakening of national
backgrounds and with diverse career intentions. boundaries and the spread of information technol-
ogy. Since they will affect the organisations in which
Most research and reflection on management has readers will spend their working lives, these newer
focused on commercial organisations. However, there perspectives are introduced where appropriate. The
are now many people working in the public sector text also recognises the more critical perspectives that
and in not-for-profit organisations (charities, pressure some writers now take towards management and or-
groups, voluntary organisations and so on) who have ganisational activities. These are part of the intellec-
begun to adapt management ideas to their own areas tual world in which management takes place and have
of work. The text reflects this wider interest in the important practical implications for the way people
topic. It should be as useful to those who plan to enter interpret their role within organisations. The text in-
public or not-for-profit work as to those entering the troduces these perspectives at several points.
commercial sector.

Relating to personal experience

European perspective
The text assumes that many readers will have little if
The book presents the ideas from a European perspec- any experience of managing in conventional organisa-
tive. While many management concepts have devel- tions, and equally little prior knowledge of relevant
oped in the United States, the text encourages readers evidence and theory. However, all will have experi-
to consider how their particular context shapes man- ence of being managed and all will have managed
agement practice. There are significant cultural differ- activities in their domestic and social lives. Wherever
ences that influence this practice, and the text alerts possible the book encourages readers to use and share
the reader to these – not only as part of an increas- such experiences from everyday life in order to explore
ingly integrated Europe but as part of a wider interna- the ideas presented. In this way the book tries to show
tional management community. So the text recognises that management is not a remote activity performed
 xviii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

by others, but a process in which all are engaged in skills of gathering data, comparing evidence, reflect-
some way. ing and generally enhancing self-awareness. It not
Most readers’ careers are likely to be more frag- only transmits knowledge but also aims to support
mented and uncertain than was once the case and the development of transferable skills through indi-
many will be working for medium-sized and smaller vidual activities in the text and through linked tutorial
enterprises. They will probably be working close to work. The many cases and data collection activities
customers and in organisations that incorporate di- are designed to develop generic skills such as commu-
verse cultures, values and interests. The text therefore nication, teamwork, problem solving and organising –
provides many opportunities for readers to develop while at the same time acquiring relevant knowledge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book has benefited from the comments, criticisms author. In the fifth edition Dr Steve Paton contributed
and suggestions of many colleagues and reviewers of the new material to Chapters 13 and (now) 20. In the sixth
seventh edition. It also reflects the reactions and com- and subsequent edition both chapters were revised by
ments of students who have used the material and ear- the author. Dickon Copsey, Employability Officer in
lier versions of some of the cases. Their advice and the College of Social Sciences, University of Glasgow,
feedback have been of immense help. gave much valuable advice on the employability mate-
The author wrote all of this edition, though col- rial at the end of each Part.
leagues wrote some chapters in earlier editions. In preparing this edition I benefited from the help
Chapter 11 (Human Resource Management) was cre- provided by Phillip Hickman and his colleagues at
ated by Professor Phil Beaumont and then developed the University of Winchester Library, by staff at the
by Dr Judy Pate and Sandra Stewart: in the sixth University of Southampton Library, and by Dr David
and subsequent editions it was revised by the author. Cross of Southampton Business School: I am very
Chapter 18 (Managing operations and quality) was grateful for their support.
created by Professor Douglas Macbeth and then devel-
oped by Dr. Geoff Southern and Dr. Steve Paton: in David Boddy
the sixth and subsequent editions it was revised by the Alresford, 2019
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Scales Case of Molded Urea Resin.
Source: Plaskon Company, Inc., 2112 Sylvan Avenue, Toledo, Ohio.

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costs, and resistance to breakage make the urea resins an ideal material
for all sorts of shades and reflectors for direct and indirect lighting
fixtures. Many of the shades used in railway cars are of this material.
The resin is available in degrees of denseness and opacity to give
particular ratios of reflection and transmission. Reflectors as large as 28
inches in diameter are on the market.
Although molded articles are the large outlets for the urea resins,
other applications are of increasing importance. Sirups used to
impregnate paper and cloth are used in laminating and the resulting
materials have unusual decorative possibilities. The surface is hard and
durable and the wide range of colors possible permits very attractive
applications. The urea resins are used both as the principal binding
material for laminated sheets or on the surface laminae of sheets where
tar-acid resins are used as the chief binder. The latter practice permits a
wide color range in decorative materials without loss of strength or other
characteristics of the tar-acid resins. In 1937 there were seven makers,
and their production of urea resins for laminating accounted for slightly
less than 10 percent of the total of all urea resins.
Another application of urea resins which has grown rapidly in the past
2 years is in combination with alkyd resins in surface coatings. In 1937
there were three makers, and their output of urea resins for coatings
amounted to more than 10 percent of the total production of urea. Until
recently the use of urea resins in paints and varnishes was discouraged
by their insolubility in organic solvents and their instability. On the other
hand, their lack of color, their high transparency, their hardness, and
their freedom from after-yellowing were desirable characteristics. The
development of methods for preparing condensates, which overcome
the undesirable properties, has made available resins for this use. They
are marketed as water-white viscous solutions in a mixture of organic
solvents and are intended for use in baking finishes. They cannot be
used alone because the cured resin is extremely hard and brittle and
lacks adhesion. When combined with more elastic film-forming materials
such as drying or nondrying oil alkyd resins, they produce coatings that
are mar-proof, resistant to alcohol, grease, oil, and fruit acids, and
available in a full range of colors. Applications are in metal furniture
finishes, toys, refrigerators, can, and drum coatings.
The value of urea resins as adhesives has been known for many
years and one of the first patents issued for such use was United States
Patent No. 1,355,834 granted in 1920. Commercial development and
application, however, did not take place until the last 2 years. Several
brands of urea adhesives are now on the market. These meet the need
for a hot-press adhesive which is applied in liquid form, cures rapidly at
moderate temperatures, and is economical. For greater economy, the
urea adhesive may be mixed with various proportions of flour (up to 50
percent) without affecting its water resistance. Diluted thus it comes
within the cost range of animal and vegetable glues and is more durable.
At present, it sells for 18 to 20 cents per pound; mixing it with 50 percent
flour gives an adhesive for plywood, costing about 10 cents per pound.
In 1937 three producers made urea resins for this use.
Other uses are in the treatment of textiles to obtain crease-proof
properties and in the impregnation of wood. United States Patent No.
1,951,994 issued on March 20, 1934, reports the preparation of artificial
silk from urea resins.

Production in the United States.

Commercial production of urea resins in the United States was
reported for the first time in 1929. Early in that year the American
Cyanamid Co. concluded an arrangement with the British Cyanides Co.
of England for the American rights to manufacture and sell in the United
States a resin made from urea, thiourea, and formaldehyde and
marketed as Beetle molding powder. A manufacturing unit was built at
Bound Brook, N. J., and in 1930 the output was substantial.
 In 1931 another producer, the Toledo Synthetic Products Co., began
manufacture of urea resins. Several years prior to that time the Toledo
Scale Co. started a search for a material light in weight to replace the
heavy porcelain-on-steel used in cases for scales. The search led to the
urea resins and to commercial production by their subsidiary. In 1935 the
Toledo Synthetic Products Company reached an agreement with the
Imperial Chemical Industries of England for the interchange of technical
and commercial information and of free patent licenses on urea molding
and laminating resins. The name of the domestic firm was later changed
to the Plaskon Co.
In 1932 the Unyte Corporation started commercial production of urea
resins at Grasselli, N. J. This firm was affiliated with the American I. G.
Corporation. Late in 1936 the Plaskon Co. took over the Unyte
Corporation.
The output of urea resins increased markedly in 1936 and 1937.
Statistics for those years cannot be published without disclosing
operations of individual firms. It may be stated, however, that the
increase in both years over the previous year was considerably greater
than for any earlier period. Most of the production was used in molded
articles although appreciable quantities were consumed in laminated
articles, in surface coatings, in the impregnation of fabric, and in
adhesives.
There were 10 domestic makers of these resins in 1937.
Domestic production and sales of urea resins are shown in table 8.

Table 8.—Urea resins: United States production and sales, 1933-37

Sales
Year Production
Quantity Value Unit value
Pounds Pounds
1933 3,234,356 2,977,791 $1,422,671 $0.48
1934 3,470,916 3,115,608 1,290,802 .41
1935 4,202,536 4,005,083 1,828,565 .46
1936-37 (1) (1) (1)
 1 Not publishable; figures would reveal operations of individual firms.

Source: Dyes and Other Synthetic Organic Chemicals in the United States, U. S.
Tariff Commission.

United States imports and exports.

Resins obtained from urea and thiourea, if imported, would probably
be classified under paragraph 11 of the Tariff Act of 1930. The present
rate of duty under this classification is 4 cents per pound and 30 percent
ad valorem.
There has been no importation of these resins. This is due principally
to the international licensing arrangements which usually include the
allocation of markets.
Exports are not shown separately in official statistics.
 6. ACRYLATE RESINS
A new development of widespread importance in the synthetic resin industry
is the commercial production of the polymers of certain derivatives of acrylic
acid. The commercial exploitation of the acrylates is another example of the
belated realization of the value of substances known for many years. Acrylic
acid has been known for about a hundred years, and the polymer of methyl
acrylate was first described in 1880. It was not until 1927, however, that a
suitable method for their commercial production was developed. The study of
the many derivatives of acrylic and methacrylic acids leads to the conclusion
that those of greatest practical application in the resin field are the lower
esters, such as methyl and ethyl, polymerized separately or together.
Colorless transparency, stability against aging, thermoplasticity, and
chemical resistance to many reagents are the general characteristics of the
acrylate resins. In consistency they range from soft, sticky, semiliquids to hard,
tough, thermoplastic solids. Since these widely varying properties are
obtained by control of manufacturing conditions, rather than by the use of
plasticizers, the resins retain their initial properties indefinitely. Aging and
weathering have no effect as they are stable under exposure to heat, light,
and oxidizing agents. The methacrylates are harder and tougher but less
elastic than the acrylates.

Properties and uses.

The acrylate resins are marketed in a number of forms, such as solutions in
organic solvents, dispersions in water, solid cast sheets, rods and tubes, and
molding powders. All of these are distinguishable from many other resins by
their colorless transparency, adhesive qualities, great elasticity, and chemical
resistance. The brilliant water-white color makes it possible to secure masses
having a high degree of light transmission and great optical clarity.
The earliest commercial use of the acrylate resins was in laminated safety
glass marketed as Plexigum in the United States and as Luglas and Sigla in
Europe. The extensibility and elasticity of the resin film gives the laminated
glass a flexible or yielding type of break when subjected to a hard impact.
Having excellent adhesion to glass there is no need of an auxiliary cement to
bond the resin to the glass, nor is it necessary to seal the edges since the
resin has good resistance to moisture. The acrylate resin used for this
purpose is in the form of a viscous solution in an organic solvent. A film is
applied to each sheet of glass, the solvent removed by drying, and the sheets
are pressed together.
The harder acrylic resins are used in the form of solid thermoplastics.
Methyl methacrylate is of special interest. As the monomer is a mobile liquid it
can be cast-polymerized to a solid of any desired shape in predesigned molds
or produced in finely divided form for use as molding powder. The cast resin is
marketed in this country as Crystalite, Plexiglas and Lucite, and in England as
Diakon.
The solid acrylate resins are clearer than cast phenolic resins, not as brittle
as the polystyrene resins, and not as tough as cellulose acetate or
nitrocellulose plastics. Their transparency and resistance to aging and
weather permit their use in applications not previously considered for synthetic
resins. Sheets of this resin may be formed or molded into many useful
shapes. The aircraft industry has found them suitable for windshields and
cockpit enclosures to effect streamlining and thus greatly reduce wind
resistance.
Methyl methacrylate is probably the nearest approach to organic glass thus
far developed. Its optical properties make it suitable for spectacle lenses,
camera lenses, magnifying glasses, and protective goggles. Spectacle lenses
are now being made to prescription by molding. It is estimated that 900 molds
will supply the requirements of about 98 percent of the prescriptions. The
excellent light transmitting quality of methyl methacrylate permits its use in
edge lighting, advertising displays, and instrument dials. It is also used in
inspection windows in various types of machinery where curved sections are
necessary and where glass might be broken.
A synthetic resin combining the properties mentioned, together with high
tensile and impact strength, good dielectric properties, ultraviolet transmission,
and resistance to water, oil, acids, and alkalies is an important contribution.
The acrylates may be colored or have fillers added to give any desired
translucency or opaqueness. They can be sawed, cut, blanked, turned, drilled,
ground, polished, and sanded much the same as are nitrocellulose plastics.
 Airplane Cockpit Enclosures of Cast Acrylate Resin.
Source: Rohm & Haas Company, 222 W. Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa.
 Spectacle Lenses Molded To Optical Prescription From Acrylate Resin.
Source: Rohm & Haas Company, 222 W. Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa.

A new and interesting application of the acrylate resins is as molded

reflectors in a system of indirect highway lighting. The reflectors are pressed
from colorless, transparent methyl methacrylate resin and are 1⅝ inches in
diameter. They are assembled in a pressed metal housing to form a double
facing marker which is snap-locked to the top of an angle iron post. The posts
are so located that the reflectors are accurately aligned 3 feet above the
pavement edge. An installation has been made on U. S. Highway No. 16
between Detroit and Lansing, Mich., at a cost of about $340 per mile. The
motorist provides his own light from his headlights which strikes the reflectors
and is returned as a narrow beam of brilliant illumination. The chief of the
United States Bureau of Public Roads states that this is a definite contribution
to the safety and utility of the highways at night. The reflector is a group of tiny
cube corners, over 300 in each disk. Each cube corner is a complete
retrodirective optical system; a light ray entering the front surface is reflected
from surface to surface of the cube and after the third reflection is directed
back toward the headlight regardless of the entrance angle. If the cubes are
made with a high degree of dimensional accuracy, the reflected light has a
high candlepower, strong enough to be seen for a mile.
Other uses for these resins are in sound recording records, dentures,
telephone and radio transmitter diaphragms, novelties, and lighting fixtures.
The monomer (unpolymerized methyl methacrylate) may be used to
impregnate wood, cloth, wallboard, cork, paper, electrical coils, tile, or stone,
and then polymerized to form the resin. Paper and cloth so treated have many
uses, such as in the electrical and food-packaging industries. Laminated
sheets find wide possibilities for use in the aircraft field, and for lamp shades.
Wood may be impregnated with as much as 60 percent of the monomer.
Solutions of these resins in organic solvents, such as ethylene dichloride,
ethyl acetate, and toluol, are used in surface coatings, undercoats on difficult
adhesion jobs, to impregnate paper and textiles, and in insulation. These
coating solutions are marketed in the United States under the trade name
Acryloids and in Europe under the trade names, Borron, Plexigum, and
Acronol. They may be brushed, sprayed, dipped, and baked. Baking is
recommended to give a higher gloss, better adhesion, and a harder film. The
dried film has an elasticity of 1,000 percent at ordinary room temperature and
the light transmission of clear films is intermediate between ordinary window
glass and quartz.
Acrysol is an adhesive consisting of a dispersion of the resin in water and is
recommended for use where adhesion is difficult, as on rubber or rubberized
surfaces.

Production in the United States.

Commercial production of acrylate resins in the United States was started in
1931 by Rohm and Haas, Philadelphia, Pa., under United States Patents Nos.
1,388,016 of August 16, 1921, and 1,829,208 of October 27, 1931.
Commercial production of methyl methacrylate resins was started in 1937
by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. This development is under United States
Patent No. 1,980,483, issued in 1934. The liquid monomer is produced at
Belle, W. Va., and shipped to Arlington, N. J., where it is polymerized by heat
to the solid resin.
 The output of acrylate resins was hardly more than experimental in 1935 but
increased somewhat in 1936 and very appreciably in 1937. Although statistics
of production are not publishable, it can be stated that in 1937 the output
approached that of other synthetic resins made in commercial quantities. The
properties of these resins indicate very large commercial production in the
near future. Prices of the several types are still high as compared with other
resins but should eventually be somewhat lower than those of cellulose
acetate and nitrocellulose plastics and slightly higher than those of cast
phenolic resins.

Imports into and exports from the United States.

There have been no recorded imports of acrylate resins. The two domestic
producers have agreements, licenses, or affiliations with the principal foreign
makers of these products, one in England and one in Germany. Such
arrangements would account for the absence of imports, except for sample or
experimental lots, and might also limit export markets.
7. COUMARONE AND INDENE RESINS
Coumarone and indene are present in appreciable quantities in
certain coal-tar fractions, especially in the solvent naphtha fractions
distilling between 160° and 190° C. No attempt is made to isolate
them from the solvent naphtha. Such a procedure would be difficult
and expensive and, since polymerization readily takes place in dilute
solutions, it is more economical to use fractions of solvent naphtha
rich in these substances. The resins obtained are mixtures of
polymerized coumarone and polymerized indene.
The solvent naphtha must be refined by fractional distillation and
the polymerization very carefully controlled. The polymerizing agent
is usually sulphuric acid although metallic salts, such as aluminum
chloride, are sometimes used. The yield and color of the resin are
affected by temperature and amount of acid used. Light colored
resins are the most desirable. After polymerization the acid or
metallic salt is removed, the product washed and neutralized and
finally distilled. Several byproducts, such as naphtha,
paracoumarone soap, and high boiling oils, are also obtained.

Description and uses.

Coumarone and indene resins are produced and marketed in the
United States under the trade names Cumar and Neville. A number
of grades are available, including the following:

Designation: Melting point

Rubber grade, soft 50°-65° C.
Medium soft 65°-85° C.
Rubber grade, hard 85°-100° C.
Medium hard 100°-135° C.
Varnish grade 135°-160° C.
 In addition to these, certain types are produced for special
purposes.
The coumarone and indene resins are used to a large extent in
varnishes for metal and wood. In this application they may be used
to replace all or part of the higher priced natural resins and, to some
extent, ester gum. Their application is somewhat limited by their
rather short durability and elasticity. They are neutral, nonoxidizing
and nonsaponifiable and impart to varnishes greater inertness and
adhesion, fair dielectric strength, and shorter drying time than many
of the natural resins. They cannot be used in nitrocellulose lacquer
since they are not compatible with that plastic.
Another important use of these resins is as an ingredient in mastic
floor tile, in the production of which a thermoplastic binder is used.
Originally, asphalt was used, but demand for light colored tile
necessitated some other binder, the requirements for which were
met by the coumarone and indene resins.
The next largest application of these resins is in rubber
compounding, their effect being to soften the rubber during milling
and to facilitate its handling on rolls. They do not affect the aging
qualities of rubber and are used as a softener for reclaimed as well
as for new rubber.
Coumarone and indene resins are used, to some extent, in
linoleum, for impregnating roofing felt, in electrical and friction tapes,
paper and cloth sizing, printing inks, brake linings, adhesives,
artificial leather, oil cloth, and shoe polishes. As a substitute for
chicle as much as 10 percent may be incorporated in the chewing
gum mixture. Their application in molded articles is very limited
because of their brittleness and low tensile strength.

Production in the United States.

There are three domestic makers of these resins. Statistics of
production and sales cannot be published without disclosing the
operations of individual companies. The output, however, has
increased appreciably in recent years and this type of synthetic resin
is now among the most important produced.

Imports into and exports from the United States.

There have been no recorded imports of coumarone and indene
resins in recent years. This is understandable because the duty
alone would usually be more than the domestic price.[4]
Official export statistics do not separately record these resins,
although quantities are exported to nearby countries, including
Canada.
 8. PETROLEUM RESINS
Considerable research work has been done on the synthesis of
resins from petroleum. It has long been known that cracked
petroleum distillates, when stored for a time, have a tendency to
form gums. This tendency is so pronounced that inhibitors are added
to arrest such formation. These gums are of little value as resins, but
it is possible to obtain good varnish resins by oxidation or controlled
polymerization of certain distillates of petroleum cracking. By
carefully controlling operations, resins of varied properties are
obtained and several of them have become commercially important.
The unsaturated compounds, largely olefins and diolefins, present in
highly cracked petroleum distillates can be polymerized, with certain
catalysts. The resin produced depends upon the types of
unsaturated hydrocarbons present and upon the conditions of
polymerization.

Properties and uses.

Several types of petroleum resins are on the market, one made
from the “polymer slop” obtained in the high temperature, vapor-
phase cracking operation, and the other prepared primarily for the
production of resin. The former is marketed under the trade name
Petropol and the latter as Santoresin.
The “Petropol” resins are marketed in two grades, No. 1158 and
No. 2138. The specifications for these are as follows:

Petropol No. 1158 liquid Petropol No. 2138 liquid

Gravity 15.5-18.5 10-11 A. P. I.
Flash 175° F. minimum. 230° F. minimum.
Fire 215° F. minimum. 280° F. minimum.
Viscosity 200-225 at 212° F. 225-300 at 210° F.
Pour 0° F. maximum. 45° F. approximate.
Iodine No. 195 minimum. 200 minimum.
Molecular weight 300 approximate. 425 approximate.
Percent solids 60-65. 80-85.

Miscible in all proportions with petroleum solvents.

Petropol No. 1158 is used by core oil makers to replace such

vegetable oils as linseed, tung, and perilla. It is used also as a binder
and waterproofing agent on rock wool insulation, replacing rosin and
mineral oil. For spraying coal to minimize dusting, it has the
advantage over calcium chloride of increasing the B. t. u. content of
the fuel.
Petropol No. 2138 is a surface coating material which dries by
polymerization. A low cost paint is obtained by combining a pigment
and a plasticizer with the resin. Such paint dries in about one-fourth
the time of linseed oil paints, adheres better to metal, and has
greater resistance to water, acids, and alkalies. In varnishes and
enamels it replaces 12 to 15 percent of tar-acid resin, minimizes
skinning, and gives a higher luster and better flow. Another use of
this Petropol is as a binder in brake linings, replacing certain tar-acid
resins.
These two Petropol resins are among the lowest priced synthetics,
selling at present (1938), in tank carlots, for 2 to 5 cents per pound.
The Santoresins are clear, hard, neutral products, melting at 100°
C. They are soluble in drying oils, accelerate the gelatination of tung
oil, are nonreactive with pigments, do not yellow on outdoor
exposure, and are resistant to alkalies, acids, alcohol, and water.
Applications are in protective coatings for wood, metal, paper,
leather, cement, plaster, and other materials, in printing inks, plastic
tile, linoleum, and fiber packages. Being odorless and tasteless they
may be used to line food containers. Their high resiliency and purity
recommend their use as a base for chewing gum. Other uses are as
an agent for wetting and dispersing pigments in rubber and in
surface coatings, to replace ester gum or modified tar-acid resins.
 At present the Santoresins are offered at 15 cents per pound in
lots of 20,000 pounds or more. Their approximate specifications are:

Appearance A clear hard resin.

Melting point 110° to 120° C. A. S. T. M.
(Ring & Ball).
Acid value 0 to 1.
Iodine value 125 to 135.
Specific gravity (at 20° C.) 1.02 or 8.5 lbs. per gallon.
Color (50 percent solution by 13 to 15 Gardner Holt
weight in toluol) standard.

Odor slight when cold, sweet and aromatic when melted. Soluble in aromatic
hydrocarbons, petroleum thinners, turpentine, and varnish oils. Insoluble in
alcohols, esters, ketones, and not completely compatible with nitrocellulose.

Production.
In the United States two makers of petroleum resins are producing
in commercial quantities and several others are carrying on
extensive research. Production was small in 1935, but increased in
1936 and in 1937. The development and expansion of these resins
over the past 2 years indicate that they will become important.

Imports into and exports from the United States.

There has been no importation of petroleum resins into the United
States. Exports have been confined to samples and experimental
quantities.
 9. POLYSTYRENE RESINS
The polystyrene resins are thermoplastic products discovered
about 100 years ago and are therefore the oldest synthetic resins
known. Their practical application has been greatly retarded by the
lack of inexpensive raw materials of high purity and by the difficulties
experienced in their manufacture.
Ethylene, from petroleum or natural gas, is combined with
benzene, from byproduct coke-oven operations, to form ethyl
benzene, which is cracked to vinyl benzene or styrene. This
monomer is polymerized by heat at 100°-150° C. The resin may be
extremely tough or very brittle, depending on the conditions of
polymerization. Products having different properties are obtained by
(a) low temperature polymerization, (b) high temperature
polymerization, and (c) catalytic polymerization.
The low-temperature polymers, sometimes designated as alpha-
metastyrol, are produced by polymerizations of vinyl benzene at
temperatures under 175° C. A transparent resin, colorless to light
yellow, is produced which is remarkably tough, has excellent tensile
strength, unusually good dielectric properties, and is resistant to
most chemicals.
Polymerization at high temperatures (above 175° C.) yields a
brittle resin designated as beta-metastyrol. This type is transparent
but usually dark in color, has low tensile strength and shock
resistance.
When vinyl benzene is polymerized in the presence of catalysts,
the resulting resin is similar to resins obtained at high temperatures,
except that it is lighter in color. It is sometimes designated as
gamma-metastyrol. Oxidizing agents are usually the catalysts. Clear,
colorless, vitreous resins are obtained by excluding air during
polymerization.
Properties and uses.
Polystyrene resin is a clear, colorless, highly thermoplastic
molding material with high insulating property, moisture resistance,
inertness, dimensional stability, and impact strength. It can be
molded directly by heat and pressure, and the molded articles are
remarkably resistant to discoloration by light. Polystyrene has a
dielectric constant of 2.6, a power factor of 0.02 percent, and is
equivalent to fused quartz as an electrical insulator of low dielectric
loss. Films of 0.002 inch thickness have a dielectric strength of more
than 2,000 volts per mil thickness, which is better than that of any
other available synthetic resin and even better than that of shellac.
The tensile strength of the resin is 5,500 to 7,000 pounds per square
inch, and its impact resistance remains unchanged at temperatures
as low as minus 70° C. It transmits all wave lengths of light down to
3,000 Angstrom units.
Polystyrene is adapted to large scale production of transparent,
translucent, and opaque moldings in a wide variety of colors. It is
easily molded by injection processes, softening at about 150° F. and
is molded at 300° to 375° F., under 3,000 to 30,000 pounds pressure
per square inch. As much as 40 percent filler may be used without
seriously affecting the tensile strength, although the filler does affect
the dielectric properties. Since the resin is thermoplastic there is no
waste in the molding operation; scrap material may be reground and
used again.
The unusual properties of these polystyrene resins should give
them widespread applications when the cost is low enough to make
them competitive with other materials. Potentially large volume
outlets are in radio frequency insulation; in dentures because of the
strength, low specific gravity, ease of coloring, and absence of odor
and taste of the material; in electrical parts for submarine and aircraft
storage battery cases and separators; and for the manufacture of
glass eyes.
Other possible applications of polystyrene resins are in metal
lacquers and in light colored enamels. Their toughness and light
color, together with their solubility in cheap solvents, suggest their
use for these purposes. Such lacquers are said to be quick-drying,
resistant to water, and moderately so to acids and alkalies.

Production in the United States.

For a number of years, the Naugatuck Chemical Division of the
United States Rubber Co. produced small quantities of polystyrene
resins, which were marketed under the trade name Victron when for
general purposes and under the trade name Marvelyn when for use
in dentures. Little progress was made because of high costs and
failure to produce a water-white product. The sales price was
between $1.50 and $2 per pound. Early in 1937 the Naugatuck
Chemical Division transferred its patents on polystyrene resins to the
Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Corporation.
The Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Mich., late in 1937 announced
commercial production of clear, colorless polystyrene in several
forms. Styron is the trade name for the resin from this source. In
January 1938, the Bakelite Corporation announced Bakelite
Polystyrene. The plants manufacturing polystyrene have a capacity
in excess of 2,000,000 pounds a year, and the resin is currently
offered at 72 cents per pound.
At least one other domestic firm is doing research on the
polystyrenes and expects to produce commercially in the near future.

Imports into and exports from the United States.

At least two commercial types of polystyrene resins are produced
abroad. Both are made in Germany and marketed under the trade
names Resoglas and Trolitul. Resoglas is a water-white, transparent
thermoplastic resin softening at about 150° C. Its water absorption is
low, it is nonoxidizing, and does not discolor on weathering and
baking. Appreciable quantities are produced in Germany and the
sales price there was reported to have been 40 cents per pound
during 1936.