MODULE 1:

CE 324: REINFORCED CONCRETE / PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

1. Title of the Module

Introduction to Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete Design

2. Introduction

In this module, students will learn the definitions of basic terms, including the correct water-

cement ratio needed to achieve the strongest concrete mixture. They will also learn about bar sizes in
both millimeters and inches, as well as how to convert between these measurements. Additionally, the

module will cover the minimum concrete cover required for reinforcing bars in various structural
members to ensure a longer service life for reinforced concrete structures. Students will also study loads

and loading arrangements to understand how to position live loads to create the worst-case scenario
for a continuous beam or frame.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

a. Define important terms on reinforced concrete design

b. Differentiate strengths of concrete depending on the water cement ratio

c. Write correctly the sizes of bars in mm and identify bars just by visual inspection

d. Discuss the minimum concrete cover for different types of structural members
e. Be familiar a with the NSCP 2015 provisions on loads and loading arrangements

4. Learning Content

It contains readings, discussions, questions and sets of activities that students can work on individually

or by group.

Topic 1 Important Terms

Topic 2 Water Cement Ratio

Topic 3 Metal Reinforcement

Topic 4 Minimum Cover; and

Topic 5 Loads and Loading Arrangements

1.1 CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE COMPONENTS
CONCRETE
is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass with a
paste of cement and water Sometimes one or more admixtures are added to change certain
characteristics of concrete such as its workability, durability, and time of hardening. As with most rocklike
substances, concrete has a high compressive strength and a very low tensile strength

REINFORCED CONCRETE
is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the tensile strength
lacking in the concrete Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting compression forces and is used in
columns as well as in other situations.

AGGREGATES
The aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume. Since they are
less expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them as possible. Both fine aggregates
(usually sand) and coarse aggregates (usually gravel or crushed stone) are used. Any aggregate that
passes a No. 4 sieve (about 6mm in size) is said to be fine aggregates. Material of a larger size is coarse
aggregate

WATER
Water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts,
organic materials, or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. Non-
potable (non-drinkable) water shall not be used in concrete unless selection of concrete proportions
shall be based on concrete mixes using water from the same sources and mortar test cubes made with
non-potable mixing water shall have 7-day and 28-day strength equal to at least 90% of strength of
similar specimens made with potable water

REINFORCING STEEL BARS

Reinforcement used for concrete structures maybe in the form of bars or welded wire fabric. Reinforcing
bars are referred to as plane or deformed bars. The deformed bars ribbed projections rolled into their
surfaces to provide better bonding between the concrete and steel. Plane bars are not used very often
except for wrapping around longitudinal bars primarily in columns. Reinforcing steel bars are
commercially available in lengths of 6m, 7.5m, 9m, 10.5 m and even longer lengths. 6m bars are always
available, 7.5m bars are sometimes readily available, but longer lengths, when needed may be ordered.

CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
Proportions of materials for concrete shall be established to provide:
(a) workability and consistency to permit concrete to be worked readily into forms and around
reinforcement under conditions of placement to be employed, without segregation or excessive
bleeding, (b) resistance to special exposures and (c) conformance with strength test requirements.

With different materials are to be used for different portions of proposed work, each combination shall
be evaluated. Concrete proportions, including water – cement ratio shall be established based on field
experience and / or trial mixtures with materials to be employed.
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Concrete lighter in weight than ordinary sand-and-gravel concrete is used principality to reduce dead
load, or for thermal insulation, nail ability, or fill. Disadvantages of lightweight structural concretes
include higher cost, need for more care in placing, greater porosity, and more drying shrinkage. For a
given percentage of cement, usually the lighter the concrete, the lower the strength

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
Table 1.1 Approximate Weights of Lightweight Concrete
AGGREGATE CONCRETE WEIGHT, kN/m3
Cinders:
Without Sand 13.4
With Sand 17.3 – 18.1
Shale or Clay 14.1 – 17. 3
Pumice 14.1 – 15.7
Scoria 14.1 – 17.3
Perlite 7.9 – 12.6
Vermiculite 5.5 – 11.8

HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE
Concrete weighing up to about 60.5 kN/m3 can be produced by using heavier-than-ordinary aggregate.
Theoretically, the upper limit can be achieved with steel shot as fine aggregate and steel punching as
coarse aggregate. The heavy concrete is used principally in radiations shield and counterweights.

Concrete made with barite develops an optimum density of 36.5 kN/m 3 and compressive strength of
41.35 MPa; with limonite and magnetite, densities from 33 to 35 kN/m3 and strengths of 22 MPa to
39.3 MPa; with steel punching and sheared bars as coarse aggregate and steel shot as fine aggregate,
densities from 39.3 to 45.3 kN/m3 and strengths of about 38.6 MPa.

WATER-CEMENT RATIO
Concrete strength is influenced chiefly by the water-cement ration; the higher this ratio, the lower the
strength. In fact, the relationship is approximately linear when expressed in terms of C/W, the ration of
cement to water by weight. For a workable mix, without the use of water reducing admixtures.

𝑪
𝑺𝟐𝟖 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝟏 − 𝟓. 𝟐𝟒
𝑾

Proportioning by Water-Cement Ratio

With the absence of any required data, concrete proportions shall be based on water-cement ratio limits
in Table 1.3, if approved by the engineer.

Proportioning by Water-Cement Ratio

Table 1.3 Maximum Permissible Water Cement Ratios for concrete when strength data from field
experience or trial mixtures are not available
Specified Compressive Absolute water-cement ratio by weight
Strength, f’c (MPa) Non – Air–Entrained Concrete Air – entrained Concrete
17 0.66 0.54
20 0.60 0.49
25 0.50 0.39
30 0.40
Table 1.4. Estimated Compressive Strength of Concrete for Various Water-Cement Ratios
Water-Cement Ratio by 28-day Compressive Strength, Mpa
Weight Air-Entrained Concrete Non-Air – Entrained Concrete
0.40 29.6 37.2
0.45 26.9 33.8
0.50 24.1 29.6
0.55 21.4 26.2
0.60 18.6 23.4
0.65 16.5 20.7
0.70 15.2 18.6

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Reinforced concrete may be a dominant structural material available for construction in every country.
It is used in one form or another for almost all structures such as buildings, bridges, dams and so on.

Some of the numerous advantages of reinforced concrete are the following:

1. Concrete is strong in compression compared with most other materials.
2. Concrete building has a great resistance to the actions of fire and water.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It requires less maintenance than a structural steel or timber.
5. It has a very long service life as compared to other materials. Under proper conditions,
reinforced concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load-carrying
abilities.
6. Concrete material is very widely available, and the reinforcing steel can be transported easily
to the construction site than a structural steel. In most remote areas, reinforced concrete is the
preferred construction materials.
7. Concrete has its ability to be cast into any variety of shapes and dimensions of desired
structures.

1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Some of the factors that may cause to select a material other than reinforced concrete are the following:
a. Concrete has a very low tensile strength requiring the use of tension steel reinforcement.
b. The construction of cast-in-place structures requires forms and shoring to hold the concrete
in place and support its weight until it hardens and until its strength is adequate.
c. It has a relatively low strength per unit weight or volume. It means concrete members require
a larger volume and a greater weight of materials which has a great effect on bending
moments.
d. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and mixing
1.4 DESIGN CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS – THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES 2015
Design and construction of buildings are regulated by the building codes to protect the public’s health
and safety nationwide. The latest design specifications for the reinforced concrete buildings in the
Philippines is THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (NSCP 2015) by the Association
of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc (ASEP) as adopted in ACI 318M-14 “Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary” generally referred to as the ACI Code. Minimum
design requirements for various types of reinforced concrete members are presented in the code.
Frequent references are made in this text and section numbers are provided. It should be realized that
codes provide only a general guide for design.
NSCP 2015 Code allowed design of concrete structures either by strength design or by working stress
design.

(a) (b)
Fig: Book cover page, (a) NSCP 2015 (ASEP, 2015) & (b) ACI 318M (ACI, 2015)
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENT FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
• most important code in the United States for reinforced concrete design
• not legally enforceable document
• set of recommendations or statement of current good practice in reinforced concrete design

AMERICAN INSTITUTE CONCRETE (ACI)

• is a non-profit technical society and standards developing organization

NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (NSCP)

• structural code addressing the design and installation of structural systems in the Philippines
• not legally enforceable document
• set of recommendations or statement of current good practice in reinforced concrete design

ASSOCIATION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS OF THE PHILIPPINES (ASEP)

• organization of structural designers/engineers in the Philippines
1.5 CONCRETE PROPERTIES (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2.1)
➢ 1.5.1 SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2.1)
• 419.2.1.1 The value of 𝒇′𝒄 shall be specified in construction documents and shall be in
accordance with (a)through ( c ) :
a) Limits in Table 419.2.1.1:
b) Durability requirements in Table 419.3.2.1.
c) Structural strength requirements

Table 419.2.1.1 Limits for f’c

Application Concrete Minimum 𝒇′𝒄 MPa Maximum 𝒇′𝒄, MPa

Normal weight and

General 17 None
lightweight

Special moment frames Normal Weight 21 None

and special structural walls Lightweight 21 35 (1)

(1) The limit is permitted to be exceeded where demonstrated by experimental evidence that members made with lightweight
concrete provide strength and toughness equal to or exceeding those of comparable members made with normal weight
concrete of the same strength.

➢ 1.5.2 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (NCSP 2015 SECTION 419.2.2)

It is the ratio of the normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses below the
proportional limit of the material. Concrete has a modulus of elasticity which varies with the different
concrete strength, concrete age, type of loading and the proportions of cement and aggregates.

• 419.2.21 Modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete shall be permitted to calculated as (a)or (b):
a) For values of wc between 1440 and 2560 kg/m3
Ec = 𝒘𝒄 𝟎.𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑 √𝒇′ 𝒄 (in MPa)
b) For normal weight concrete
𝑬𝒄 = 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎√𝒇′ 𝒄 (in MPa)

STEEL REINFORCEMENT INFORMATION ASTM STANDARDS PHILIPPINE STANDARD (PNS)

ASTM STANDARD PHILIPPINE STANDARD (SI)
Nominal Diameter Nominal Nominal Nominal Nominal
Bar Size Bar Size
Area Mass Area Mass
Designation Designation
inch mm in2 mm2 lb/ft kg/m3 mm2 kg/m
3 3/8 0.375 9.5 0.11 71 0.376 0.560 10 79 0.618
4 1/2 0.500 12.7 0.20 129 0.668 0.994 12 113 0.890
5 5/8 0.625 15.9 0.31 199 1.043 1.552 16 201 1.580
6 3/4 0.750 19.1 0.44 294 1.502 2.235 20 314 2.456
7 7/8 0.875 22.2 0.60 387 2.044 3.042 N. A N. A N. A
8 1 1.000 25.4 0.79 510 2.670 3.973 25 491 3.851
9 1 1/8 1.128 28.7 1.00 645 3.400 5.060 28 616 4.831
10 1 1/4 1.270 32.3 1.27 819 4.303 6.404 32 804 6.310
11 1 3/8 1.410 35.8 1.57 1006 5.313 7.907 36 1019 7.986
14 1 3/4 1.693 43.0 2.25 1452 7.650 11.382 40 1257 10.681
18 2 1/4 2.257 57.3 4.00 2581 13.60 20.240 58 2642 20
➢ 1.5.3 MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.2)
• 425.2.1 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement in a horizontal layer, clear spacing shall be
at least the greatest of 25mm, db, and (4/3)dagg

• 425.2.2 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement placed in two or more horizontal layers shall
be placed directly above reinforcement in the bottom layer with a clear spacing between layers
of at least 25mm.

• 425.2.3 For longitudinal reinforcement in columns, pedestals, struts, and boundary elements in
walls, clear spacing between bars shall be at least the greatest of 40mm, 1.5d, and (4/3)dagg.

➢ 1.5.4 BUNDLED REINFORCEMENT (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.6)

• 425.6.1 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement

• 425.6.1.1 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited
to four in any one bundle.

• 425.6.1.2 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within transverse reinforcement. Bundled bars in
compression members shall be enclosed by transverse reinforcement at least 12mm Ø in size.

• 425.6.1.3 Bars larger than a 36mm Ø shall not be bundled in beams.

• 425.6.1.4 Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall
terminate at different points with at least 40d, stagger.

• 425.6.1.5 Development length for individual bars within a bundle, in tension or compression,
shall be that of the individual bar, increased 20 percent for a three-bar bundle, and 33 percent
for a four-bar bundle.

• 425.6.1.6 A unit bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar with an area equivalent to that of
the bundle and a centroid coinciding with that of the bundle. The diameter of equivalent bar
shall be used for db in (a) through (e):

a. Spacing limitations based on db;

b. Cover requirements based on db;

c. Spacing and cover values in Section 425.4.2.2;

d. Confinement term in Section 425.4.2.3;

e. Ψe factor in Section 425.4.4

➢ 1.5.5 SPECIFIED CONCRETE COVER REQUIREMENTS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 420.6.13)
• 420.6.1.3.1 Non-prestressed cast-in-place concrete members shall have specified concrete
cover for reinforcement at least that given in Table 420.6.1.3.1.

Table 420.6.1.3.1 Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Non-Prestressed Concrete Members
Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified Cover, mm
Cast against and
permanently in contact All All 75
with ground
20mm through
50
Exposed to weather or 58mmØ bars
in contact with ground 16mmØ bar, MW200
All
or MD200 wire, and
40
smaller

40mm and 58mmØ

bars 40
Slabs, joists, and walls

Not exposed to 36mm bar and smaller 20

weather or in contact
Beams, columns, Primary reinforcement,
with ground
pedestals, and tension stirrups, ties, spirals,
ties and hoops 40

• 420.6.1.3.2 Cast-in-place prestressed concrete members shall have specified concrete cover for
reinforcement, ducts and end fittings at least that given in Table 420.6.1.3.2.

Table 420.6.1.3.2 Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place Prestressed Concrete Members
Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Cover, mm
Cast against and permanently
in contact with ground All All 75

Exposed to weather or in Slabs, joists, and walls All 25

contact with ground All others All 40

Slabs, joists, and walls All 20

Not exposed to weather or in
Primary reinforcement 40
contact with ground Beams, columns, and tension
Stirrups, ties, spirals, and
ties
hoops 25

• 420.6.1.3.4 For bundled bars, specified concrete cover shall be at least the smaller of (a) and (b):
a. The equivalent diameter of the bundle
b. 50mm
and for concrete cast against and permanently in contact with ground, the specified cover shall
be75mm.
1.6 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
Perhaps the most important and most difficult task faced by the structural designer is the accurate
estimation of the loads that may be applied to a structure during its life. No loads that may reasonably
be expected to occur may be overlooked. After loads are estimated, the next problem is to decide the
worst possible combinations of these loads that might occur at one time. Loads are classified as being
dead, live, or environmental.

● DEAD LOADS - are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They include the
weight of the structure under consideration as well as any fixtures that are permanently
attached to it. For a reinforced concrete building, some dead loads are frames, wall, floors,
ceilings, stairways, roofs, and plumbing. Unit weight of concrete = 23.54 kN/m³

● LIVE LOADS - are loads that can change in magnitude and position. They include occupancy
loads, warehouse materials, construction loads, overhead service cranes, equipment operating
loads, and many others. In general, they are induced by gravity.

● ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS - are loads caused by the environment where the structure is
located. For buildings, they are caused by rain, wind, temperature change, and earthquake. In
fact, these are also live loads, but they are the result of environment where the structure is
located. Although they do vary with time, they are not all caused by gravity or operating
conditions, as is typical with other live loads.

NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.3 presents the load factors and combinations that are to be used in design of
reinforced concrete structures using Strength Design Method. The returns that are to be at least equal
to the largest value obtained by substituting into NSCP Equations 203-1 to 203-7. On the other hand,
NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.4 presents the load factors and combinations using Working Stress Design
and must at least equal to the largest value obtained by substituting into NSCP Equations 203-8 to 203-
12.

➢ 1.6.1 LOAD COMBINATIONS USING STRENGTH DESIGN OR LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR
DESIGN (NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.3)

● 203.3.1 Where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all
portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the following combinations of factored
loads:

1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹) (203-1)
1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹 + 𝑇) + 1.6(𝐿 + 𝐻) + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (203-2)

1.2𝐷 + 1.6(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + (𝑓1𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.5𝑊) (203-3)

1.2𝐷 + 1𝑊 + 𝑓1𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (203-4)

1.2𝐷 + 1𝐸 + 𝑓1𝐿 (203-5)

0.9𝐷 + 1𝑊 + 1.6𝐻 (203-6)

0.9𝐷 + 1𝐸 + 1.6𝐻 (203-7)

where
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑟 = 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

➢ 1.6.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS USING ALLOWABLE STRESS OR ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN

(NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.4)

• 203.4.1 Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and all portions
thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the following combinations of loads:

𝐷 + 𝐹 (203-8)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 𝐿 + 𝑇 (203-9)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) (203-10)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + 0.75[𝐿 + 𝑇 + (𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)] (203-11)
𝐷 + 𝐻 + 𝐹 + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 𝐸/1.4) (203-12)

The following are the most common load combinations for most applications:
a. 1.4D
b. 1.2D + 1.6L
c. 1.2D + 1.0L + 1.0W
d. 1.2D + 1.0L + 1.0E
e. 0.9D + 1.0W
f. 0.9D + 1.0E

ARRANGEMENT OF LIVE LOAD

Live loads may be applied only to the floor or roof under consideration, and the far ends of columns
built integrally with the structure may be considered fixed. It is permitted by the code to assume the
following arrangement of live loads:
a. Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on two adjacent spans, and
b. Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live load on alternate spans.
TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Answer the following questions for mastery of the basic things about reinforced concrete:
PART 1. Define the following terms:

a. Concrete
b. Reinforced concrete
c. Fine aggregates
d. Coarse aggregates
e. Water
f. Lightweight concrete
g. Heavy weight concrete
h. Plain reinforcement
i. Deformed bars

PART 2. Answer the following questions that are related to the topics presented above
1. For slabs, what is the minimum concrete cover in mm?
2. Which will give greater moment in a part of a continuous beam, is it
a. when the beam is loaded with factored live load on all the spans?
b. when the beam is loaded with live load on alternate spans?
3. What is the single bar equivalent diameter of four 20mm diameter bars?
4. Can we bundle 2-32mm diameter bars? Why ?
5. Can we also bundle 2-36mm diameter bars? Why?
6. The clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer can also 30mm as per NSCP 2015. Yes or no
7. Grade 40 rebars has an fy of ________ MPa
8. Grade 60 rebars has an fy of ________ psi.
9. Concrete has its maximum strength attained after ______ days.
10. A concrete mixture with high water cement ratio has greater strength than that with lower ratio.
Yes of no?
11. The unit weight of normal concrete in KN per cubic meter (in 2 decimal places).

REFERENCES

1. ASSOCIATION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS OF THE PHILIPPINES, INC, National Structural Code

of the Philippines 2015 2nd Printing, 7th Edition, ASEP 2015

2. BESAVILLA, V. I., JR. (2013). Fundamentals of Reinforced Concrete Vol 3. VIB Publisher.
3. CASTRO, M. J. B. (2023). Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design (2nd ed., pp. 1-8). Rex Printing

Company, Inc.