Advanced Placement

Physics

Study Guide
Important Note to the Reader: Many of the review sections in Newtonian Mechanics and Electricity and Magnetism
are written for both the Advanced Placement B (life science majors) and C (physical science majors) courses. In these
reviews the additional Advanced Placement C course information will be boxed within a border that appears like the border
surrounding this message. This information is required for AP C students. Some sections below are targeted only to AP C
students. Instead AP Physics B students will do work in Fluids/Thermal Physics, Waves and Optics, and Modern Physics.
These sections do not apply to AP Physics C students

Table of Contents
Unit 1: Newtonian Mechanics 1
1-1. Motion in One Dimension B and C course 1
1-2. Vectors B and C course 5
1-3. Motion in Two Dimensions B and C course 7
1-4. Laws of Motion and Force Vectors B and C course 9
1-5. Applications of Force B and C course 13
1-6. Work, Energy, and Power B and C course 19
1-7. Oscillations B and C course 25
1-8. Linear Momentum and Collisions B and C course 27
1-9. Circular Motion and Gravity B and C course 31
1-10. Introduction to Rotation and Torque B and C course 35
1-11. Rotation, Rolling, and Angular Momentum C course only 37
Graphing
Displacement–Time Graph Velocity–Time Graph Acceleration–Time Graph

x Slope is v v a
Slope is a=0
Constant
Velocity
v0
Area under
x0
curve is ∆x
a0
t t t
Fig 1.1a Fig 1.1b Fig 1.1c

x v v Slope is a a
Acceleration

Slope is
Uniform

(tangent line) v0 a0
Area under Area under
x0 curve is ∆x curve is ∆v

Fig 1.1d t Fig 1.1e t Fig 1.1f t

Slopes of Curves are an important analytical tool used in physics. Any equation that can be manipulated into the format
y  mx  b can be represented and analyzed graphically. As an example: v  v0  at can be rearranged slightly into
v  at  v0 . Compare this equation to the equation of a line. It is apparent that a is the slope and that v0 is the y-intercept
(Fig 1.1b and Fig 1.1e). What equation generates velocity in Fig. 1.1a and Fig 1.1d?
Area Under a Curve is another important graphical tool. Multiply the y-axis (height) by the x-axis (base) and
determine if this matches any known equations. For example: Figures 1.1b and 1.1e are velocity-time plots. Simply multiply
v  t . This is a rearranged form of the equation v  x t . The form obtained from the graph is x  vt , which means that
displacement is the area under the velocity-time plot.

Calculus: Required in AP Physics C (optional for AP Physics B students). Calculus is taught in math class. These review
sheets will focus on the Physics aspect of solutions. Calculus steps may not be shown. Solution will be up to the student.
The equations outlined in the previous page work well in the following situations.
Linear Functions: involving constant velocity and acceleration, as diagrammed in the above graphs (except Fig 1.1d).
Nonlinear Functions: scenarios where the problem is seeking information about a change in a quantity, x or v.
Nonlinear Functions: scenarios where the problem is seeking an average velocity in an interval.
Calculus is needed to find the slopes of nonlinear functions and the areas under nonlinear curves.
1. Velocity: Slope of the displacement-time curve.
d 1
dx example: v x 0 v t  at 2  v  at v  v  at
v  dt 2
2. Acceleration: Slope of the velocity-time curve.
d
dv
a  dt example: a v  at   a
dt
3. Velocity: Area under acceleration-time curve. (Note: if c = v0 cannot be found, then you can only solve for  v )
v   a dt example: v   a  dt  c  at
 v  v0  at
4. Displacement: Area under the velocity-time curve. (Note: if c = x0 cannot be found, then you can only solve  x )
1 1
x   v dt example: x v  at dt  c  v t  at x  x0 v t  at 2
2 2

Revised 8/29/06 3 © R H Jansen

Falling Bodies: Objects moving vertically under the influence of gravity. Earth’s surface gravity is g = –9.8 m/s2. This
speeds objects up (+ acceleration), but is directed downward (). Objects can be thrown up, down, or just be dropped. They
can land below, at the same height, or above the origin. They come to an instantaneous stop at the highest point in flight.
1
vy  v0 y  gt y  y 0  v0 y t  gt 2 v y2  v0 y 2  2g y  y0
2

The positive and negative signs can cause trouble in these problems. The easiest way to handle the signs is set the direction of
initial motion as positive and then to ensure all signs are consistent with this decision. This has one huge benefit. It
eliminated the double sign on acceleration. When initial velocity v0 is used to anchor direction, then a positive acceleration
means speeding up and negative acceleration involves slowing down.
Dropped from rest Thrown downward Thrown upward
v0 = 0, but it will move down initially v0 is directed downward v0 is directed upward
Set downward as positive direction Set downward as positive direction Set upward as positive direction

v=0 v=0
+v0

+v

–v
+ +g + +g + +x
+x +x –g

+v0
x=0
–v
–x
+v +v

–v

Everything is positive and easy Everything is positive and easy This is difficult, and depends on where
in the flight the problem ends.

Kinematics Problems Involving Changes in the Magnitude of Acceleration

If the magnitude of acceleration changes while solving a kinematics problem then the problem must be solved in separate
parts. Unlike displacement x and velocity v, the Kinematic equations do not contain the variables a0 and a.

Example 1-3: More than one acceleration

A car initially at rest accelerates at 4 m/s2 while covering a distance of 100 m. Then the car continues at constant velocity for
500 m. Finally it slows to a stop with a deceleration of 3 m/s2. Determine the total time of this displacement.

1
Acceleration Phase: x  at 2 t 2x  7.07 s and v  v  at  0  47.07  28.3 m s
2 a 

Constant Velocity Phase: v 

x x 500
t   17.7 s 500
t v t v

v  v0
Deceleration Phase: v  v0  at t   9.43 s
a

Total Time = 7.07 + 17.7 + 9.43 = 34.2 s

Revised 8/29/06 4 © R H Jansen

 12 Vectors and Vectors in Kinematics
Scalar: A physical quantity described by a single number and units. A quantity describing magnitude only.
Vector: Many of the variables in physics equations are vector quantities. Vectors have magnitude and direction.
Magnitude: Size or extend. The numerical value.
Direction: Alignment or orientation with respect to set location and system of orientation, such as a coordinate axis.
Notation: A or A The length of the arrow represents, and is proportional to, the vectors magnitude.
The direction the arrow points indicates the direction of the vector.
Negative Vectors: Have the same magnitude as their positive counterpart, but point in the opposite direction.
If A then A

Vector Addition and subtraction

Think of it as vector addition only. The result of adding vectors is called the resultant R .
A  B R A + B = R
When you need to subtract one vector from another think of the one being subtracted as being a negative vector.

e j
A  B is really A  B  R A +  B  = R
A negative vector has the same length as its positive counterpart, but its direction is reversed. This is very important. In
physics a negative number does not always mean a smaller number. Mathematically –2 is smaller than +2, but in physics
these numbers have the same magnitude (size), they just point in different directions (180 o apart).
Vector Addition: Parallelogram A A
A
A+B R Fig 2.1a
B B B
Tip to Tail A B A B
A Fig 2.1b
A+B R
B
Both methods arrive at the exact same solution since either method is essentially a parallelogram. In some problems one
method is advantageous, while in other problems the alternative method is superior.

Reporting Magnitude and Direction:

A
Component Method: A vector a can be reported by giving the components along the x- or Ay
y-a xis. Reporting a vector this way is formally done by employing the unit vectors i and j. As an
example: vector A in fig 2.2a would be A  Axi  Ay j , where, i  j =1 . There is at third Ax
component vector k used for three dimensional problems involving the z-axis. The vector in Fig. 2.2a
Fig. 2.2b shows a numerical application of the component method. In this example you are given the
polar coordinates A  5 at 37o . Using trigonometry the components can be established. A=5
Ax  A cos  5 cos 37  4 Ay  Asin  5sin 37  3 . Then A can be expressed Ay
o o
and
o
37
as follows: A  4i  3j Ax
Polar Coordinates: Vector A in Fig. 2.2b is reported in polar coordinates, A  5 at 37o . This Fig. 2.2b
is simply the length of a vector and its angle measured counterclockwise with respect to the positive x-axis. (Negative angles
are allowed and indicate that direction was measured clockwise from the +x-axis. If the component vectors are given,
A  4i  3j , Pythagorean theorem is used to establish the length of the parent vector A  Ax  Ay  42  32  5 .
2 2

Arctangent is used to find the direction   tan1 3

y
 tan1  37o . But, watch out! The angle arrived at by the
Ax 4
arctangent formula may not be the final answer. The quadrant that the final vector lies in must be established, and an
adjustment to the angle may be needed in order to provide an answer that extends from the +x-axis.

Revised 8/29/06 5 © R H Jansen

Component Advantage In Vector Addition:
1. If vector components along an axis are used, direction can be specified with + and
 symbols. Vectors A and B in Fig 2.3 have been converted into components. A
A  3 i  4 j B  4 i  3 j +4
-4
2. This becomes advantageous if vectors A and B need to be added.
+3
Find the resultant of the x vectors: Rx  Ax  Bx  3   4   1 -3
B
Find the resultant of the y vectors: Ry  Ay  By   4   3  1
Fig 2.3
Then combine them to find R: R  Rx  Ry      1.41

 tan1
1  45o , but this a 2nd quadrant angle and must be
Find the direction:   tan1
Rx 1
adjusted: 180  45  135 . The final vector is has a magnitude of 1.41 and a direction of 135 o.
o o o

3. Finding the components simplify problems throughout physics. In Newtonian Mechanics motion, force, and momentum
often act at an angle to the x- or y-axis. Fortunately these vector quantities can be resolved into component vectors along
the x- or y-axis. In addition, equations for motion, force, and momentum can be calculated in the x-direction independent
of what is happening in the y-direction, and vice versa. The first example of this will be projectile motion. In projectile
motion there will be a variety of initial and final of velocities at angles.

Scalar (Dot) Product of Two Vectors: The dot product (AB) of two vectors A and B is a scalar and is equal to
ABcos. This quantity shows how two vectors interact depending on how close to parallel the two vectors are. The
magnitude of this scalar is largest when  = 0o (parallel) and when  = 180o (anti-parallel). The scalar is zero when
 = 90o (perpendicular).
Vector (Cross) Product: The cross product (AB) of two vectors A and B is a third vector C. The magnitude of
this vector is C = ABsin. The direction of this vector is determined by the right-hand-rule. The order that the vectors are
multiplied is important (not commutative) If you change the order of multiplication you must change the sign,
AB =  AB. The magnitude of this vector is largest when  = 90o (perpendicular). The vector is zero when  = 0o
(parallel) or when  = 180o (anti-parallel).
Examples: In the following examples vector A = 3 and B = 2. The direction of vector A will vary.
Vectors A & B Scalar (Dot) Product Vector (Cross Product)

32cos 0o  6 3  2 sin 0o  0

32cos 30o  5.2 32sin 30o  3.0

32cos 60o  3 32sin 60o  5.2

 3  2  cos 90o  0 32sin 90o  6

 3  2  cos120o  3  3  2  sin120o  5.2

 5.2

Another way: When cos (parallel) appears in a formula you need two vectors that are parallel (+) or anti-parallel (). Just
use your trig skills to find a component of one of the vectors that points in the same direction as the other vector. In the
examples above, find the component of vector B that is parallel to vector A. When sin (perpendicular) appears in a
formula, find the component of vector B that is perpendicular to vector A.

Revised 8/29/06 6 © R H Jansen

 13 Motion in Two Dimensions
Relative Velocity: Motion in two dimensions, both at constant velocity. A common example is that of a boat crossing a
river. In figure 3.1, a boat leaves perpendicular to the shore with a velocity of vB. The rivers current, vR, carries it
downstream a distance y. In figure 3.2 the
boat aims at an angle of  upstream in Current moving downstream Current moving downstream
order to end up straight across. There is a
triangle formed by the solid velocity
vectors, and another formed by the dashed x x
displacement vectors. These triangles are vB
similar triangles. The resultant velocity of
the boat will be a combination of the boats vR
own velocity and current. This vector is v y
labeled v. This is how fast the boat will y vB
vR
appear to be moving as seen from a
stationary observation point on shore. When v
calculating the time to cross the stream use Fig 3.1 Fig 3.2
the velocity vector and displacement vector
x
that point in the same direction. In figure 3.1,
v  . In figure 3.2,  v  x
B
t t
Projectile Motion: Motion in one dimension involves acceleration, while the other is at constant velocity.
 In the x-direction the velocity is constant, with no acceleration occurring in this dimension.
 In the y-direction the acceleration of gravity slows upward motion and enhances downward motion.
Vector Components in Projectile Motion: The x-direction and the y-direction are independent of each other.

Fig 3.3 v0
+v0y
+ +vx
+v0x -
-vy
v
Now v0 is at an angle.

Solve for v0x: v0 x  v0 cos then use v0x in the kinematic equations to solve for vx.

Solve for v0y: v0 y  v0 sin then use v0y in the falling body equations to solve for vy.
vy
vx and vy are component vectors. To find v, use Pythagorean Theorem v  v x  vy
2 2
and arctangent   tan1
vx
The highest point in the flight: vx  v0 x and vy  0 . If the problem ended here these conditions would apply.

Horizontal Launches +v0

The launch angle is   0o v  v cos  v cos 0  v o
v0 x  v0
0x 0 0 0

v0 y  v0 sin  v0 sin 0  0
o
v0 y  0
The above math is not really necessary. Inspection of the Fig 3.4 shows that v0 is +vx
directed straight down the x-axis with no y-component vector visible at all. The end of the
problem is similar to the problem depicted in Fig 3.3, above. -
Fig 3.4 v -vy
Coordinate Axis System provides the necessary orientation to handle the following
variables and their appropriate signs: launch angle, initial velocities in x & y, final
velocities in x & y, final landing height, and final overall velocity. Orientation matters and thus the coordinate axis
becomes a powerful tool, as depicted on the next page.

Revised 8/29/06 7 © R H Jansen

Initial Launch During the problem Final Landing
+v0x , +v0y (At the top vx = vox and vy = 0) vx = v0x

+v0y
+vx
+v0x , +v0y = 0 y

-v0y 2 t 's -vy v

+v0x , -v0y
Fig 3.5 Fig 3.6 Fig 3.7
Initial displacement If it lands at the same height as it +x Always
x0  0 started (y = y0), then tup = tdown. y Lands lower than y0
y0  0 y=0 Lands same height as y0
There are two t’s for every y. The
Falling bodies:  = 90o shorter t is for the upward trip. The +y Lands higher than y0
v  v cos 90o  0 longer t is for the downward trip. ax = 0 No a in the x-direction
0x 0
o
v0 y  v0 sin 90  v0 Solve for maximum height two ways vx  v0 x
Horizontal launch:  = 0o 1. From ground up where vy = 0. What is it doing at the end of the
v  v cos 0o  v v v  2g  y  y 
2 2
0x 0 0
problem in the y-direction?
y 0y 0
v  v sin 0o  0 vy
0y 0 2. Or the easy way. Start at the top and
1st quadrant launch: + pretend it is a falling body. vx It is usually moving downward at
v0 x  v0 cos will be + doesn’t matter since time is the end of the problem.
controlled by the y-direction. And So vy is usually negative
v0 y  v0 sin will be + at the top voy is zero. However, this The final v must be resolved.
4th quadrant launch  solves for half of the total flight. v v v
2 2

v0 x  v0 cos
1 x y
will be + y  gt 2 Must double time!
If y  y0
v0 y  v0 sin will be  2
vy  v0 y & v  v0

Projectile Motion Strategies

1. Horizontal Launch: Since v0y = 0 and v0x = v0, then use y  1 2 gt 2 and x  v0 xt .
2. When time (t) or range (x) is given: Start with x  v t and then y  y  v t 1 2 gt .
0x 0 0y

3. No x and no t: Time is the key to falling body & projectile problems. Two strategies are useful when time is missing.

1st 0 0y 1st v v  2g y  y solve for vy which is usually negative.

2nd Quadratic Equation 2nd vy  v0 y  gt use -vy from above to get t.
3rd x  v0 xt 3rd x  v0 xt use t from above to solve for range x.

Other Projectile Motion Facts

Any two launch angles that add to 90o will arrive at the same landing site if fired on level ground. Examples: 15 o and 75o,
30o and 60o, and 40o and 50o. Maximum range (maximum distance in the x-direction) is achieved by launching at 45o (45o
+ 45o = 90o). Maximum altitude (maximum distance in the y-direction) is achieved by firing straight up, at 90 o.
Circular Motion v
Frequency: How often a repeating event happens. Measured in revolutions per second.
1
Period: The time for one revolution, T  . Time is in the numerator.
f
Velocity: In uniform circular motion the magnitude (speed) of the object is not changing. However, the
direction is constantly changing, and this means a change in velocity (a vector composed of both magnitude
and direction). In circular motion one can describe the rate of motion as either a speed or as a tangential Fig 3.8
velocity v  2 r . This velocity is an instantaneous velocity and it is directed tangent to the curve.

Centripetal Acceleration: The object is continually turning toward the center of the circle, but never gets there due to its
tangential velocity. This centripetal (center seeking) change in velocity, is a centripetal acceleration a  v2
c

Revised 8/29/06 8 © R H Jansen

 14 Newton’s Laws of Motion and Force Vectors
Force: Any push or pull.
Newton’s 1st Law: Law of inertia, a restatement of Galileo’s principle of inertia. Inertia is controlled by mass, the more
mass the more inertia. Essentially an object at rest wants to stay at rest, while an object in motion wants to stay in motion.

Newton’s 2nd Law:  F  ma . The Greek sigma proceeding F is the mathematical notation for taking a sum. In
reality there are countless forces interacting with every object in the known universe. When an object is standing still or
moving at constant velocity all of these forces are counteracting and neutralizing each other. If a single additional force is
applied (applied force) it can upset this balance forcing the object to change its inertia and accelerate. But, there may be
more than one of these applied forces acting in a physics problem. These applied vector forces need to be added before a
determination of the objects acceleration can be made.

Net Force:  F  ma
 Fx is  F in the x-direction on the coordinate axis.  Fy is  F in the y-direction on the coordinate axis.
 F is the  F parallel to a  F is the  F perpendicular to a slope.
slope.

Newton’s 3rd Law: When two entities interact there is an equal and opposite force exerted on each object. Forces come
in action-reaction pairs. For every action force there is an equal & opposite reaction force (not an equal and opposite
reaction). The reaction that is seen also depends on the mass of the object. If a high mass object encounters a low mass
object, the one with less mass appears to be effected the most (either moves radically or sustains the most damage). This is
due more to its low mass, since the force on both objects is the same.

Common Forces: In addition to the forces below, Fany subscript that makes sense, can be used.
There are many vectors in physics: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, gravity fields, electric fields,
magnetic fields, etc. The last three mentioned, gravity, electricity, and magnetism are field forces. These are normally
associated with invisible force fields. When you push on a box the force is visible and obvious. Gravity pulling down on the
box, toward earth, is not visible and not as obvious. These invisible forces are called field forces and motion is along the
field lines. Often these field forces are not specifically mentioned, but they are implied by the conditions in the problem.
F  F  ma Sum of Force for linear motion, not used in circular motion.

F1 , F2 , … Applied Force, some kind of push or pull.

Fg or W Fg  mg Force of Gravity which is also known commonly as Weight.

T Tension is the force that acts along strings, ropes, chains, etc.
N N  mg cos Normal Force: A contact force that exists when surfaces touch. It is always
perpendicular to the surface. The angle  refers to the angle of a sloping surface. On
flat surfaces   0o and cos 0o  1 , so N  mg . However, this shortcut is only
true as long as there are no applied forces or components of applied forces
perpendicular to the surface. Additional y-forces or y-components of force can make
the normal force one of the most difficult forces. See Ex. 4.4 on page 8.
f or Ffr fN Force Friction: A combination of the roughness of the surface,  , and the amount of
force pushing the surfaces against each other (the normal force), N .
Fc Fc  mac Force Centripetal: Sum of force for circular motion, not used in linear motion.

FE FE  qE Force of Electricity

FB FB  qvB Force of Magnetism on a charge moving in a magnetic field.

FB  BI  Force of Magnetism on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field.

From a vector stand point, it does not matter what the exact force is when solving force problems. A force is a force is a
force. The variable changes, Fg, T, N, Fc, FE, FB, or F1, F2, F3, but it is still force. And when we finish with forces and
move to momentum the letter will change to p instead of F, but the vector problem solving technique remains the same.

Revised 8/29/06 9 © R H Jansen

Free Body Diagram: Imagine that you are looking down at a box from above, and that
four people are pulling on ropes in the direction of the four arrows in Fig. 4.1. A diagram
that just shows the object and the forces immediately acting on the object (and nothing else) F3
is known as a free body diagram. As drawn the length of each force vector is an indication of
its strength. Obviously persons 1 and 4 are stronger than 2 and 3. In free body diagrams the F2 F1
arrows do not have to be drawn proportionally, they just need to be pointing the correct way
and be correctly labeled. The vectors are drawn coming out of the body. This allows an
imaginary coordinate axis, shown in Fig. 4.1 by the dashed lines, to be superimposed through F4
the center of the object. This is used to reference the direction of each force vector. Vector
direction is simplified as + and  signs can be used to indicate direction along any axis. (In Fig. 4.1
vector math the magnitudes +2 and –2 are equal. They are just opposite in direction.)
Hints to Complete Successful Free Body Diagrams
1. Identify any invisible force fields like gravity, electricity, and magnetism. Gravity is in every problem and points down.
2. If there is a string or rope, a force of tension exists along the string or rope and it is directed away from the object.
3. If there is a surface or contact point, there is a normal force directed away from and perpendicular to the surface.
4. Applied forces are the most obvious. They are in the text of the problem and may also be in any diagrams if provided.

Finding the Force Resultant (Sum of Force) in Various Situations

Example 4-1: All Vectors Lie Along an Axis.
Look at Fig. 4.1 and suppose that F1 = 5 N, F2 = 2 N, F3 = 2 N, F4 = 5 N.
1. Draw a Free Body Diagram (FBD), as shown in Fig. 4.1.
2. Write vector sum equation in any relevant direction(s).  Fx  F1  F2  Fy  F3  F4
3. Substitute known equations and/or values.  Fx  5  2  3  Fy  2  5  3
4. Solve.  Fx  3  Fy  3

 F  Fx  Fy   4.24N
2 2
5. If needed: Resolve components into a resultant. 3 3

 tan 1    45
y 3
6. If needed: Solve for the direction.   tan 1 o

x 3
Example 4-2: Converting Vectors at Angles Into Components on the Coordinate Axis.
In Fig 4.2, suppose that F1 = 5 N at 40o, F2 = 2 N at 230o, F3 = 2 N at 70o, F4 = 5 N at –60o. F3

1. Draw a FBD, as shown in Fig. 4.2. F2 F1

2. State the vector sum equation in direction that matters
 Fx  F1x  F2 x  F3 x  F4 x  Fy  F1y  F2 y  F3 y  F4y F4

3. Substitute known equations and/or values Fig. 4.2

 Fx  F1 cos  F2 cos  F3 cos  F4 cos
 Fy  F1 sin  F2 sin  F3 sin  F4 sin
 Fx  5 cos 40  2 cos 230  2 cos 70  5 cos 60
o o o o
 Fy  5sin 40o  2 sin 230o  2 sin 70o  5sin 60o

4. Solve  Fx  5.73N  Fy  0.769N

F  F  F   5.78N
2 2
5. If needed: Solve for the total with Pythagorean theorem 5.73 0.769
y
  tan1  tan1
0.769 
6. If needed: Solve for the direction 7.64o
x 5.73

Revised 8/29/06 10 © R H Jansen

Example 4-3: Using a Flexible Coordinate Axis System.
It will be easier in more complex problems if we set the direction that an object is moving to be positive. Once this direction
is declared as positive all vectors pointing that way are positive, and those in the opposite direction are negative.
x-direction: F2
If object is moving right then, F1 If object is moving left, then
direction of motion is right. F3 direction of motion is left.
Right vectors are positive. Fig 4.3a Left vectors are positive.
 Fx  F1  F2  F3  Fx  F2  F3  F1
y-direction: F1
If object is moving up, then If object is moving down, then
direction of motion is up. direction of motion is down.
Up vectors are positive. Fig 4.3b Down vectors are positive.
F2 F3
 Fx  F1  F2  F3  Fx  F2  F3  F1
Note: The force vectors have already been assigned as positive and negative. So, plug in only positive numbers, such as
g = +9.8. Do not plug in negatives, like, 9.8, as this will reverse the vector direction decided in the sum of force equation.

Falling Bodies and Projectile Motion Revisited: Try the above method for a falling body that is dropped at rest,
or a projectile that is fired horizontally or downward. A vector is a vector, so whether it is force, velocity, or acceleration etc.
use the same technique. A falling body is moving downward. So set the direction of motion as positive, thus down becomes
positive. Any vector pointing down is now positive.
1
y gt 2 Both g and y point down and are positive. Everything is now positive. You are in charge of the problem. It
2
does not matter what direction is positive. It matters that there is sign consistency. If down is defined to be positive then any
vector pointing upward better have a positive. The beauty of using the direction of motion as positive and assigning plusses
and minuses to the vector quantities is that you get to plug in positive values. (This is difficult to do in a falling body or
projectile motion problem that travels in one direction(up) at the start of the problem and another direction (down) at the
end of the problem. For these problems it may be easier to use the rigidly defined coordinate axis system with g as -9.8
that you have previously learned).

Example 4-4: Deciding On The Relevant Direction. FN

o
Suppose a 10.0 kg box, in Fig. 4.4, is pulled along a flat surface by a 20.0 N force at a 30.0 angle
with the horizontal. This problem is a little different than the previous ones. The x-direction and F
the y-direction are doing different things. The object is accelerating in the x-direction, while it is
not moving in the y-direction. We can solve for the acceleration and for the normal force using the Fg
Fig. 4.4
sum of forces in the relevant direction for each of these quantities.
1. Draw a FBD
2. Find the vector sum equation(s). This box will accelerate in the x-direction, so if acceleration data is requested, sum the
forces in the x-direction. If the problem asks for a force in the y-direction, such as force normal, sum the forces in the y-
direction.
 Fx  Fx  Fy  N  Fy  Fg
3. Ask yourself what the object is doing in the relevant direction. There are three choices:
1. Standing still, a = 0. 2. Constant velocity, a = 0. 3. Accelerating, a = a.
This problem is accelerating in the x-direction, while standing still in the y-direction.
4. Substitute known equations and values. The known equations come from the table on page 6.
max  F cos may  N  F sin  mg
10.0ax  20.0 cos 30 o 10.0  0   N 10.0 sin 30 o 10.09.8

20.0 cos 30o

5. Solve ax  N  10.09.8 10.0 sin 30o
10.0
2
ax  1.73 m s N  93.0N

Revised 8/29/06 11 © R H Jansen

What Is The Object Doing? It is critical to know how the object is moving.
1. Inertia: The object is following the principle of inertia. It lacks acceleration.
a. Constant Velocity: a  0 , which means that  F  ma  0 .
b. a  0 ,  F  ma  0 . Standing still, v  0 , is just a constant velocity that happens to be zero.
Standing Still:
2. Accelerating:  F  ma . a is solved using this equation, or by other means and then is plugged into this equation.

Example Scenario:
1. Standing still in a car: v  0 a0  F  ma  0 Inertia.
2. Step on gas peddle: v   a   F  Fengine  ma   Accelerates.
Initially there is only one applied force acting in this problem, and it is the cars engine (really it is friction between tires
and road). This force is in the direction of motion and is a positive force causing positive acceleration. But as soon as
the car starts moving it experiences air resistance. It will continue to accelerate as long as the sum of force is positive.
v   a   F  Fengine  Fair  ma   Accelerates.

3. Reach cruising speed: v  0 a0  F  Fengine  Fair  ma  0 Inertia.

Why did it reach a constant velocity with the gas peddle still pressed? The car encounters air resistance, a second force.
Air resistance is in the opposite direction and is negative. At first the air resistance is small, but grows until it equals the
force of the engine. Adding the positive force of the engine to the now equal negative force of air resistance results in a
 F  ma  0 , and inertia / constant velocity takes over. Note: equal and opposite force does not mean that the car
stops. It continues doing whatever it was last doing, i.e., it moves with the final velocity from the acceleration phase.
4. Step on the brake: v   a   F  Fbrake  Fair  ma   Decelerates.
The brakes (again, really friction) apply a force that opposes the direction of motion. Now there are two forces slowing
the car. These negative forces decelerate the car.
5. Stopped: v  0 a0  F  ma  0 Inertia.

Example 4-5: Balanced Forces

F3 = 4N F1 = 3N
The forces parallel to the relevant direction add to a sum of force of zero.
As an example: All the forces in the Fig. 4.5 are parallel to the x-axis. F4 = 1N F2 = 2N
The sum of force is:  F  F1  F2  F3  F4 Fig. 4.5
 F  3  2  4 1  0
The object does not accelerate, but rather has constant velocity (which includes v = 0).
This implies that constant velocity and standing still are the result of balanced forces, and this can be used as a shortcut.

What if the problem were worded differently? F1 = 3N

F3 = 4N
The box in Fig. 4.6 is moving at constant velocity. What is F4 ?
F4 = ? F2 = 2N
Constant velocity implies that  F  ma  0 .
Now we know that this implies a balanced force scenario as well. Fig. 4.6

Solve using the sum of forces approach. Solving using balance force approach.

 F  F1  F2  F3  F4 All the forces in one direction (added together) must equal all the
0  F1  F2  F3  F4 forces in the opposite direction (added together).
F1  F2  F3  F4 F1  F2  F3  F4
F4  F1  F2  F3 F4  F1  F2  F3
F4  3  2  4 F4  3  2  4
F4  1 F4  1
The balanced force approach is faster, as it eliminates the first two steps. However, when an object is accelerating balanced
forces do not apply, and the problem must start with a sum of forces equation.

Revised 8/29/06 12 © R H Jansen

 15 Applications of Force

Strategy for Force Problems

1. Draw FBD.
2. Decide direction of motion. Considered this the positive direction. If the object does not move, ask which direction it
would move if it were free to do so, and set this as the positive direction.
3. Which direction matters, the x or the y-direction? What is it doing in the direction that matter?
4. Construct  F equations in the relevant direction, by looking at the FBD. Any force vectors or components of force
vectors pointing in the direction of motion are positive while any vectors or components opposing motion are negative.
5. Substitute known equation,  F  ma , Fg  mg , from the table on page 6, into the sum of force equation.
6. Plug in values and solve. All values including 9.8 are positive since the plusses and minuses have already been decided.

Example 5-1: Static Force Problems, and Force Triangles

T1
In beginning physics many force problems contain a force triangle.
T2
A mass is suspended by two strings from the ceiling, as shown in Fig 5.1a. 60o 30o
Fig. 5.1b is the FBD. In Fig 5.1c the tensions are separated into x and y T1 T2
components. Sum the forces in the x and y-directions separately. The
sum of force will be equal to zero. Fig 5.1a Fg
 Fx  T2 x  T1x T1x  T2 x Fg

 Fy  T1x  T2 y  Fg T1x  T2 y  Fg Fig 5.1b Fig 5.1c

Under the right circumstances the three force vectors form a right triangle when added tip to tail.
Note the 30o and 60o angles above. The forces complete the 30-60-90 triangle shown in T2
Fig 5.1d. The sum of force is zero. Tensions can be calculated using SOH CAH TOA and 60o
Pythagorean Theorem.
Fg
T  F cos 30o T  F sin 30o or T  F sin 60o T  F cos 60o T 30o
1 g 2 g 1 g 2 g Fig 5.1d 1

Example 5-2: Lawn Mower N

An old fashioned lawnmower is pushed with 90N at a 45 o angle against a horizontal retarding force. F
Fig 5.2a is the FBD, while Figure 5.2b is a diagram of horizontal and vertical component vectors
Fret.
Solve for the Retarding Force
 Fx  Fx  Fret . 0  Fx  Fret. F .  F  90N cos 45o  63.6N
ret x
Fg
Solve for the Normal Force Fig 5.2a
 Fy  Fy  N  Fg
N   Fy  Fy  Fg N  0   90N sin 45o   16kg   9.8 m s 2    220N Fy
  N
Solve for F to accelerate from rest to 1.5 m/s in 2.5 s
v v 1.5  0
v  v a t a  x x  o
 0.6 m s2  F  ma  16kg  0.6 m s2   9.6N Fx
x xo x x x x Fret.
t 2.5
You need this force to accelerate, but you still need to overcome the retarding force. Fg
 Fx  Fx  Fret . Fx   Fx  Fret.  9.6N  63.6N  73.2N
But you aren’t pushing in the x-direction. You need the push at 45o to generate 73.2 N in the x- Fig 5.2b
direction.
Fx 73.2 N
Fx  F cos 45o F   104N
cos 45o 0.707

Apparent Weight: When you ride in an elevator upward you will feel heavier when the elevator accelerates and lighter
as it slows to a stop. When riding downward you will feel lighter when it accelerates and heavier when it stops. When you
ride a roller coaster you experience the same sensations when moving up and down. On “Superman the Ride” you can
actually feel weightless. Astronauts and pilots experience these same sensations when moving away or toward the center of
the earth (or the moon). Astronauts also feel weightlessness as well. This effect is not limited to the vertical or y direction.
Revised 8/29/06 13 © R H Jansen
When you “step on it” in a car you feel yourself pressed into the seat, and when you panic stop you feel yourself thrown
forward. These sensations have the same characteristics as gravity or weight. Up to now we have analyzed the motion of the
car, the plane, the rocket, etc. using straight forward force and kinematics. With apparent weight we are dealing with a false
force that the passenger feels. The effect is really created by the passenger’s inertia. When you “step on it” you don’t sink
into the car seat. You actually follow inertia and stay at rest, while the car hits you from behind. The real acting forces are
the opposite of what our brain thinks. To analyze this feeling of force for a passenger we need apparent weight. Apparent
weight is the weight that would show on a bathroom scale if you were between you and the surface causing the force.
Contact with any surfaces is a normal force and bathroom scales measure normal force. So weight apparent is also FN.
Fg apparent  mg  ma This equation adds the acceleration of a passenger’s vehicle to the real weight.

x direction: Fg apparent x  mgx  max , but with no g in the x direction Fg apparent x  max
Positive: accelerating, you feel heavier. Negative: decelerating, you feel lighter.
y direction: Fg apparent y  mgy  may , so acceleration adds / subtracts from the real / actual weight.
Positive: moving away from the center of gravity (up or away from Earth). Negative: moving toward the center of
gravity.
Why do you feel weightless on “Superman the Ride”? Because, the acceleration is downward and matches gravity.
Fg apparent y  mg y  may  m 9.8  m 9.8  0 m s 2

g’s: The acceleration of gravity can also be expressed in g’s. 1g  9.8 m s2 This is commonly used in flight
terminology.

Example 5-3: Compound Bodies, One Dimension

F
These problems have two or more masses connected by a string or pressed against each other. m1 m2 m3
In Fig 5.3a a force F presses against block 1 which presses with a normal force against block 2
Fig 5.3a
which then presses with a normal force on block 3.
If all the blocks are the same mass what is the acceleration of the blocks? Simply treat all the masses as one larger block,
and remember to use the sum of force to find acceleration.

F
 Fsystem  F msystem a  F  m1  m2  m3  a  F a
 m1  m2  m3 
How much force F is acting on each block? The force will distribute proportionally based on mass. If the blocks are of
F F F
equal mass then the force on each of the three blocks will be one third. F1  F2  F3 
3 3 3
If the blocks do not have the same mass then you must distribute the force using the mass ratio.
How much force is acting at the boundary between the blocks? This force is a normal force as it is created by surface
contact. Block 1 requires one third of F to move. So two thirds of F remain to push blocks 3 and 4. The force at the
boundary between blocks 1 and 2 is two thirds F, and this is the force needed to push the blocks behind the boundary.
The last block C only requires one third of force F and thus the force at the boundary between blocks B
and C is one third F. This may make more sense when examined vertically. If the same blocks are stacked
on a table one could imagine that they are gymnasts standing on each other’s shoulders. How much of the m3
total force F is felt on the bottom gymnasts feet? All of the force. How much is at the boundary? The m2
boundary can be analyzed from either surface of contact. If we look at the bottom gymnasts shoulders, he
m1
must push up with 2/3 F to hold 2/3 m. The middle gymnasts feet must support his own weight and that of
the gymnast above, so his feet must push with 2/3 F. No matter how you look at the boundary you arrive at Fig 5.3b
the same answer. The boundary between the middle and top gymnast is 1/3 F, as the middle gymnast
shoulder and top gymnasts feet only need to support the top gymnasts 1/3 m.
m1 e for
The problem is exactly the same if the blocks are tied by strings and hanging from the ceiling. Only now we solv
tension instead of force normal, and the gymnasts are hanging from a cliff. If the top rope (top arm) in
m2
Fig 5.3c has a tension of F, what is the tension between blocks 1 and 2? 2/3 F. The top gymnast
lower arm and the middle gymnasts upper arm both have to support 2/3 m. How much tension is in the m3
rope between blocks 2 and 3? 1/3 F
Fig 5.3c

Revised 8/29/06 14 © R H Jansen

Compound Bodies in Two Dimensions: These problems have two or more masses
Direction of Motion
connected by a strings and involve pulleys. Pulleys are devices that change the direction of
force. The pulleys in the following examples will be considered massless and frictionless, and
as a result they do not change the magnitude of force. As two dimensions are involved
simultaneously the assignment of positive and negatives on the various forces can be tricky. +
The easiest method to achieve sign consistency throughout a complex problem is to identify the
direction the masses are moving, or the direction they are most likely to move. Set the
direction of motion as positive, as shown in the top figure to the right. Every vector in the Direction of Motion
+
direction of motion will be considered positive. Those opposed to the direction of motion are
negative. If you are not sure what the direction of motion will be, take a guess. If you calculate
a negative value for acceleration, you were wrong, the masses actually moved in the direction
opposite your prediction. A very useful shortcut is to reorient the problem into one dimension. Pulleys are devices that
change the direction of force. So pretend the pulley is not there, as shown in the figure at the bottom right.

Example 5-4: Compound Body Moving in Two Dimensions A

Solve for acceleration: Fig 5.4a shows the scenario. As there are two masses there are two B
FBD’s shown in Fig 5.4b. Fig 5.4c is an informal sketch of connected boxes. Use this sketch
and the combined mass method to solve for overall acceleration. Remember, when you use Fig 5.4a
the combined method you must total all the masses for the sum of force. Fg and FN acting
on mass A are perpendicular to motion. They cancel each other. Fig 5.4c shows that the +T -T
tension in the rope also cancels. It is the same rope so the value at both ends is the same and A B
the direction of tension is opposite. So tension cancels in the shortcut to find acceleration. +Fg
Fg
 FAB  FgB  m A  mB  a  mB g a
mB g Fig 5.4b

Solve for the tension in the rope: In order to solve for tension you need a formula with FN
tension in it. You must solve for one of the masses by itself. Solve for either body. On tests -T +Fg
+T
choose the easy one, this will usually be the hanging mass. A B
 FA  T  FfrA or  FB  FgB  T Fg
Fig 5.4c
T  mAa   mA g T  mB g  mB a
Plug the acceleration from part one into either equation above and you will get the same final answer.
Example 5-5: Atwood Machine: Atwood created a device to artificially slow the
acceleration of gravity. In Fig 5.4a it doesn’t say which mass is greater. I picked the two
masses B and C as the more massive side and used this to set the direction of motion. B A
Solve for acceleration: The FBD’s for all blocks are shown in Fig 5.5b. Use the
C
combined mass method to solve for overall acceleration. Remember, when you use the
combined method you must total all the masses for the sum of force. In addition it is easier Fig 5.5a
if you treat blocks B and C as though they are one larger block having a single mass.
Fig 5.5c is a sketch of the masses as a linear problem, with the left masses combined.
 FABC  Fg BC  Fg A
 mB  mC  g  mA g +T -T +T
 mA  mB  mC  a   mB  mC  g  mA g a
m A  m B  mC  A B C
-FgA +FgB -FgC
If asked for the tension in the rope connecting mass A and B you must sum the forces
for any block connected to the rope. A problem might only give information for one of
the two blocks, or one of the blocks will be much simpler to solve. Learn to identify the Fig 5.5b
easy block. If more than one mass is suspended by a rope, then add the masses suspended
by the rope. This is the case for blocks B and C. Both of the possible solutions are
detailed, one using block A on the left, and the other using blocks B and C to the right.
 FA  T  FgA or  FBC  FgBC  T +FgBC -T +T -FgA
T   FA  FgA T  FgBC   FBC

T  mAa  mA g T   mB  mC  g   mB  mC  a Fig 5.5c

Plug in the acceleration from above to solve for FT. To solve for the tension in the rope between block B and C, just use
the mass of block C. Refer to the right most FBD in Fig 5.5b.
 FC  FgC  T T  FgC   FC T  mC g  mC a

Revised 8/29/06 15 © R H Jansen

Force Gravity on Slopes: Motion on a slope is parallel to the slope. Fg is then at an
angle to this motion. Any vector at an angle to motion should be split into components Direction
parallel and perpendicular to the chosen orientation (direction of motion). In this case Fg of motion
should split into Fg || and Fg  to the slope. Fg is actually pulling the block into the slope Fg   Fg cos
Fg   Fg cos and down the slope F g  Fg sin . 
Fg
But the block is not moving perpendicular to the slope, so the sum of forces in the
perpendicular direction is zero. If gravity is pulling the block into the slope then the slope Fg   Fg sin

must push back with an equal and opposite force. Any force involving contact with a
surface is call a Normal Force, N. In slope problems N  Fg cos .
N  Fg cos
When a block moves on a flat surface the slope angle is 0 o. Plug 0o into
the N equation and it reduces to N  Fg . This is an abbreviation for Fg sin

N that works only on flat surfaces. The component of gravity parallel Fg
to the slope Fg  Fg sin is then left over. Fg || is the resultant Fg sin

when Fg and N are added by vector addition. This is the force of
gravity that can accelerate objects down slopes.

Example 5-6: Combined Bodies and Slopes

Solve for acceleration: This is just like Example 5-4, only this time block A is on a A B
slope. Just use the same problem solving approach and recognize that gravity is
different on slopes. Fig 5.7a diagrams the problem. Fig 5.7b shows the FBD’s for the Fig 5.6a
two masses. Make a note of the orientation of the vectors for block A. Fig 5.6c depicts
the problem as a linear problem. As usual gravity is pulling block B, and as it is felt
entirely in the y direction, it is acting with full strength. However, gravity is acting at an N +T -T
angle to the motion of block A on the slope. We need the component of gravity acting A B
in the direction of motion, Fgsin, in order to solve the problem.
Fg +Fg
 FAB  Fg B  FgA sin
Fig 5.6b

 mA  mB  a  mB g  mA g sin  a  mB g  mA g sin
 m A  mB  -FgAsin
-T +Fg
+T
A B
Solve for the tension in the rope: Solve for either body. On tests choose the easy one,
this will usually be the hanging mass. Fig 5.6c

 FA  T  FgA sin  or  FB  FgB  T

T  mAa  mA g sin  T  mB g  mB a
Plug the acceleration from part one into either equation above and you will get the same final answer.

Friction: Opposes motion and is always negative. Motion is always parallel to a surface, so friction always acts parallel.
Static Friction: Friction that will prevent an object from moving. As long as the object is standing still the force of friction
must be equal to the push, pull, component of gravity or other force that attempts to move the object. (If there is no force
attempting to cause motion, then there can be no friction). Oddly enough the maximum value for static friction is measured
just as the object breaks loose and begins to move. Static friction is the strongest friction since the surfaces have a stronger
adherence when stationary.
Kinetic Friction: Friction for moving objects. Once an object begins to move breaking static frictions hold, then the friction
is termed kinetic. Kinetic friction is not as strong as static friction, but it still opposes motion.
Coefficient of friction:  is a value of the adherence or strength of friction. k for kinetic and s for static.
f  N so f  mg cos On flat surfaces  = 0o, f  mg

Revised 8/29/06 16 © R H Jansen

Example 5-7: Two Dimension Compound Body with Friction A

Solve for acceleration: This is a repeat of Example 5-4, only this time friction appears in B
the FBD for mass A. Friction opposes motion and is therefore negative.
Fig 5.7a

 FAB  Fg B  FfrA  m A  m B  a  mB g   m A g a  mB g  mA g

 m A  mB  -FfrA
A +T B
-T

Solve for the tension in the rope: Solve for either body. On tests choose the easy one, this Fg +Fg
will usually be the hanging mass. Fig 5.7b
 FA  T  FfrA or  FB  FgB  T FN
-FfrA -T +Fg
T  mAa   mA g T  mB g  mB a A
+T
B

Plug the acceleration from part one into either equation above and you will get the same Fg
final answer.
Fig 5.7c

Example 5-8: A Complex Slope Problem

Objects can move up or down a slope. Fg sin is simply the component of gravity pulling on an object down the slope in a
direction parallel to the slope. In Fig 5.8a a man is pushing mass B up a slope. In this case gravity is opposite the direction
of motion, as is friction. The FBD’s for both blocks are shown in Fig 5.8b, with the main difference being the presence of the
true forces, Fg and FN instead of Fg sin . Remember, Fg and FN are summed to create Fg sin . The direction of
motion (positive direction) is up the slope. T F
 FA  FgA  T  FB  F  T  FgB sin  f B
B
T  FgA   FA T   FB  F  FgB sin  f B T

FgA  FA   FB  F  FgB sin  f B A Fg sin

f
mA g  mAa  mB a  F  mB g sin  mB g cos Fg
Fig 5.8a
mAa  mB a  mA g  F  mB g sin  mB g cos
F
 mA  mB  a  mA g  F  mB g sin    mB g cos  T N
T
If constant velocity 0  mAg  F  mB g sin  mB g cos A B f

a  mA g  F  mB g sin  mB g cos

Fg Fg
If accelerating Fig 5.8b
mA  mB
An easier way to solve any compound body problem connected by a string is to stretch it out in a linear manner as shown in
Fig 5.8c. Fg T
F Fg sin
Fig 5.8c A T B
f
The direction of motion is to the left, so all left arrows are positive, and all right arrows are negative. The string attaching the
two boxes is the same and the two equal and opposite tensions cancel each other out. This allows you to solve for an overall
Force Net in fewer steps. The main difference here is that the mass in the sum of force substitution is the total mass of the
whole problem.
 F  FgA  F  FgB sin  fB
 mA  mB  a  mA g  F  mB g sin    mB g cos  , which is identical to the sixth line in the longer version above.
Constant velocity 0  mA g  FP  mB g sin   mB g cos or accelerating a  mA g  F  mB g sin  mB g cos
mA  mB
However, this is not going to solve for the force of tension in the string. You must select one of the masses and work with its
FBD. Block A obviously has the simpler of the FBD, so choose it.
 FA  FgA  T T  FgA   FA T  mAg  mAa
If you are lucky the blocks are standing still or moving at constant velocity, in which case a = 0. If not use the a from
above.

Revised 8/29/06 17 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 18 © R H Jansen
 16 Work, Energy, and Power
Work: Force applied to an object that moves a distance.
W  Fr  Fr cos  is the angle between direction of motion and applied force.

Work is a Scalar (Dot) Product: The dot product (AB) of two vectors A and B is a scalar and is equal to ABcos.
This quantity shows how two vectors interact depending on how close to parallel the two vectors are. The magnitude of this
scalar is largest when  = 0o (parallel) and when  = 180o (anti-parallel). The scalar is zero when  = 90o (perpendicular).

Work can be solved with either version of the formula. We will use both in example 6–1 below. The formula W  Fr
involves vectors, which are annotated in bold print. Vectors have both magnitude and direction. The positive and negative
values of force and displacement are important when using this version of the formula. The other version W  F r cos
involves italicized print indicating that only the magnitude of each vector is needed. Only positive numbers are used. The
angle in the formula is the angle measured between the two vectors. In this version of the formula cosθ solves the
directional aspect. Compare both methods in the example below.

Example 6-1: Various Orientations of Force and Displacement.

In the first three scenarios a force F = 5 N acts on a mass which is displaced r = 2 m.
1. Force vector is parallel to the displacement vector and points in the same direction:  = 0o
W  Fr W  F r cos F
W  52 W  5   2  cos 0o r
We decided F was positive Here the angle solves for the positive Fig 6.1a
W   5  2   10 J W   5  2  1   10 J

2. Force vector is parallel to the displacement vector and points in the opposite direction: o

W  Fr W  F r cos  = 180

W  52 W   5  2  cos180o F
r
We decided F is negative Here the angle solves for the negative
W  52  10 J W   5  2  1   10 J Fig 6.1b
Forces opposing motion are negative, and are associated with negative acceleration and negative work.
3. Force and displacement vectors are perpendicular:
W  Fr W  F r cos F  = 90o
W  02 W   5  2  cos 90 o

r
We decided F has no affect on motion Here the angle solves for the zero
W  02  0 J W  520  0 J Fig 6.1c
Forces acting perpendicular to motion have no affect in the direction of the original motion. They do not speed up or
slow the object in the direction being investigated. The object experiences inertia (stays at rest or continues at constant
velocity) in the direction it was originally moving. No work is done in the original direction of motion. The force may
accelerate the object in the perpendicular direction. However, this will no affect the direction of motion.
4. Force and displacement vectors are at angles other than parallel or perpendicular:
In this scenario F = 5 N at 37o and r = 2 m F1
W  Fr W  F r cos
To use this formula you need a r
component of F parallel to r Fig 6.1d
W  Fx r W   5  2  cos 37o
W  5cos 37o   2   8 J W  520.8  8 J
Both methods result in the same calculations. They are just derived with slight differences in problem solving logic. I
prefer using the formula on the left. I am in the habit of searching out my own components anyway. I know that any
components perpendicular do not matter, since W = 0 in these cases. So I look for components of force that match the
displacement. You can also look for components of displacement that match force. I prefer finding the correct
component, since the formula on the right requires a specific angle that is not always the given angle in the problem. By
solving for components I take control of the problem and avoid plugging in wrong angles.

Revised 8/29/06 19 © R H Jansen

Work is the Area Under the Force Displacement Curve
This is the integral of the force distance function in the calculus based course. In the non-calculus
course these areas will be simple enough (squares, rectangles, and triangles) to allow us to use geometry
to find the area. AP Physics C students need to be ready to deal with complex curves using the calculus F W
expressions below.
r


Calculus: W  F dr If the integral of force over an interval of displacement is work, then it should follow that the
dW
derivative of work with respect to the same interval of displacement is force. F 
dr

Energy: A capacity an object has to do work. There are many forms of energy including, mechanical, chemical, electrical,
thermal, nuclear, etc. An object may have many types and amounts of energy at the start of a problem. Calculating the total
energy an object has is impossible, and it is also unnecessary. During the course of a problem the type and amount of energy,
or both, may change, and usually this change is restricted to only a few forms of energy. Energy can also be passed from
object to object. Instead of trying to find the total energy we will focus on the forms of energy that change or that transfer
from object to object. Tracking the change or movement of energy is very manageable, flexible, and extremely useful.
Mechanical Energy: The sum of Kinetic and Potential (gravitational) Energies
Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion. Depends on mass (inertia of the object) and velocity. Velocity has a greater effect
1
on kinetic energy as it is squared in the formula K  mv2 . Double a cars mass and you double kinetic energy.
2
Double a cars velocity and you quadruple kinetic energy.
Potential Energy (gravitational): Energy of position. Depends on an objects mass, the gravity pulling the object, and
on the height that the object is located at Ug  mgh . For mathematical simplicity and convenience the lowest
possible point that the object can reach is designated to have zero height, and h is measured from this point. This is
arbitrary and any point can be chosen, but choosing the lowest point as zero avoids dealing with negative heights.
Work Revisited: Think of work as the energy that is added (+W) to the system or subtracted (-W) from the system.
System: The object that the problem is focusing on.
Environment: The surrounding. The entire universe, except the object in the problem.
Work Energy Theorem: W  Energy Work put into a system equals the change in energy of the system.

Example 6-2: Work and Potential Energy

Lifting a Mass: In order to lift a mass at constant velocity a force must be directed upward and be equal to the force of
gravity. Use W  F r cos . Substitute Fg for F and height h for r. W  Fg h cos . The force and displacement
are in the same direction, so  = 0o and thus W  F h . Substitution leads to W  mgh . Strangely this is the formula for
gravitational potential energy? Ug  mgh . So does W  Ug ?
Not really. Work-Energy Theorem states that work is a change in energy.
W  Energy W   mgh  W  mghf  mghi
But if we set the lowest height in the problem (we lifted the mass so hi is the lowest point) to be zero, then W  mghf .
So, if we arbitrarily identify the lowest height as zero, then the work done to raise an object does equal the energy it has at its
new position, relative to its starting point. We are doing positive work, and this adds to the energy of the object.
If we lift an object by doing 20 J of work, then the object will have 20 J of additional energy. If we pretend that the object
had 0 J at the start of the problem, then it now has 20 J at the end. Caution: No object ever has zero energy. This is just a
mathematical trick or simplification. We are not concerned with the amount of total energy the object has. Instead we are
focusing on the change in energy. Many forms of energy are present (chemical, electrical, nuclear, etc.), but they did not
change in this problem. The only energy that changed was the energy of height or position, known as potential energy. For
convenience we set this energy to zero at the start of the problem (we simply moved the number line). Besides avoiding
negative heights it allows easier analysis of useable energy and energy flow. The work done to lift the mass is added to the
mass and becomes the final energy of the mass. This is really just the added energy, and since the object cannot fall any

Revised 8/29/06 20 © R H Jansen

further than the lowest height (zero potential energy), it can only loose this much potential energy. We are really just
tracking changes in usable energy. This is why Work and Work-Energy Theorem is such a useful entity.
20 J of work were added to the system, doing positive work and raising the systems energy. Where did it come from? It
came from the environment. We will soon learn that energy is conserved and just either moves (transfers) between locations
(system and environment) or it changes form (potential to kinetic, etc.). If you drop the object it will loose 20 J of potential
energy. Since it is loosing energy, 20 J of negative work is done by gravity. Where does this energy go? It turns into 20 J of
kinetic energy. Then the object hits the table and stops. Now it has lost all of its height (potential energy) and all of its
velocity (kinetic energy). Where did the 20 J go? There was a sound, so molecules of air were pushed aside. The kinetic
energy of the molecules increased. The table vibrated. The kinetic energy of the molecules in the table increased. This
vibration is felt as heat. Where are the air molecules and table molecules? They are in the environment. So the 20 J returned
to the environment. What do you mean by returned to the environment? Well, when I picked up the mass in the first place I
was part of the environment, so the original 20 J used to lift the mass came from the environment in the very beginning.
Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change forms.
There are many forms of energy. Those that will be used in this course are shown in the energy wheel below (Note: AP
Physics C students will not cover Thermal or Modern). All the forms of energy are included here as this serves as a review
of the entire year. If any energy is unfamiliar to you at this point in the year don’t worry, we will cover them soon enough.
If energy can change form, then any energy can be equal to any other energy. If you drop an object the object looses height,
but gains velocity. In this case potential energy is turning into kinetic energy. If the object looses all of its height, then there

is a 100% transfer of energy to kinetic energy. . But, what if the energy is an incomplete transfer. What if

the problem ends before reaching zero height (zero potential energy). The object will then have two energies at the end.
1
mgh  mgh 
2
mv . Energy is a scalar. It is directionless and simply adds without worrying about direction.
2
Basically, conservation of energy means that the total energy at the beginning of the problem must equal the total energy
at the end of the problem. What if the object has height and is moving at the beginning of the problem, and still has height
1 1
mgh  mv  mgh  mv . The total energy in the problem is either
2 2
and is moving at the end of the problem?

1
Etotal  mgh  mv or
2
total
. The total energy is conserved, so the total energy is present at the

beginning, and it is still present at the end. What happens if the object is thrown straight upward, from the lowest point, and
1
mv  mgh . What if it is thrown upward at an
2
then reaches the highest point of flight where the velocity is zero?

1
mghi  mgh f 
2
angle so that when it reaches its highest point it still has some velocity in the x- direction? mv f . We

can see that conservation of energy is a very flexible and powerful tool.
Remember: Energy is directionless. Simply ask yourself:
1. What energy/energies are present initially and add them up on the left.
2. What energy/energies are present finally and add them up on the right.
Can energy be lost? No! Lost energy goes to the environment. A car (system) looses energy due to air resistance, so
air molecules (environment) gain energy and move faster. Energy is conserved in the universe.

Revised 8/29/06 21 © R H Jansen

 Newtonian Mechanics The wheel to the left shows all the energies learned in this
class around the outside. They are grouped into the five
1 major strands of physics. In the center is work.
K mv2 Ug  mgh Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created
2 or destroyed it can change forms.
1
U  kx 2 Ug  Gm1m2 Changing forms means that any energy/energies initial
s
2 r around the outside of the circle can change into any other

E  hf Q  mcT
energy/energies final.  Energyi   Energy f
Thermal In this class we often assume 100% energy transfer. One
W  F r cos
Modern
Physics Physics energy may be present initially, which disappears, and
another energy is present at the end of the problem. In
hc Q  ncT
E these 100% energy transfer problems any energy around
 the wheel can equal any other energy. If more than two
energies are mentioned then you simply add up all
energies present initially and set them equal to the total of
U  qV 1 2 all the final energies.
E
1 Uc  CV
2 Work Energy Theorem: Work is a change in any
Uc  QV
2 energy. W  Any Energy f  Any Energyi
Electricity & Magnetism Most of the time one of the energies, either final or initial
is equal to zero. So then Work can equal any energy
around the outside. And since W = Fr, then Fr can equal
any energy around the outside.

When do we use Conservation of Energy as Opposed to Work Energy Theorem? Conservation of

energy is used when energy stays in the system and simply changes form. Work Energy Theorem is used when energy
moves from the environment to the system and vice versa. You will see me use a hybrid of the two, in the examples below,
when energy is lost to the environment due to friction.
The following is an incomplete list of examples. Many of these are common problems, and have been represented in AP
Exams. In addition many are based on 100% efficiency of energy transfer. This is not really the case (see thermodynamics,
soon), but it makes the problems easier in the same way that an airless and frictionless world helped us to start kinematics.

Example 6-3: Height Turning Into Velocity

The path does not matter, only the change in height.
1 2
For a 100% transfer: mghi  mvf h
2
Fig 6.3

Example 6-4: Roller Coaster vi

A roller coaster is a good example of incomplete transfer
of energy. At different points along the track there are
various amounts of both kinetic and potential energy. vf
One key to all these height problems, measured from a
planetary surface, is to declare the lowest point in a hi hf
problem to be h = 0. This gives a reference that is easy
to add or subtract from. Then if you are given the height
at any point on the track you can find the carts velocity: h=0
1 1
mgh  mv  mgh 
2 2
mv Fig 6.4
i i f f
2 2

Revised 8/29/06 22 © R H Jansen

Example 6-5: Friction Stops an Object Ffr
Fig 6.3a shows an object that had height and stopped due to friction. Friction i r
is a force and the only way to use a force in an energy equation is to multiply
the force by the displacement, in other words use work. In this case it is the
work of friction. h
f
mghi  Wfr mghi  Ffr r h=0
Fig 6.5a
If the object in Fig 6.3a did not stop, but was just slowed by friction then it
would still have some kinetic energy.
1 1
mgh  W 
2
mghi  Ffr r 
2
mv mv
i fr f 2
2 Ffr
In figure 6.3b the object is sliding along a horizontal surface. It initially has i f
kinetic energy and is stopped by friction.
1 2 1 r
mv  Ffrr
2
mv  W Fig 6.5b
2 fr
i 2
If the object in Fig 6.3b did not stop, but was just slowed by friction then it would still have some kinetic energy.
1 1 1 1
mv  W  mv
2 2
mv  Ffr r  mv
2
2
i fr 2 2
2 f

Revised 8/29/06 23 © R H Jansen

Power: Power is the rate of work, or rate of energy change. In other words it is the rate that energy is used, transferred, or
generated during a one second interval. Since it involves energy, power is by extension as important.
P
W F r
you can substitute for work P , and if you note that displacement over time is velocity then,
t
P  Fv . The first boxed equation is useful when you have work or energy, the second is useful when you have force.
Even though the first equation contains the expression for work, you must be flexible. You must realize that work is a

change in any energy P  Any Energy . You can plug in any energy from the preceding page.
t
2
mgh 1 2mv
P , P , etc. If a problem contains any form of energy or work or the units of
t
joules, and any quantity of time or any units of time, then it will involve power.

If energy is flexible then so is power. Occasionally a question gives power as a variable, but you need energy to
W
solve the problem. Simply set the time equal to one second, then P  and work/energy will have the same numerical
1s
value (but different units) as power for that one second. Use this value for Work/Energy to solve the problem. Just
remember that all answers obtained in the problem are based on one second. If time is given later on, just multiple the energy
of “one second” by the number of seconds and you’ve got your answer.

Powerful machines do more work in the same time, or the same work in less time.

Calculus: P  dW Power is another rate (function of time) and is therefore a derivative expression. Integrating power
dt
during a time interval will return work or energy values. W 
 P dt

Solve problems by looking for energy, work, and power first, then force, last of all kinematics.

Revised 8/29/06 24 © R H Jansen

 17 Oscillations

Period: T  1 Time for one revolution.

f
Frequency: The number of revolution, vibrations, oscillations, or rotations per second.
Springs: A Simple Harmonic Oscillator (SHO) x=0
Restoring force: A spring attached to a block is shown at the -x +x
right. Equilibrium (x = 0) is the rest position when no external
forces are applied. If the spring is compressed so the block F F
moves to –x or the spring is stretched so the block moves to +x
the spring will have a force directed toward the equilibrium F is max F = 0 F is max
position. This is the restoring force F  kx , and is known a is max a=0 a is max
U=0 U is max
as Hooke’s Law. k is the spring constant reflecting the quality U is max
K=0 K is max K=0
or strength of the spring. The minus sign shows that the
v=0 v is max v=0
restoring force is opposite the displacement. Move a spring
right and it wants to restore to the left. Restoring force is highest
at maximum displacement (amplitude), located at +x and –x. At these positions the spring has the highest force and
acceleration, but has an instantaneous velocity of zero. It also has the highest amount of spring potential energy.
1
Potential Energy: The energy of position. This time we are working with a spring’s position, U  kx2 . When a
2
spring is at equilibrium it is at rest and has zero displacement. This position is thus has zero potential energy. This is just
like gravitational potential energy. When an object is a rest on the ground it is said to have zero potential energy. When it is
displaced against the force of gravity it gains potential energy. It wants to return to the ground. The mass is displaced
against the force of the spring, which wants to return it to equilibrium. So a displaced spring has stored energy, also known
as potential energy. When the spring is fully displaced at either -x or +x it comes to rest.
Amplitude: The distance from equilibrium to the point of maximum displacement. This is the distance form x = 0 to -x, or
from x = 0 to +x. It is not the distance from -x to +x. That distance is two amplitudes. How many amplitudes does a
spring go through in one complete cycle, from -x to x = 0 to +x, and then back to x = 0 and finally back to -x? Four.
When the spring reaches -x or +x there it comes to an instantaneous stop, so it has no kinetic energy, but it has potential
energy and a very large restoring force. When it moves through the equilibrium position the force on the spring and
acceleration are both zero, but the velocity and kinetic energy is now at a maximum. Here any potential energy stored by
displacing the spring from rest is turned into kinetic energy. Conservation of energy dictates that if one form of energy
1
disappears and another appears, then the two energies must be equal. So US = K, or
1 kx2
at either end
 mv2 at the middle
2 2
Springs are a variable force. Fs  kx The more a spring is displaced, x, the
larger the force, F, that is needed to displace it. At first no force is needed to move the
spring. At the end of the problem a force FS is needed. So the average force needed F k
Fs  0 1 1
during the entire displacement is Fs   Fs  kx . Work is
2 2 2 US
1 1 2
WFd kx  x  kx . Force and displacement can be graphed as shown at the
2 2 x
right. The equation Fs  kx is the equation for a line y  mx  b , where k is the slope.

1 1 1 2
bh   x  Fs    x  kx   kx  U
1
US is the area under the curve,
2 2 2 2
m
Period of a spring: Time required for one oscillation, T  2 . Depends on mass of object attached to spring and k.
s
k

Revised 8/29/06 25 © R H Jansen

Pendulums: Approximates a Simple Harmonic Oscillator (SHO)
Restoring force: The restoring force is the sum of the tension and gravity vectors
diagramed to the right. When the object is at its extreme displacement (+x or –x)
the restoring force is greatest. When the object returns to the equilibrium position 
(x = 0) the sum of the vectors is zero, and there is no restoring force. This is just
like the spring above. There is never any net force at the equilibrium position (x =
0), so there is no acceleration at this point. Both the pendulum and the spring
move through the equilibrium by inertia. It is interesting to note that when the F x=0 F
restoring force is highest (at maximum displacement, either +x or -x), the velocity
-x +x
is zero. When the net force is zero (equilibrium position, x = 0), the velocity is at
its highest. All of the proceeding is true for any harmonic oscillators. Note: the
dashed displacement line is not the same length as the arc that a pendulum actually
moves through. The difference is very small at angles less than or equal to 15o.
Beyond this angle pendulums are not good harmonic oscillators. So at angles
F is max F is max
under 15o pendulums behave almost like a true SHO.
a is max F = 0 a is max
Energy: The pendulum has potential energy at +x and –x. It has kinetic energy at U is max a=0 U is max
x = 0. The potential energy at one either end equals the kinetic energy in the K=0 U=0 K=0
middle. Potential energy in a pendulum has to do with height, not the spring v=0 K is max v=0
1 v is max
constant mghat either end  mv2 at the middle
2
Period: Time required for one oscillation, T  2 . Depends on length of the pendulum and g.



Revised 8/29/06 26 © R H Jansen

 18 Linear Momentum and Collisions

Momentum: p  mv Quantity of motion (inertia in motion). Measure of how difficult it is to stop an object.
Impulse: J  Ft  p Trade off between time taken to stop and force needed to stop. Velocity, acceleration, and
momentum were understood early on in the developing days of physics. These concepts were used by Newton to establish
v
his 2nd Law: Ft  p Ft  mv Fm F  ma
t

dp
Calculus: Force is the derivative of momentum F  . Analogous to acceleration being the derivative of velocity
dt
dv
a . If you divide the force and momentum vectors by the scalar mass you get the acceleration and velocity vectors.
dt
Physics is full of meaningful patterns. Impulse is the integral of force during a time interval J   F dt  p . This
dJ
means that if you take the derivative of impulse with respect to time you will calculate force F= .
dt

Collisions and Conservation of Momentum: Momentum in any situation must always be conserved. When two
objects, each having momentum, collide the total momentum during the problem remains the same. If mass 1 and mass 2
are moving then they both a momentum. Their momentums add together to calculate a total momentum
ptotal  m1v1i  m2v2i . If they collide they might bounce off each other with different velocities than before, but the total

momentum must remain the same ptotal  m1v1 f  m2v2 f . If the initial momentums and final momentums are both equal
to the same total momentum then the sum of the initial momentums must equal the sum of the final momentums
m1v1i  m2v2i  m1v1 f  m2v2 f . If there are more than two masses involved, just keep adding them to both sides.

Momentum is a Vector: Unlike energy (a scalar) which simply adds, momentum is a vector. Vectors have direction, and
this means that the vector directions (like force vectors) must be accounted for in the math. You must decide on a positive
direction in a conservation of momentum problem. Once decided any mass traveling in that direction has a positive
momentum. Any mass traveling opposite the chosen direction has a negative momentum. Any mass traveling at an angle to
the chosen direction must be split into components, with the x and y directions analyzed separately. Use the same strategies
that were learned in forces.
Elastic Collision: Collisions in which kinetic energy is conserved. This can only happen when two objects do not touch each
other. One example that may make sense and will be used latter in electricity is the collision between two protons. Protons
have positive charges and in electricity like charges repel. If two protons approach each other head on the repulsion for each
other will slow them to a stop before they touch one another. Then the repulsion will repel them away from each other. In
effect they bounce off each other without touching
Inelastic Collisions: Collisions in which kinetic energy is lost. Since energy is never really lost, it must go somewhere. Lost
energy is just energy that was lost by the system to the environment or it is energy that changed into a form that is not very
recognizable. When masses collide and touch each other the masses vibrate. This vibration is heat. In collisions where
objects touch each other some of the original kinetic energy is lost as heat.
Perfectly Inelastic Collision: The objects collide and stick together (one mass, one velocity) m1v1i  m2v2i  v f  m1  m2  .
Explosion: The opposite of a perfectly inelastic collision. A single object fractures and sends fragments in many directions.
If we look at the simpliest case where it fractures into two bodies moving in opposite directions then
vi  m1  m2   m1v1 f  m2 v2 f . Usually the original object is considered stationary in beginners examples, but it does not
have to be 0  m1v1 f  m2v2 f . So this means that m1v1 f  m2v2 f . The negative sign implies that one object must
move in the opposite direction of the other.

Revised 8/29/06 27 © R H Jansen

Example 8-1: Conservation of Linear Momentum
Elastic Collision: Mass 1, m1 = 2.00 kg, is moving at 4.00 m/s to the right. Mass 2,
m2 = 2.00 kg, is stationary and is hit by mass 1. After the collision mass 2 moves to the 4 m/s
1 2
right at 4.00 m/s. The collision is diagrammed before and after in Fig 8.1a. What is the
velocity of mass 1 after the collision? ?
4.0 m/s
m1v1i  m2v2i  m1v1 f  m2v2 1 2
f

 2  4    2  0    2  v1f  24 v1 f  0m / s Fig 8.1a

All the momentum from mass 1 was transferred to mass 2.

Inelastic Collision: Mass 1, m1 = 4.00 kg, is moving at 4.00 m/s to the right. Mass 2, 4 m/s
1 2
m2 = 2.00 kg, is stationary and is hit by mass 1. After the collision mass 2 moves to the
right at 5.30 m/s. The collision is diagrammed before and after in Fig 8.1b. What is the ?
velocity of mass 1 after the collision? 5.3 m/s
1 2
m1v1i  m2v2i  m1v1 f  m2v2
f

44.00    2  0    4  v1f  15.30 v1 f  1.35m / s Fig 8.1b

Perfectly Inelastic Collision: Mass 1, m1 = 4.00 kg, is moving at 4.00 m/s to the right. 4 m/s
1 2
Mass 2, m2 = 2.00 kg, is stationary and is hit by mass 1. After the collision the mass
stick together. The collision is diagrammed before and after in Fig 8.1c. What is the
velocity of the combined mass after the collision? ?
1 2
m1v1i  m2v2i   m1  m2  v f Fig 8.1c
4 4.00    2  0   4  2 vf v1 f  2.67m / s

1 2
Explosion: A large mass fractures into two smaller masses, m1 = 4.00 kg and
m2 = 2.00 kg. Mass 2 moves to the right at 2.0 m/s. How fast is mass 1 going after the
explosion? ? 1 2 2.0 m/s
 m1  m2  vi  m1v1 f  m2v2 f
4  2  0    4  v1f  22 v1 f  1m / s Fig 8.1d

The minus sign in the last example means that the mass is going to the left. Remember to watch the minus signs. Harder
problems will have masses moving in different directions. Missing the sign convention will destroy the problem.

Collisions and Energy: Total energy is always conserved, E1i  E2i  E1 f  E2 f .

However, kinetic energy is only one form of energy. If we look only at kinetic energy it sometime seems to disappear.
Kinetic energy is conserved only in elastic collisions. K1i  K2i  K1 f  K2 f

Kinetic energy is lost (dissipated) in inelastic collisions.  K1i  K2i   Klost   K1 f  K2 f 

But where does the lost kinetic energy go? When two or more bodies collide the molecules that they are composed of are set
into faster vibration. The speed of molecules is directly proportional to temperature, and temperature is one component of
internal energy. So while kinetic energy is lost, total energy is not. The kinetic energy lost is turning into another form of
energy, which is not one of the mechanical energies (kinetic and potential). It is now in the form of vibrating atoms and
molecules: internal energy (a thermal energy).

Revised 8/29/06 28 © R H Jansen

Example 8-2: Two dimensional Collision
4m/s
Mass 1, m1 = 2kg, is moving at 4m/s to the right. Mass 2, m2 = 1kg, is stationary and is 1 2
hit by mass 1 just a little off center. This causes mass 2 to move a 3m/s at an angle of 20 o
below the x-axis. The collision is diagrammed in Fig 8.2a (initial conditions) and in Fig 8.2a ?
Fig. 8.2b (final conditions). What is the speed and direction of mass 1 after the collision?
1
The total momentum before the collision must equal the total momentum after. But after
the collision the masses are moving at angles to the initial motion of m1. We have to work
in components. The total momentum in the x-direction must be conserved and the total ?
1 2
momentum in the y-direction must be conserved. -20o
x-direction: Two bodies before and two after. 2
Fig 8.2b
m1v1ix  m2v2ix  m1v1 fx  m2v2 fx 3m/s

 2  4   1 0   2  v1fx  13cos 20 o  v1 fx  2.59m / s

y-direction: This dimension is an explosion. Initially there is no motion in the y-direction at all. Then there are two bodies
moving in opposite directions.
 m1  m2  viy  m1v1 fy  m2 v2 fy
 
0   2  v1 fx  1 3sin 20o  v1 fy  0.513m / s
When you have two component vectors Pythagorean Theorem them back together and use arctangent to find the angle.

v f  v1 fx2  v1 fy  2.59 0.513  2.64m / s   tan1

v1 fy
 tan1
0.513  11.20
v1 fx 2.59
What amount of kinetic energy is lost? Remember energy is a directionless scalar, so x and y are meaningless.
 K1i  K2i   Klost   K1 f  K2 f 
 1 mv 2 1 2 1 1 2
 2 1i  mv2i   Klost   2 mv1 f  mv2 f 
2

1 2   2 1
 2 1
1  3 
1
             
2 2 2
2 4 1 0 K 2 2.64
2 2  lost 2 2  Klost  0.0304J
   
Example 8-3: Ballistic Pendulum
The ballistic pendulum is used to determine projectile speed. The sequence of events is as follows. First a projectile, like a
bullet (b), is fired into a block (B). This collision is perfectly inelastic, so
mbvbi  mBv Bi   mb  mB  v f is used to solve for the vf of the bullet block
combination. vf for this first phase becomes the v0 for the second phase. In the second
phase the bullet block combination swings as a pendulum to a new height, as shown in  l
1
mv  mgh is used to
2
the diagram to the right. Conservation of energy applies. y
2 l
determine the height of the swing.
But, the point is to find the velocity of the bullet, so this problem is actually done
backwards. The length of the rope holding the pendulum is known (l) and the distance h
the pendulum moves in the x direction (x) is measured (or the angle of swing, , is
measured). You must use the geometry of a pendulum swing diagramed in Fig 8.2 to

find the height (h) that the pendulum rises to y  l 2  x2 and l  y  h , so x

Fig 8.3
1
mv  mgh and solve for the initial v0 of the
2
h  l  y . Plug this final h into
2
energy phase. Then recognize that this is the same as vf for the collision mbvbi  mBv Bi   mb  mB  v f Solve for vb.

Revised 8/29/06 29 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 30 © R H Jansen
 19 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravity
Frequency: How often a repeating event happens. Measured in revolutions per second.
Period: The time for one revolution. 1 Time is in the numerator.
v
T f

Velocity: Direction and thus velocity are continuously changing in circular motion. The
magnitude of velocity and speed are not. You can measure an instantaneous velocity, which is

tangential to the curve. Tangential Velocity or speed v 

2 r Fc & ac
T
Centripetal Acceleration: Inertia would make a mass leave the circle following the tangential
velocity. Instead the direction of the mass is being changed toward the center. In other words
v2
the mass is accelerated toward the center. Centripetal means center seeking. ac 
r Fc & ac
Centripetal Force: If an object is changing direction (accelerating) it must be doing so because
a force is acting. Remember objects follow inertia (in this case the tangential velocity) unless
acted upon by an external force. If the object is changing direction to the center of the circle it
v2 v
must be forced that way. Fc  mac Fc  m
r

Problem Solving Strategy

1. As always, ask what the object is doing. If it is moving in a circle, or even part of a circle, shown above right.
2. Draw a FBD. Remember Fc is the sum of force for circular motion. The sum of force is not shown in the FBD.
3. Set the direction of motion as positive. Toward the center is positive, since this is the desired outcome.
4. Identify the sum of force equation. In circular motion Fc is the sum of force. Fc can be any of the previous forces.
5. Substitute the relevant force equations and solve.

Example 9-1: Vertical Circular Motion

Fg TT
A ball at the end of a string is swung in a vertical circle. Any forces pointing to the center are positive,
while force vectors pointing away from the center are negative. Sum the forces. In circular motion Fc
is the sum of force. Find the tension in the string when the ball is at the top and at the bottom.
Fc  Fg  TT Fc  Fg  T B
TB
TT  Fc  Fg T B  Fc  Fg
Fg
2
v
TB  m  mg
2
v
TT  m  mg Fig 9.1
r r
Example 9-2: Horizontal Circular Motion
A penny on a circular disk rotating horizontally (or a car turning a corner). Something must Ffr
be keeping it going in a circle. Friction keeps it in place. If friction let go the penny would
move due to inertia in a direction tangent to the disk. Force centripetal is the sum of forces
for circular motion. Find a formula for the maximum velocity if the coefficient of
friction is known. Fig 9.2

2
Fc  Ffr m v   mg v   gr
r
Example 9-3: Top of a Loop and Apparent Weightlessness
Apparently weightless means that you are in freefall. The only force acting on you is Fg. To Fg
feel weightless at the top of the loop the roller coaster car can have no FN (no pressure from
the track). So for an instant at the top the car is not touching the track. What at the top of
the loop makes this possible?
2
Fc  Fg m v  mg Fig 9.3
r

Revised 8/29/06 31 © R H Jansen

Example 9-4: Conical Pendulum
m1 is suspended by a string that passes through a tube. At the other end of the tube m2 is T = Fg2
hanging from the same string. m1 is spun at a velocity that keeps m2 stationary.
Solve for the force centripetal. Force centripetal is the sum of force that points to the
m1
center of the circular motion. The two acting forces on m1 are causing the circular
motion, and they must sum together as force centripetal. If you add the two acting force Fg1
vectors tip to tail they form a force vector triangle, shown in Fig 9.4b.
m2
T2F2F2 F  T F 2 2 Fig 9.4a
c g1

T = Fg2 Fg1
Solve for the tension in the rope. Both masses hang from the rope, so either one can be
used. Pick the easiest, in this case the vertically hanging mass. It’s FBD is shown in Fig Fc
9.4c.  F  T  Fg 2 0  T  Fg 2 T  Fg 2 Fig 9.4b

T
v2 r Fg 2 2  Fg12
F  T 2 F m  F 2 F v
Fig 9.4c m2
c g2
r m Fg

Example 9-5: Gravitron

This is the ride at amusement parks where it spins and the floor drops down, leaving the occupants stuck Ffr
to the wall.
FN
Solve for the tangential velocity. You feel pressed against the wall because the wall exerts a normal
Fg
force toward the center. In other words the normal force is force centripetal, F c  FN . In the vertical
dimension you are prevented from sliding down the wall by an upward and equal friction force,
Fig 9.5
Ffr  Fg . Friction depends on force normal. Ffr   FN . Put all these equations together, and
substituting for Fc and Fg.
Ffr Fg v2 Fg v2
Fc  FN Fc   m  mg rg
Fc  m v
  r  r 

Gravity: One of the fundamental forces. This force is a field force, and the field is g, the acceleration of gravity. Every
mass in the universe generates a gravity field. The gravity field is directed toward the center of mass. While the nature of the

force is not understood the mathematics are detailed in Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation m1m2 where
G
r2
G  6.67 1011 N  m2 kg 2 . This equation is the force between two masses. Remember the force between objects is equal and
m1m2
opposite. Combine this with the equation for weight Fg  mg to get mg  G , which simplifies as g  G .
2 2
r r
Each equation has its usefulness depending on the situation. The last equation is important for finding the gravity field value
g around any mass at a distance r. To find the gravity at a point in space near Earth, use the mass of
earth (which creates the gravity) and the distance from Earth’s center. r is not a radius, but is the
distance measured from center of a mass. r is used since gravity radiates in rays from the center of
mass in a spoke like manner. Viewed in this way every distance in gravity is a radius. If you calculate
g at a point in space near a mass you also know g for all points on a sphere of that radius
(equipotential, since all points have the same potential energy).
Inverse Square Law: This can be used for both formulas with r2 in the denominator. If r
doubles (x2), invert to get ½ and then square it to get ¼. Gravity is ¼ its original value so Fg is ¼ of what it was and g is ¼
of what it was. Multiply the old Fg by ¼ to get the new weight, or multiply g by ¼ to get the new acceleration of gravity.

Revised 8/29/06 32 © R H Jansen

Example 9-6: Gravity on an Unknown Planet
Mars has roughly half the radius of Earth and has one-tenth the mass.
What is the gravity on the surface of Mars? Many students want to look up the radius and mass of Mars and plug into this
m
equation g  G . But there is another way. The problem gives us the relationship to Earth for a reason. We also
r2
mEarth
already know the gravity on Earth 9.8  G . What if we just use some logic and the Inverse Square Law? The gravity
rEarth2
on Mars is going to be Earth’s gravity adjusted by pretending Earth shrinks to half its radius and one-tenth its mass.
 mEarth  0.1 mEarth 0.1 mEarth
g G g G  and we already know that 9.8  G , so
Mars
 rEarth  0.5  2 Mars
r Earth
2
 0.5 
2
r Earth
2

0.1
g Mars  3.92 m s 2 . Again, just pretend Earth shrinks to become Mars. This last line is
g Mars  9.8
 0.5
2
all the work you need to show.
Example 9-7: Superposition of Gravity Fields
Superposition is a term referring to the addition, or superimposing, of two or more force fields. In Fig 9.7a mass A and
mass B both create gravity at all points in space to infinity. If an object is positioned at point P it will feel the gravity of
both masses. The two gravities must be added together using vector addition. mA = 2.001020 kg, mB = 41020 kg, The
masses are 2.00108 m apart. Point P is located at a point half way between the masses.
What gravity is felt at point P? First solve for the gravity of each
m P
gG 1 2
planet, at point P, separately. Use
r2 Fig 9.7a

2.00 10 
20

g  6.67 10
11
1.00 10   1.3310
6
2
m s2 toward m1 (left)
8

-1.3310-6 +2.6710-6
4.00 10   P
20

g  6.67 1011  2.67 106 m s2 toward m 2 (right)

1 2

1.00 10 
2
8 Fig 9.7b

g is a vector, and vectors have direction. Assign a positive sign to the vector pointing right and a negative sign to the vector
pointing left, as shown in Fig 9.7b. Then add the two vectors together 1.33106  2.67 106  1.3310     6
.
The positive answer implies that the gravity at point P is 1.3310-6 m/s2 directed toward the right.
If a 100 kg mass were to be positioned at point P, what would the force of gravity be? The beauty of finding g is that
you can easily apply it to any mass at that location to find the force of gravity Fg  100  1.3310 6  1.33104 N  
Potential Energy Revisited: There is another equation to find potential energy using the universal gravity constant.
Use the work formula and work energy theorem, Wg  Ug  Fg r . Set the initial displacement as zero and it simplifies
m1m2 Ug m1m2
to Ug  Fg r . Use this with F  G to get  G m1m2 . This simplifies to U  G .
r 2 r r2 r
Where did the minus sign come from? Suddenly it is added to Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. This is the formal
version of the law. It can be used with either a positive sign (simplified and common version) or a negative sign (formal
version) and is situational dependent. In formal physics a point at infinity is said to have zero potential energy. Since a
central point of zero potential energy cannot be located in the universe, it makes sense to pick infinity to be zero potential
energy. All points in the universe are the same infinite distance from infinity. However, this means that close to Earth’s
surface potential energy is negative. It is common practice when viewing planets from a great distance to set infinity as
Ug = 0, and when on a planets surface to set the lowest height as Ug = 0. These are just conventions used to make specific
problems easier to solve. Remember, the exact energy that an object has is not really important. What matters is how much
of that energy is usable to do work. And work is a change in energy. Therefore, we can really declare any point as zero
energy and measure changes from that point.

Revised 8/29/06 33 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 34 © R H Jansen
 110 Introduction to Rotation and Torque
Rotation: In rotation the entire object spins around its center of mass. Looking at the tangential velocities diagramed at the
right, we see that they are all in different directions and all vary in magnitude. Points near the
outer edge have to move through a larger circumference in the same period than those closer to
the center. The outer edge must be moving faster to cover the longer distance in the same
period or time. All of these points have one thing in common, they all travel through the same
number of degree or radians during a period. Rotational velocity measured in radian per second
is called angular velocity. However, All the equations for an object in circular motion hold
true if we are looking at a single point and only a specific point on a rotating object.
Rotating objects have rotational inertia and an accompanying angular momentum, meaning that a rotating object will
continue to rotate (or not rotate) unless acted upon by an unbalanced torque, discussed below.
(Note: Planets and satellites follow circular motion, as they are not attached. Inner planets move faster as they are closer to
the sun and must have larger tangential velocities. They also travel a shorter circumference. Thus they have shorter periods.)
Angular momentum: Depends on mass (like regular momentum) and it also depends on mass distribution. As an ice
skater brings their arms closer to the body they begin to spin faster, since the mass has a shorter distance to travel.
Angular momentum is conserved. The radius gets smaller, but angular velocity increases (vice versa as the skater
moves arms outward). A galaxy, solar system, star, or planet forms from a larger cloud of dust. As the cloud is pulled
together by gravity its radius shrinks. So the angular velocity must increase. These objects all begin to spin faster. That is
why we have day and night.
Torque: In rotation problems we look at the sum of torque (not the sum of force). But it is exactly the same methodology.
  rF sin Strongest when the force is perpendicular to the lever arm (since sin 90o equals one).

Balanced Torque: The sum of torque is zero. No rotation.

Unbalance Torque: Adding all the clockwise and counterclockwise torque does not sum to zero. So there is excess torque
in either the clockwise or counterclockwise direction. This will cause the object to rotate.
1. As always, ask what the object is doing. Is it rotating or is it standing still?
2. Set the direction of motion as positive. The convention when in doubt is that counterclockwise is positive. This
corresponds to projectile motion where angles measured from the horizon counterclockwise were positive. But, just like
in forces if you know the direction of motion call it positive. It will either rotate clockwise or counterclockwise. If you
pick the wrong direction your final answer will be negative. But, the answer will be correct nonetheless. If it is not
moving pick one direction to be positive, it really doesn’t matter. But the other must be negative, so the opposing
torques cancel.
3. Identify the sum of torque equation.
  cw  ccw or   ccw  cw
4. Substitute the relevant force equations and solve (examples assume clockwise was positive direction)
Rotating:    rF sin   rF sin 
cw ccw

Not Rotating: 0    rF sin    rF sin    rF sin     rF sin 

cw ccw cw ccw

Example 10-1: Torque and a Seesaw ?m

Three masses are positioned on a seesaw as shown in Fig 10.1. mA = 4.0
kg, mB = 2.0 kg, and m3 = 3.0 kg. Distances are shown in the diagram.
A
How far from the fulcrum must m be positioned in order for the B C
system to balance? Keep in mind that measurements are made from the
center of mass. It is as though all the mass is mathematically located at a
point at the center of the object. It is not rotating, so the clockwise torques
must equal the counterclockwise torques.
  ccw 2m 2m
cw
Fig 10.1
 A  B  C
rA  FA  rB  FB  rC  FC
rA  mA g  rB  mB g  rC  mC g
 2  4   rB2   2  3  rB  1.0m

Revised 8/29/06 35 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 36 © R H Jansen
 111 Rotation Detailed, Rolling, and Angular Momentum
Note: This detail on rotation is needed for AP Physics C: physical science majors, calculus based.
Center of Mass: Objects rotate around a central axis and around a center of mass. It is therefore important to be able to
locate the center of mass. The center of mass is each for shapes like squares, rectangles, circles, spheres, or equilateral
triangles. It is in the middle. The following equation will find the center of mass of a system of point masses or for a system
of geometric shapes (those just mentioned, that you can find the center of by inspection) rcm  mr  m . Unusual
shapes can be found experimentally by hanging the object from two or more positions, drawing vertical lines from the point
of attachment of the string, and looking for an intersection. Or integral calculus can be used. For this course these last two
methods will not be discussed.

Example 11-1: Center of Mass 2m

Find the center of mass for the object in Fig 11.1a. It is a thin flat object composed of a
rectangle (2m by 4m in length, mass 5 kg) and a square (2m long sides, mass 3 kg). Set up 4m
a coordinate axis system. For convenience place the coordinate axis at one corner of the
object and divide the object into a rectangle and a square, as shown in Fig 11.1b. Find the
center of mass the rectangle, relative to the coordinate axis, by inspection, x  1, y  2 .
Find the center of mass the rectangle, relative to the coordinate axis, by inspection,
x  3, y  1 . Now you can pretend that the rectangle and square are point masses at 4m
these locations. The remainder of the problem is the method for solving for point Fig 11.1a
masses in two dimensions. You must work in each dimension separately.
4

x   mx xcm  m1 x1  m2 x2 xcm   1.75m

m m m1 2 2
1
 my my m y xcm   1.63m rs
 m y  1m1  m2 2
1 2
1 2 3 4
The center of mass is located at rcm  1.75im 1.63jm Fig 11.1b

2
1

1 2 3 4

Fig 11.1c

Rotation: Since every point on a rotating object experiences a different tangential velocity displacement, velocity, and
acceleration cannot be expressed in terms of meters. A particle on the outside edge of a rotating object covers a greater
distance in the same time interval than a particle closer to the center. The only quantity that both points share in any given
time interval is the angle through which they move, as shown to the right. In rotation we have to work in radians instead of
degrees. This means that for every variable in linear (translational) motion there is a corresponding variable for rotation.
And every equation in linear motion has a rotational counterpart. Displacement x is replaced by radians  (radians).
Velocity v is replaced by angular velocity  (radians per second). Acceleration a is replaced by angular acceleration 
(radians per second squared) The following three equations form a bridge between linear motion and rotation and should be
memorized. x  r v  r a  r . The chart below, and on the following pages, compares
rotation to linear motion. There is an analogous quantity and an analogous equation for rotation that parallels those learned
in linear translational motion. Keep the three equations listed above in mind and become familiar with the new quantities.

Revised 8/29/06 37 © R H Jansen

 Angular Linear
Position arc length
 x
r
Displacement    0 x  x  x0
Average Speed  x v0  v
  t v
t
v
2
 x dx
Instantaneous   lim d v  lim v
Speed   dt
t 0 t t0 t dt
Slope of displacement - time graph
Average  v
Acceleration   t a
t
Instantaneous Tangential Acceleration v dv
a  lim a
 d
Acceleration   lim  t0 t dt
t0 t dt Slope of velocity - time graph
Kinematic   0  t v  v0  at
Equations
1 1
  0  0t   t 2 x  x0 v 0t at 2
2 2
 2   2  2    v  v  2a  x  x 
2 2
0 0 0 0

Tangential
v  r 2 2 r
Speed  T v
T
Centripetal Radial Acceleration 2

Acceleration 2
ac  v
a  v   2 r Radial Acceleration is the r
c
r
acceleration directed along a radial (spoke) line.
It is directed toward the center.
Inertia Moment of Inertia: Depends on mass and m
distribution and thus varies for each object
I   r 2 dm   mr 2
Since these vary from object to object they are
usually given. The three shown here are
commonly used. The first one is the common
shape for pulley, which are the most used.
Cylinder: 1
I  MR2
2
Cylindrical hoop: I  MR2
Sphere: 2
I MR2
5
Force and Torque: Unbalance torques cause rotation. Force: Unbalanced forces cause translation.
Torque
  r F F
   net  I  F  Fnet  m a
Kinetic Energy 1 1
K I 2 K mv2
2 2

Revised 8/29/06 38 © R H Jansen

 Angular Linear
Work
W   d W   F  dr
Area under force – distance curve
1 1 1 1
W mv2 
2
W I 2  I
2
mv
0 0
2 2 2 2
Power dW dW
P P   P P  Fv
dt dt

Vector Product and Torque: Torque is a cross product of vectors. The magnitude of a cross product is the area of
the parallelogram formed by the contributing vectors. The direction of a cross product vector is determined by using
the right hand rule. So the direction of torque is out of the page for counterclockwise rotation, and into the page for
clockwise rotations.
Translation vs. Rotation: Hit an object with a force directed into or out of the center of mass and it will translate
(linear motion). Hit an object with a force perpendicular to a radial line extending from the center of mass and at the very
edge of the object, and the object will rotate. Hit and object with a force between the center of mass and the edge and it will
translate and rotate.
(Note: Planets and satellites follow circular motion, as they are not attached. Inner planets move faster as they are closer to
the sun and must have larger tangential velocities. They also travel a shorter circumference. Thus they have shorter periods.)
Angular momentum: Masses that experience linear motion (translation) have velocity and thus have linear momentum.
Rotating masses have angular velocity and thus have angular momentum. While linear momentum depends on mass and
velocity, angular momentum depends on mass, mass distribution, and angular velocity. Think about it. In rotating objects
the points of mass farther from the center are moving faster and thus have higher instantaneous momentum values than those
closer to the center. Lots of mass, far from the center of mass, means higher angular momentum than the same mass, near the
center of mass.
Angular momentum is conserved. The radius gets smaller, but angular velocity increases (vice versa as the skater
moves arms outward). A galaxy, solar system, star, or planet forms from a larger cloud of dust. As the cloud is pulled
together by gravity its radius shrinks. So the angular velocity must increase. These objects all begin to spin faster. That is
why we have day and night.

Angular Linear
Momentum L  r  p  Iω p  mv
Conservation of Li  L f pi  p f
Momentum
Iωi =Iω f mvi  mv f

Revised 8/29/06 39 © R H Jansen

Example 11-2: Compound Bodies and Pulleys with Mass A
A compound body consisting of, mA = 6.0 kg, mB = 8.0 kg, Mpulley = 1 kg,
Rpulley = 0.10 m, is shown in Fig. 11.1a.
What is the acceleration of the system?
There are three masses, so there are three FBD’s, shown in Fig 11.2b. Fig 11.2a
Make note of the interesting new FBD for a pulley. Gravity acts through B
the center and down, as usual. The normal force is created by the support
pushing the pulley away from the table, and it follows the direction of the
support through the center of the pulley. The tensions are tangent to the
pulley. These tensions are a distance R (radius of pulley) from the FN TB
center and they are perpendicular to the R. This provides the torque FN
TA TA
that rotates the pulley. Also note that there are two tensions. When we A B
work with real pulleys that have mass the rope connecting the masses
has different tensions in every separate segment. TB
Fg Fg Fg
Set up sum of force and sum of torque equations for relevant masses. As
before use the direction of motion to assign positives and negatives. The
direction of motion is to the right, clockwise, and then down. Fig 11.2b
 FA  TA    cw   ccw  FB  Fg  TB
+TA -TA +TB -TB
m A a  TA I  R TB  R TA mB a  mB g  TB A B
Fg
a
T m a I  R T  R T T  m g  ma
A A B A B B B
R Fig 11.2c
Combine the three equations above to get
a 1
I  R m g  m a  R m a Substitute in the moment of inertia of a cylindrical disk (pulley) I  MR2
B B A
R 2
1 2a
MR  R  m g  m a   R  m a  Cancel out the pulleys radius, group all expression with a, and simplify.
2 R B B A
 
1 1
Ma  m g  m a  m a m a  m a  Ma  m g a
mB g
2 1 
B B A A B
2 B m M
 A
m B
2 

This looks familiar. If we did the problem the old way, with a massless pulley, we would look at it as linear, like Fig 11.2c
mB g
It would be F F mA  mB a  mB g a
total gB
mA  mB 
This is identical except for the expression for half the pulley’s mass. Can we just do all pulley problems the old way and just
add a 1 M to all the regular masses in the denominator. It seems to work, but you might loose points for not showing work.
2
And the 1 M only works with pulleys that have a moment of inertia of I  1 MR2 . If it were a spherical pulley, would we
2 2
add 2 M to the denominator, since its moment of inertia is I  2 MR2 . Verify it on your own and see.
5 5
Fig 11.2c shows the problem sketched linear. Any forces that are perpendicular to the direction of motion were removed
from this sketch. Vectors pointing in the direction of motion are noted with positive signs and those opposing motion are
negative. It is apparent that tension cancels as before. However, unlike previous work in forces the pulley is not erased as it
now has mass. It must be accounted for. Is there a shortcut method using this linear sketch that would show adequate
supporting work?

Revised 8/29/06 40 © R H Jansen

Example 11-3: Rolling Down an Incline R = 0.20 m
A spherical mass rolls 2 m down an incline shown in Fig M = 3.0 kg
11.3a. The FBD for the sphere is shown in Fig 11.3b. In
figure 11.3c the gravity and normal force vectors have been
summed and the component of force down the slope is shown. h=2m
Fgsin pulls the sphere down the incline in the usual manner.
However, the friction force vector is a distance R from the
center of the sphere. These two vectors are perpendicular.
This creates an unbalanced torque on the sphere, which causes 30o
it to rotate. The combined motion of rotating and moving
Fig 11.3a
down the slope is rolling.

What is the kinetic energy of the sphere at the bottom of

the incline? The sphere is translating and rotating at the same FN
time. The total kinetic energy is the addition of the Ffr Ffr
translational and rotational kinetic energies. R Fgsin
Ktotal  Ktranslation  Krotation
1 1
K  Mv2  I 2 Fg
total 2
2 Fig 11.3c
Fig 11.3b
It is also equal to the potential energy that converted in kinetic
energy. Given the quantities in the problem, this is easiest to solve
Ktotal  mgh Ktotal  3.0 9.8 2.0  58.8J .

How fast is the sphere going at the bottom of the incline?

1 1
Now the first kinetic energy equation has relevance, Ktotal  Mv2  I 2 . Combine this with the moment of inertia
2 2
2 v
equation of a sphere MR , and the equation   which converts angular values into linear values.
2

5 R
1 2 1  2  
2
v 1 2 7
K total  2Mv  2 5MR2    Ktotal  2 Mv 2  10 Mv 2 Ktotal  10 Mv 2
R
  
Rearrange for velocity, plug in values, and solve.

10 Ktotal
v v  5.29 m s Another expression can be derive here also v  10 gh
7 M 7 3.0

What is the linear acceleration of the sphere down the inline?

h
The length down the ramp is hyp 
sin
v  v  2a  x  x0 
2 2
0

 10 Ktotal    0   2a   x   0 
2 2

 7 M 
 
2
 h 
  0   2a 
2
 
7 M  sin 
5 5
a  g sin a 9.8 sin 30o  3.5 m s2
7 7

Revised 8/29/06 41 © R H Jansen

Revised 8/29/06 42 © R H Jansen
8/29/06 43