1

Blood o Homeostatic imbalance of

RBCs include:
- It is the “river of life”.
 Anemia
- Blood transports substances such as
 is a decrease in the
oxygen and nutrients throughout the
oxygen-carrying ability of
body and participates in processes such
the blood due to:
as clotting and fighting infections.
 Lower-than-normal
- Blood is moved through blood vessels by
number of RBCs
the pumping action of the heart. This fluid
 Abnormal or deficient
contains red blood cells to carry oxygen,
hemoglobin content in
clotting proteins to stop bleeding, and
the RBCs
white blood cells to fight infections.
 Sickle cell anemia (SCA)
- Transportation via blood is the only way
 results from abnormally
substances can be moved to distant body
shaped hemoglobin
locations. In addition, clotting proteins are
 Polcythemia
found only in blood—without them, a
 Disorder resulting from
minor cut could be life-threatening!
excessive or abnormal
COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD increase of RBCs due to:
 Bone marrow cancer
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD (polycythemia vera) –
- Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of results when there is
connective tissue, in the human body, in abnormally high blood
which living blood cells, the formed viscosity
elements, are suspended in plasma.  Life at higher altitudes
- It is made up of: (secondary
 Formed elements (living cells) polycythemia)
1. Erythrocytes (red blood cells,  Increase in RBCs slows blood
or RBCs) flow and increases blood
o Main function is to carry oxygen viscosity
o RBCs differ from other blood 2. Leukocytes
cells o Account for less than 1% of total
 Anucleate (no nucleus) blood sample along with the
 Contain few organelles such platelets
as vacuoles; but lacks o Crucial in body’s defense
mitochondria against disease
 Essentially sacs of o Complete cells, with nucleus
hemoglobin (Hb) and organelles
 Shaped like biconcave discs o Able to move into and out of
o Normal count is 5 million RBCs blood vessels (diapedesis)
per cubic millimeter (mm3) of o Respond to chemicals released
blood or 45% of total blood by damaged tissues (known as
sample positive chemotaxis)
 Hematocrit – “blood o Move by amoeboid motion
fraction”; measures the o 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per mm
proportion of red blood cells
3 of blood
in your blood
o Homeostatic imbalances
o Hemoglobin - is an iron-
may include:
bearing protein
 Leukocytosis
 Binds oxygen
 WBC count above 11,000
 Each hemoglobin molecule
cells per mm3 of blood
can bind 4 oxygen molecules
 Generally indicates an
 Each erythrocyte has 250
infection
million hemoglobin
 Leukopenia
molecules
 Abnormally low WBC
 Normal blood contains 12–18
count
g of hemoglobin per100
 Commonly caused by
milliliters (ml) of blood
certain drugs, such as

Bio 121N: Chapter 10 - Blood

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corticosteroids and  Lack visible cytoplasmic

anticancer agents granules
 Leukemia  Nuclei are spherical, oval,
 Bone marrow becomes or kidney-shaped
cancerous  Include lymphocytes
 Numerous immature WBC  Types of
are produced Agranulocytes:
o Types of Leukocytes: a. Lumphocutes
 Granulocytes  Large, dark purple
 Granules in their nucleus
cytoplasm can be stained  Slightly larger than
 Possess lobed nuclei RBCs
 Include:  Reside in
a. Neutrophils lymphatic tissues
 Most numerous  Play a role in
WBC immune response
 Multilobed nucleus  1,500–3,000
 Cytoplasm stains lymphocytes per
pink and contains mm3 of blood (20–
fine granules 45 % of WBCs)
 Function as b. Monocytes
phagocytes at  Largest of the
active sites of white blood cells
infection  Distinctive U- or
 Numbers increase kidney-shaped
during infection nucleus
 3,000–7,000  Function as
neutrophils per macrophages when
mm3 of blood (40– they migrate into
70 percent of tissues
WBCs)  Important in
b. Eosinophils fighting chronic
 Nucleus stains infection
blue-red  100–700
 Brick-red monocytes per
cytoplasmic mm3 of blood (4–8
granules % of WBCs)
 Function is to kill o List of WBCs, from most to
parasitic worms least abundant
and play a role in  Neutrophils
allergy attacks  Lymphocytes
 100–400  Monocytes
eosinophils per  Eosinophils
mm3 of blood (1–  Basophils
4% of WBCs) 3. Platelets
c. Basophils o Fragments of megakaryocytes
 Rarest of the WBCs (multinucleate cells)
 Large histamine- o Needed for the clotting process
containing o Normal platelet count is
granules that stain 300,000 platelets per mm3 of
dark blue blood
 Contain heparin  Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix)
(anticoagulant) o 90 percent water
 20–50 basophils o Straw-colored fluid
per mm3 of blood o Includes many dissolved
(0–1 %percent of substances
WBCs)
 Agranulocytes
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 Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, - Protection

amino acid, vitamins)  Preventing blood loss
 Salts (electrolytes)  Preventing infection
 Respiratory gases (oxygen and
carbon dioxide) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND
 Hormones (thyroid hormones VOLUME OF BLOOD
and steroids) - Characteristics of blood are:
 Plasma proteins  Sticky, opaque fluid
o Plasma Proteins  Heavier and thicker than water
 Color range
 Most abundant solutes in
o Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
plasma
 Most are made by the liver o Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or
 Include: purple
1. Albumin - an important  Metallic, salty taste
blood buffer and contributes  Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between
to osmotic pressure 7.35 and 7.45
2. Fibrinogen - help to stem  Blood temperature is slightly higher
blood loss when a blood than body temperature, at 38ºC or
vessel is injured 100.4ºF
3. Globulins - help protect - Blood volume is:
from pathogens  About 5 - 6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of
o Blood composition varies as cells blood are found in a healthy adult
exchange substances with the  Blood makes up 8 percent of body
blood weight
 Liver makes more proteins HEMATOPOIESIS (BLOOD CELL FORMATION)
when levels drop
 Respiratory and urinary systems - Hematopoiesis - is the process of blood
restore blood pH to normal cell formation
when blood becomes too acidic - Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid
or alkaline tissue)
 Too acidic = acidosis - All blood cells are derived from a common
 Too basic = alkalosis stem cell (hemocytoblast)
o Plasma helps distribute body heat - Hemocytoblasts form two types of
- When blood is separated: descendants
 Erythrocytes sink to the bottom 1. Lymphoid stem cell - which
 Buffy coat contains leukocytes and produces lymphocytes
platelets (less than 1% of blood) 2. Myeloid stem cell - which can
o Buffy coat - is a thin, whitish layer produce all other formed elements
between the erythrocytes and
FORMATION OF BLOOD CELL
plasma
- Since RBCs are anucleate, they are
o Plasma rises to the top (55 percent
unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
of blood)
proteins
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD - RBCs wear out in 100 to 120 days
- Distribution - When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by
 Blood transports everything that must phagocytes in the spleen or liver
be carried from one place to another, - Lost cells are replaced by division of
such as: hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
o Nutrients - Rate of RBC production is controlled by a
o Wastes hormone called erythropoietin
o Hormones - Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
o Body heat response to reduced oxygen levels in the
- Regulation blood
 Maintaining appropriate body - Homeostasis is maintained by negative
temperature feedback from blood oxygen levels
 Maintaining normal pH in body tissues FORMATION OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS
 Maintaining adequate fluid volume in AND PLATELETS
the circulatory system
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- WBC and platelet production is controlled oCan be deadly in areas such as

by hormones the lungs
 Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and 2. Embolus
interleukins prompt bone marrow to o A thrombus that breaks away
generate leukocytes and floats freely in the
 Thrombopoietin stimulates production bloodstream
of platelets from megakaryocytes o Can later clog vessels in critical
areas such as the brain
HEMOSTASIS
 Bleeding disorders
- Hemostasis - is the process of stopping 1. Thrombocytopenia
the bleeding that results from a break in a o Insufficient number of
blood vessel circulating platelets
- Hemostasis involves three phases o Arises from any condition that
 Step 1: VASCULAR SPASMS suppresses the bone marrow
o Immediate response to blood o Even normal movements can
vessel injury cause bleeding from small blood
o Vasoconstriction causes blood vessels that require platelets for
vessel to spasm clotting
o Spasms narrow the blood vessel, o Evidenced by petechiae (small
decreasing blood loss purplish blotches on the skin)
 Step 2: PLATELET PLUG 2. Hemophilia
FORMATION o Hereditary bleeding disorder
o Collagen fibers are exposed by a o Normal clotting factors are
break in a blood vessel missing
o Platelets become “sticky” and cling o Minor tissue damage can cause
to fibers life-threatening prolonged
o Anchored platelets release bleeding
chemicals to attract more platelets
BLOOD GROUPS AND TRANSFUSIONS
o Platelets pile up to form a platelet
plug (white thrombus) - Large losses of blood have serious
 Step 3: COAGULATION (BLOOD consequences
CLOTTING)  Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes
o Injured tissues release tissue factor weakness
(TF)  Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
o PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with which can be fatal
TF, blood protein clotting factors, - Blood transfusions are given for
and calcium ions to trigger a substantial blood loss, to treat severe
clotting cascade anemia, or for thrombocytopenia
o Prothrombin activator converts - Human Blood Groups
prothrombin to thrombin (an  Blood contains genetically determined
enzyme) proteins known as antigens
o Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins  Antigens are substances that the body
into hair like molecules of insoluble recognizes as foreign and that the
fibrin immune system may attack
o Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis o Most antigens are foreign proteins
for a clot) o We tolerate our own “self” antigens
o Within the hour, serum is squeezed  Antibodies are the “recognizers” that
from the clot as it retracts bind foreign antigens
 Serum is plasma minus clotting  Blood is “typed” by using antibodies
proteins that will cause blood with certain
- Homeostatic imbalances of proteins to clump (agglutination) and
hemostasis: lyse
 Undesirable clotting  There are over 30 common red blood
1. Thrombus cell antigens
o A clot in an unbroken blood  The most vigorous transfusion
vessel reactions are caused by ABO and Rh
blood group antigens
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ABO BLOOD GROUPS - Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in

- Blood types are based on the presence or the same manner
absence of two antigens - Cross matching - testing for
1. Type A agglutination of donor RBCs by the
2. Type B recipient’s serum, and vice versa
- Presence of both antigens A and B is
called type AB DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF BLOOD
 Type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O - Sites of blood cell formation
blood  The fetal liver and spleen are early
 Type AB is the “universal recipient” sites of blood cell formation
- Presence of antigen A is called type A  Bone marrow takes over
 Type A can receive A and O blood hematopoiesis by the seventh month
- Presence of antigen B is called type B - Congenital blood defects include various
 Type B can receive B and O blood types of hemolytic anemias and
- Lack of both antigens A and B is called hemophilia
type O - Incompatibility between maternal and
 Type O can receive O blood fetal blood can result in fetal cyanosis,
 Type O is the “universal donor” resulting from destruction of fetal blood
Rh BLOOD GROUP cells
- Named for the eight Rh antigens - Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin
(agglutinogen D) produced after birth
- Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh-positive), - Physiologic jaundice occurs in infants
meaning they carry the Rh antigen when the liver cannot rid the body of
- If an Rh–(Rh-negative) person receives hemoglobin breakdown products fast
Rh+ blood: enough
 The immune system becomes - Leukemias are most common in the very
sensitized and begins producing young and very old
antibodies; hemolysis does not occur, - Older adults are also at risk for anemia
because as it takes time to produce and clotting disorders
antibodies PRACTICE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
 Second, and subsequent, transfusions
involve antibodies attacking donor’s 1. Which would lead to erythropoiesis?
Rh+ RBCs, and hemolysis occurs a) Chronic bleeding ulcer.
(rupture of RBCs) b) Reduction in respiratory ventilation.
 Rh-related problem during pregnancy c) Decreased level of physical activity.
 Danger occurs only when the mother d) Reduced blood flow to the kidneys.
is Rh-, the father is Rh+, and the child
inherits the Rh+ factor 2. In a person with sickle cell anemia,
RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of sickling of RBC’s can be induced by
anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood a) blood loss
 The mismatch of an Rh- mother b) vigorous exercise
carrying an Rh+ baby can cause c) stress
problems for the unborn child d) fever
o The first pregnancy usually
proceeds without problems; the 3. A child is diagnosed with sickle cell
immune system is sensitized after anemia. This means that
the first pregnancy a) one parent has sickle cell anemia.
o In a second pregnancy, the b) one parent carried the sickle cell gene.
mother’s immune system produces c) both parents had sickle cell anemia.
antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood d) both parents carried the sickle cell
(hemolytic disease of the newborn) gene

BLOOD TYPING 4. Polycythemia vera will result in

a) overproduction of WBC’s.
- Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and
b) exceptionally high blood volume.
anti-B serum
c) abnormally high blood viscosity.
- Agglutination or the lack of agglutination
d) abnormally low blood hematocrit.
leads to identification of blood type
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5. Which of the following are associated with

leukocytes?
a) Positive chemotaxis - The End -
b) Phototaxis
c) Diapedesis
d) Hemostasis

6. Which of the following cell types are

granulocytes?
a) Lymphocytes
b) Platelets
c) Eosinophils
d) Basophils

7. A person with blood group A can receive

blood from a person with blood group
a) B
b) A
c) AB
d) O

8. A condition resulting from

thrombocytopenia is
a) thrombus formation
b) embolus formation
c) petechiae
d) hemophilia

9. Which of the following can cause

problems in a transfusion reaction?
a) Donor antibodies attacking recipient
RBCs
b) Clogging of small vessels by
agglutinated clumps of RBCs
c) Lysis of donated RBCs
d) Blockage of kidney tubules

10.If an Rh- mother becomes pregnant, when

can hemolytic disease of the newborn not
possibly occur in the child?
a) If the child is Rh-
b) If the child is Rh+
c) If the father is Rh+
d) If the father is Rh-

11.Hematocrit is determined by the

percentage of
a) plasma
b) leukocytes
c) platelets
d) erythrocytes

12.Clotting proteins
a) stem blood loss after injury.
b) transport certain molecules.
c) help keep water in the bloodstream.
d) protect the body from pathogens.
Bio 121N: Chapter 10 - Blood