STRUCTURE, a nitrogen base and the fifth carbon to a

triphosphate moiety.
FUNCTION AND
REPLICATION OF
NUCLEIC ACIDS
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

DNA: Structure and Function

✓ A nucleotide polymer in which of the
monomers contain deoxyribose, a phosphate
group and one of the heterocyclic
bases/nitrogenous base adenine, cytosine,
First carbon atom: nitrogenous base
guanine or thymine.
Fifth carbon atom: phosphate group or
o Nucleotide which is the building block
triphosphate moiety
of the DNA is composed of the sugar or
the deoxyribose.
✓ Contained in the nucleus to store genetic
material.
✓ It has a 5’ phosphate end and a 3’ hydroxyl end
with anti parallel orientation with the
complementary strand.

HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS
✓ JOHANN FRIEDRICH MIESCHER
o Discovered DNA in 1869
o Isolated WBC from discarded surgical
bandages
RNA: second carbon atom has connected oxygen
o Nuclein: viscous substance extracted
from the nuclei
NUCLEOSIDES
✓ JAMES WATSON and FRANCIS CRICK
✓ A nitrogen base bound to an
o Described the double helix structure of
unphosphorylated sugar
DNA in 1953 (won Nobel prize)
✓ A two-subunit molecule in which a pentose
o Base paring of purine-pyrimidine
sugar is bonded to a nitrogen containing
hydrogen bond
heterocyclic base.
✓ The four nucleotide building blocks of DNA are
✓ Adenosine (A), guanosine (G), cytidine (C),
molecules of about 700 kd.
thymidine (T) are nucleotides
✓ Each nucleotide consists of five-carbon sugar,
✓ SUGAR AND NITROGEN BASE; THERE IS NO
the first carbon of which is covalently joined to
PHOSPHATE GROUP ATTACHED

✓ Important characteristics of the nucleoside

formation process of combining two
molecules:
1. The base is always attached to C-1’, which
is always in a B-configuration. For purine
bases, the attachment is through N-9; for
pyrimidine bases, N-1 is involved.
2. The bond connecting the sugar and the
base is a B-N-glycosidic linkage.
 3. A molecule of water is formed as the two
molecules bond together; a condensation ✓ TWO KINDS OF NITROGENOUS BASES
reaction occurs. o Purines: nine-member double ring
NUCLEOTIDES ▪ ADENINE
✓ If the ribose sugar is phosphorylated, the ▪ GUANINE
molecule is a nucleoside mono-, di-, or o Pyrimidine: six-member single ring
triphosphate or a nucleotide. ▪ CYTOSINE
✓ For example, adenosine with one phosphate is ▪ THYMINE
adenosine monophosphate (AMP); adenosine ▪ URACIL
with three phosphates is adenosine ✓ Hydrogen bond links the complementary
triphosphate (ATP) nitrogen bases of two nucleotides.

NUCLEOSIDE VS. NUCLEOTIDE

✓ NITROGENOUS BASE
✓ Important characteristics of the nucleotide
formation process of adding. Phosphate group
to a nucleoside.
1. The phosphate group is attached to the
sugar of the C-5’ position through a
phosphate-ester-linkage.
2. AS with nucleoside formation, a molecule
of water is produced in nucleotide
formation. Thus overall, two molecules of
water are produced in combining a sugar,
base and phosphate into a nucleotide.

THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF DNA

The sugar phosphate ‘backbone’
- DNA is a polymer made up of units called
nucleotides. The nucleotides are made of
three different components: a sugar group,
a phosphate group, and a base. There are
four different bases: adenine, thymine,
guanine and cytosine
 ✓ A nucleic acid chain grows by the attachment
What holds DNA strands together? of the 5’ phosphate group of an incoming
- DNA strands are held together by nucleotide to the 3’ hydroxyl group of the last
hydrogen bonds between bases on nucleotide on the growing chain.
adjacent strand, Adenine (A) always pairs ✓ Addition of nucleotides in the way gives the
with Thymine (T), while Guanine (G) always DNA chain a polarity; that is, it has a 5’
pairs with Cytosine (C). adenine pairs with phosphate end and a 3’ hydroxyl end.
Uracil (U) in RNA. ✓ DNA found in nature is mostly double-
stranded
✓ we refer to DNA as oriented in a 5' to 3'
direction and the linear sequence of the
nucleotides, by convention, is read in that
order.
✓ Two strands exist in opposite 5’ to 3’ and 3’ to
5’ orientation held together by hydrogen
From DNA to proteins bonds between their respective bases (A with
- The bases on a single strand of DNA act as T and G with C)
a code. The letters form three letter ✓ PO 5’: G T A G C T C G C T G A T 3’ OH
codons, which ode for amino acids – the ✓ HO 3’ C A T C G A G C G A C T A 5’ OP
building blocks of proteins. ✓ They are in anti parallel orientation with the 5’
end of one strand at the 3’ end of the other
DNA (transcription) – RNA (translation) – PROTEIN ✓ Identical sequences will not hybridize each
other
- An enzyme, RNA polymerase, transcribes
DNA into mRNA (messenger ribonucleic
acid). It splits apart the two strands that
form the double helix, then reads a strands
and copies the sequence of nucleotides.
The only difference between the RNA and
the original DNA is that in the place of
thymine (T), another base with a similar
structure is used: uracil (U)
DNA REPLICATION
DNA sequence: T T C C T G A A C C C G T T A
✓ Semiconservative replication is the key to
mRNA sequence: UUC (phenylalaine) CUG
maintaining the sequence of the nucleotides
(leucine) AAC (asparagine) CCG (proline) UUA
in DNA through new generations.
(leucine)
✓ The order of nucleotides are maintained
because each strand of the parent double
- In multicellular organisms, the mRNA
helix the template for a newly replicated
carries genetic code out of the cell nucleus,
strand
to the cytoplasm. Here, protein synthesis
✓ Old strand: act as template; parent double
takes place. ‘Translation’ is the process of
helix
turning the mRNA’s code into proteins.
✓ Steps in DNA replication:
Molecules called ribosomes carry out this
o Replication fork formation: unzipping
process, building up proteins from the
of double helix because of enzyme
amino acids coded for.
helicase that breaks the hydrogen
bonds which connects the
✓ NUCLEIC ACIDS
complementary nitrogen bases.
o Macromolecule made up of
o Primer binding
nucleotides bound by phosphate and
o Elongation
hydroxyl group.
o Termination
✓ SEMICONSERVATIVE REPLICATION o EXONUCLEASE: protects the sequence
o Key of maintaining the sequence of of nucleotides to prevent mutations –
the nucleotides through new double check if there are incorrect
generations pairings
o Replication fork – unwound duplex o DNA LIGASE: closes any nicks present
and serves as the template for DNA and forms phosphodiester bond
synthesis between existing strands.
o Okazaki fragments – appears when
there is no consistent copying of the DNA: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
complementary strand resulting to ✓ SUPERCOILING
small fragments o Higher order of DNA structure, allows
▪ Leading strand: moves in the the DNA to reform
direction of the helicase o Topology used for supercoiling
enzyme 3’ to 5’ strand of the ▪ Twist (Tw): number of helical
double helix turns in the duplex
▪ Lagging strand: it moves in the ▪ Writhe (Wr): number of the
opposite direction of the coiling of the helixes
helicase enzyme 5’ to 3’ double ▪ Linking number (Lk): number of
helix fragements times the helix winds around
the other (Lk = Tw + Wr)
✓ TOPOISOMERASE
o Class of enzymes that usually restores
the DNA to its relaxed state
▪ Unwind overwound DNA:
increase base pairs per turn
which decreases the linking
number
▪ Rewind underwound DNA:
decrease the base pairs per
turn which increases the linking
✓ ENZYMES INVOLVED number
o DNA HELICASE: breaksdown the DNA ✓ TYPES OF SUPERCOILS
duplex – replication fork o Negative Supercoils
o DNA POLYMERASE: polymerizes ▪ Local unwinding
nucleotide and creates a template – ▪ Twisting in a left-handed
starts at the 3’ end going to the 5’ end fashion against the helical
of the parent strand, to have DNA conformation to straighten the
polymerase helix
▪ DNA polymerase 1 and 2: ▪ Decreases the LK
enzymes responsible for the o Positive Supercoils
repair of gaps and discontinuity ▪ Known for distortion and
in the lagging strand wherein knotting
our polymerase 3 is the main ▪ Twisting in a right-handed
polymerizing enzyme in fashion
bacterial replication. It acts as ▪ Increases the LK
it is the hollow enzyme which
can only bind to the 3’ end of DNA CONFORMATION
the DNA template. ✓ Due to the influence of a positive-charge
o PRIMASE: RNA enzyme that lays down proteins neutralizing the negative-charge
short RNA primers for priming DNA proteins.
synthesis ✓ It results t the formation of DNA alternative
arrangement.
✓ Normal: right-handed, clockwise manner o Provides initial link between
✓ Types of conformations: information stored in DNA and the
o A-DNA: it is observed when DNA is translation apparatus.
dehydrated or under high salt o mRNA delivers a copy of the DNA code
conditions, still right-handed but is to the ribosome
shorter and thicker than B-DNA. Major ✓ TRANSFER RNA (tRNA)
group is deep and narrow while the o Works simultaneously with mRNA
minor group is shallow and blown, it inside the ribosomes; decodes mRNA
has 11 pairs per turn. sequence into a protein during
o B-DNA: when the double helix is said to translation.
be right-handed turn run clockwise and o tRNA carries amino acid towards the
helix winds upwards so 10 base pairs ribosome
per turn. ✓ SMALL NUCLEAR (snRNA)
o Z-DNA: it is longer and narrower than o Functions in splicing by removing
B-DNA left-handed, helix turns introns and stays in the nucleus after
counterclockwise and backbone zigzag transcription
forms structure does called Z-DNA and o
has 12 pairs per turn.
BASE ABBREVIATION NUCLEOSIDE NUCLEOTIDE
RNA
Adenine A Adenosine AMP
Guanine G Guanosine GMP
Cytosine C Cytidine CMP
Uracil U Uridine UMP
DNA
Adenine A Deoxyadenosin dAMP
Guanine G Deoxyguanosine dGMP
Cytosine C Deoxycytidine dCMP
Thymine T Deoxythymidine dTMP

RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

RNA: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

✓ Polymer of nucleotides similar to DNA but
differs in the presence of ribose sugar and
replacement of thymine into uracil.
✓ Synthesized as a single strand and has no
complementary partner strands but may pair
to any complementary single stranded DNA to
form duplex.
RNA TRANSCRIPTION
✓ Copying of one strand of DNA into RNA by a
TYPES OF RIBONUCLEIC ACID
process similar to that of DNA replication
✓ RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA)
✓ Occurs in the nucleus
o Largest component and important
✓ RNA synthesis does not require a primer
structural and functional part of the
✓ ENZYMES INVOLVED
ribosomes, cellular organelles where
o RNA HELICASE: unwinds the dsRNA
protein is synthesized.
o RNA POLYMERASE: polymerizes DNA
o rRNA bonds with special proteins to
to become RNA and works slowly than
form a ribosome
DNA polymerase; dependent on the
✓ MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)
base sequence of one strand of the
double helix.