270 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-90, NO.

1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1971

Digital Calculation of Impedance for

Transmission Line Protection
BARRY J. MANN, MEMBER, IEEE, AND I. F. MORRISON, MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-The paper proposes a method of distance-type protec- THEORY

tion suitable for on-line digital computer protection of transmission
lines. The basic principle is the predictive calculation of peak fault Basic Principles
current and voltage from a small number of sample values. The mag- The method of calculation of line impedance involves the
nitudes of various sources of error are discussed. The results of
experimental work on a model transmission line and on a high- predictive calculation of peak current and peak voltage, the
voltage transmission system are described. The calculation times impedance being determined by division of peak voltage by
for implementation in real time are estimated. the peak current. A digital computer sampling a sinusoidal wave-
form can determine the peak values as they occur. However it is
INTRODUCTION necessary in the interests of time to determine the peak values
before their occurrence; i.e., to predict the peak value of the
THE growing complexity of the control requirements on waveform from any given sample. Consider
nmodern power systems is resulting in increasing attention
being paid to the possibility of allocating the functions of high- v= Vpk sin cot (1)
voltage substations to on-line digital computers [1]-[3]. Such
computers offer attractive compactness and flexibility. where Vpk is the unknown quantity and v is a typical sample
Of all the modern substation functions, the protection of value. Since it is not proposed to synchronize the sampling to the
transmission lilnes and substation equipment would appear to sinusoid, the value of sin cot is also unknown.
be the most demanding in terms of computer speed, cycle Taking the derivative of (1)
time, and peripheral equipment. Rockefeller [2], in the basic U' = &)Vpk COS cot (2)
work in this field, proposes a complete group of programs for
protection by digital computer. This group contains programs for and assuming that v' can be determined, the peak value of the
the protection of transmission lines as well as transformers and sinusoid is determined from
bus protection and also includes a valuable account of executive
routines for detection of faults and the organization of subsequent Vpk2 = V2 + .
(3)
protection operations.
The technique of transmission line protection proposed by
Rockefeller is essentially an adaptation to digital computer of If (1)-(3) are applied to transmission line current and voltage,
earlier analog zone packaged line-drop compensation relaying. the modulus of the line impedance can be determined. Further-
The method of transmission line protection intended for more, the phase difference between the voltage and current wave-
digital computer application proposed here attempts to start forms can be determined from
from basic l)rinciples. A small number of current and voltage
samples are used to estimate numerically the peak value of 0 = arctan (i - arctan (,) (4)
current and voltage. From these the transmission line impedance
can be calculated anld fault conditions detected and measured by enabling complete impedance determination (see Appendix II
the drop in impedance. The inherent numerical errors are for derivation).
assessed and the method is applied to fault data obtained both
from a model line and from a high-voltage transmission system.
An estimate is then made of calculation time on a typical process- Power System Application
control computer of the general type that could be used in The possible existence of an exponentially decaying dc tran-
eventual applications. sient on the current and voltage signals of a high-voltage system
causes some difficulties in application of the above principles.
Paper 70 TP 165-PWR, recommended and approved by the Iron-cored current transformers with resistive burdens trans-
Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power Group for mit the full amount of offset in the primary fault current. This
presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, component often takes more than 5 cycles to decay on the
N. Y., January 25-30, 1970. Manuscript submitted September 8,
1969; made available for printing December 5, 1969. This work present systems with high X/R ratios. The voltage can also
was supported by the Electrical Research Board and the Electricity have an offset component, but this is considerably smaller than
Commission of New South Wales, Australia. that on the current waveform. The relevant expressions are well
The authors are with the School of Electrical Engineering, Uni-
versity of New South Wales, Kensington, N. S. W., Australia. known (see [4], [5], for example) and are repeated here for
 MANN AND MORRISON: DIGITAL CALCULATION OF IMPEDANCE 271

convenience: This yields an estimate VO of V at time to, from (3)

ii = Ilpk[5Sin (cat + a - - eRlt/L1 sin
e) (a - 4)1)] (5) Vo2 = v02 + (At | )- Vpk2 1- sin2 Coto - * * .

vl= Vlpk [sin (ct + a - 41 + 4L)

sin (a - 4)) sin (4) 4L) e-Rlt/Ll]. (6) hence
sin 41
V0 = Vpk 1 - (t) sin2 ,to + . . .) (12)
In these equations, a is the phase of fault incidence, the sub-
script 1 refers to primary (system) quantities, and L refers to
line quantities. For a At of 0.5 ms, (12) gives a maximum error in Vo on a
The dc offset in the current signal can be removed using mimic 50-Hz system of 0.15 percent, which shows that numerical
impedances in the current transformer (CT) secondary. If an errors are at least small in theory.
ideal CT is connected to a secondary burden having the same Numerical analysts list several ways of calculating derivatives
X/R ratio as the primary circuit, then the voltage across the e.g., [7]-[9]. In general these methods are series expressions of
burden will be purely sinusoidal. forward, backward, or central differences. The actual formulas
Applying (5) to a CT of secondary burden R2 and L2 for numerical differentiation can be obtained by differentiation
of the appropriate interpolation formula. Isaacson and Keller
[9] show that interpolation errors are least near the center of the
v (iR2 + L2dt) (7) interval of interpolation and that an analogous result is true for
numerical differentiation. Thus in theory it seems advisable to
N2 F use formulas of the central difference type. However, for real-
V = 11Z2 sin (ct + a -1 + 02)
N, time implementation it may be advantageous to use backward
differences because existing samples could be used for immediate
+ X2
z2
1R _ R2)
XxI X2/ e,-Rit/Li sin (a- 4)1)] (8) derivative calculation; see Appendix III for details.
Sampling rate is another variable. Presence of noise will
where subscript 2 refers to CT secondary. For more detailed mitigate against high sampling rates, as will the accumulation of
discussion see [6]. too much data for an already overworked computer to handle.
Note that the coefficient of the exponential term is zero if On the other hand, the need for rapid fault detection implies a
reasonably high rate. Other effects, such as CT saturation, may
X1 X2 (9) be of importance; if a CT can saturate and if the fault detection
R, R2 process requires n samples, then these n samples would have to
be taken before saturation occurs.
Exact cancellation of the de offset is not possible for all faults. At this stage, however, it was decided to select the sampling
The primary X/R to be matched is that of source plus line to the interval on the basis of truncation and round-off errors incurred
fault point, and since in general the source X/R is not equal to the in the derivative estimation. Ralston [7] shows that the round-
line X/R, the overall primary X/IR is a variable quantity, off error is proportional to the maximum round-off and inversely
dependent on how far along the line the fault occurs. This proportional to the interval of differentiation. The truncation
problem may be avoided by matching the secondary burden to error, on the other hand, is proportional to a power of At de-
the primary X/R composed of the source plus, say, 90 percent of pending upon the number of points used in the differentiation
the line impedance. It is for faults near the end of the line formula (see Appendix III). A suggestion for a choice of interval
(zone 2) that the most accurate impedance calculations are is to make the upper bounds of these two errors equal. In the
required for discrimination purposes, and for these faults the present case we find that for a three-point formula an interval of
transient component will be almost completely removed. For 0.5 ms is near optimum and the upper bounds of those errors are
faults closer in, offset will be drastically reduced but not entirely in the vicinity of 6 X 10-3. For a five-point formula using a
removed. 0.5-ms interval it was found that the sampled quantities would
WTith this provision for the removal of offset dc components, have to have at least 10 significant bits to avoid round-off
the method proposed here involves the use of a digital computer errors becomlng excessive.
to calculate numerically the impedance of a faulted transmission These considerations led to the tentative selection of a sampling
line from the predicted peak values of fault current and voltage. interval of 0.5 ms, i.e., 40 samples per cycle on a 50-Hz system.
In order to estimate the errors arising from the numerical
Error Theory approximation described above, it was decided to apply the
method to theoretical data, i.e., data free from system or instru-
Since it is proposed to use numerical differentiation, it is neces- mentation noise. From (5) and (6) the normalized expressions
sary to check the errors involved. required to generate the secondary current and voltage signals
Assume that the waveforms are sampled at an interval of At, can be shown to be
with actual sampling times being , , tklb, , and corre-
sponding sampled values being , vk), vk1, . Take to as
being halfway between tk and tk+l. Then i=sin(wt _ ¢, + $,s)8-
+ a -)+
i-sin(wt + _sin (a -
sin
et/L
4) sin () - Rs)
e

(13)
vO = (Vk + Vk+l) (10)
1 v = sin (ct + a-4 + 4L)
sin (a-4) sin ()-4L) e -Rt/L (14)
v0
-A- =
At
k+l V70. (11)
sin 4)
272 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1971

CONTROL UNIT
Values of these expressions at 0.5-ms intervals over a 50-ms STOP START
period were generated off-line.
Constants occurring in these equations were chosen to coincide
with measured values from the model transmission line mentioned C.T.
in later sections (X/R = 10, XL/IRL= 7). Data were generated SOURCE LINE
for maximum, half, and zero offset for the cases of matched and
mismatched (X2/R2 = 6) CTs. 50Hz 0|V.T. K LOAD

The program to analyze these data computes i', V', Ipk and
Vpk, and Z for each point. The mean value of Ipk, Vpk, and Z is Fig. 1. Model transmission line.
calculated for the 100 points and the "variance"2 about the mean
noted also. Since the quantities involved are not random vari-
ables, this is not a true variance in the statistical sense, but it The A/D converter used was the DEC-138 [10], [11]. The
does assist in the overall estimation of errors. earlier consideration of the accuracy indicated a 10-bit digital
The data generated with no offset had maximum errors for Z output as being desirable, and this matched the accuracy
of less than 0.3 percent from the mean, verifying the accuracies available at the analog input. In the absence of a sample and
predicted. hold unit, rate of change errors in the converter were encoun-
The data sets with some offset remaining which, although they tered. It was not found possible to obtain accuracy to 10 bits at
provided maximum errors of ± 10 percent in Vpk, lpk, calculated the maximum rates of change; even with the fastest setting of
Z to within 4 1.5 percent. This result arises from the fact that the switching point selector, only 8 bits are significant near the
the current and voltage signals over the matched CT secondaries zero crossings. Experimentally it was found that the A/D con-
are almost in phase and the errors in Ipk, Vpk partially cancel. verter introduced maximum errors of A 2.5 percent in the cal-
On this theoretically generated data, no useful distinction culated peak values with a variance, as previously defined, of
could be made between use of backward and central differences. 1.2 percent for 100 samples.
Inclusion of the second terms in the series resulted in marginally Thus, with the equipment used, errors of -4 percent in
smaller errors. peak voltage and current values were anticipated from sources
Similar observations apply to the phase angle determination other than noise on the input signal.
of (4). Data generated for the case of zero offset measured the
angle to accuracies of the order of 0.10. Effects due to the current Digital Smoothing
and voltage signal being approximately in phase were observed To avoid excessive error due to this noise it was decided to
here also, maximum errors for individual voltage or current investigate the use of digital smoothing of the sampled data.
phase being around 30, whereas the maximum phase error for To select the degree of approximation, it was noted that maxi-
impedance is less than or equal to 10. mum errors seem more likely to occur on the straight segment of
the sine wave near the zero crossings, because here the differential
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS term is the laiger contribution to (1), the expression for Vpk.
A lumped-element model transmission line was used to acquire A straight-line or first-degree approximation is thus selected.
data simulating a faulted line (Fig. 1). Faults of any nature Furthermore, no more than three-point smoothing seems advis-
may be applied by appropriate connections to the secondary of able since the process would incorporate too large a time delay
the breaker shown. The load was selected to give a ratio of fault into the overall calculations.
to prefault current of about 20:1. With these requirements, least squares formulas [7] give the
The current and voltage signals from a sequence of faults of following expressions for digitally smoothed sample values:
different phase of incidence were recorded on a high-performance
magnetic tape recorder. The data was then played back into the Vn-I = 6 (5vn-1 + 2Vn - Vn+l) (15)
analog-digital (A/D) converter of a Digital Equipment Cor- 6
poration (DEC) PDP-8 computer. This small general-purpose
Vn = (Vn-1 + Vn + Vn+l)
1

computer sampled the current and voltage waveforms at 0.5-ms (16)

3
intervals for 2 cycles before and 5 cycles after each fault and
output these data onto paper tape. The data could then be
processed off-line by an IBM 360/50 using the programs de- Vn±i = -1 (- Vn-l. + 2vn + 5Vn+i). (17)
6
veloped in earlier sections.
The primary focus of the work described was to establish the Ralston recommends the central expression be used wherever
possibility of using the method for the protection of transmission possible. The first and third expressions use only forward and back-
lines. Much attention was directed in the experimental work to ward points, respectively, and would thus be suitable for the
the estimation of the error contribution from various sources, first or last points in the record.
with a view to isolating the errors inherent in the method and In our case, if the central expression (the second) has only
those that can be anticipated in the power system context. marginally better smoothing effects than the backward (the
Error sources requiring particular attention were the A/D third), it may be advisable to use the backward expression,
converter, the tape deck, and the computer interface. These since after any given sample is taken a smoothed value can be
were evaluated by selectively omitting them from the experi- generated with data already in hand.
mental equipment, and by using a known 50-Hz sine wave the
variation of the error in the estimates of peak values was noted. Results from Model Transmission Line
First, it was found that the tape deck and interface equipment Data from the model line were converted to a form usable by
contributed less than 1 percent to the maximum errors, this being the IBM 360/50 as described previously. Basically, two types of
consistent with the standard of equipment used. program were run. The first processed the 100 samples over the
MANN AND MORRISON: DIGITAL CALCULATION OF IMPEDANCE 273

TABLE I
POSTFAULT RESULTS, MODEL LINE
I V z
Maximum Maximum Maximum
Variance Errors Variance Errors Variance Errors
Test Runs (percent) about Mean (percent) about Mean (percent) about Mean
1) Central difference-first
term only 3.6 +6.4, -12.9 4.4 +11.5, -9.8 6.0 +19.5, -10.6
2) Central difference-
second term 4.0 +7.6, -14.3 5.7 +15.8, -12.5 7.6 +24.6, -15.0
3) Backward difference--
second term 6.8 +14.5, -13.2 6.8 +15.8, -12.9 6.1 +21.6, -10.0
4) Repeat of runs 2.9 +3.8, -9.6 2.3 +5.7, -4.9 3.7 +12.9, -5.9
5) 1-3 with digital 3.0 +4.1, -10.2 2.6 - +6.5, -5.6 4.0 +14.4, -7.0
6) smoothing 6.5 +12.1, -10.0 5.7 +13.6, -7.9 4.0 +14.3, -5.6
7) Repeat of run 2 with end
point smoothing 4.0 +7.8, -13.9 5.5 +14.1, -13.1 7.3 +26. 3, -13.0

1
z
PU

V
&,

-1
-0-D- voltage
-A-A- current
--X-- X-- impedance
-0-0- impedance smoothing
Fig. 2. Fault A model line. Dotted sections of curves represent -f-f- voltage
transition from prefault to postfault conditions; effect of digital -A-A-
-- X - X- -
current
impedance
smoothing readily seen from results. Note that reliable impedance -0-0- impedance smoothing
calculation (i.e., within 4+ 10 percent) is possible for sixth postfault
sample, i.e., 3 ms after fault. Fig. 3. Fault B model line.

I I' 4 z
pu
1
- kts
III
I

.5
V
& V A

&
I 0 2 \: 6 8
i \
- MS AFTER
FAULT

_z_z_ voltage -fl-fl- voltage

-A-A- current -A-A- current
--x -x- impedance X x impedance
-0-0- impedance smoothing -0-0-- impedance smoothing

Fig. 4. Fault C model line. Fig. 5. Fault D model line.

 274 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1971

TABLE II
POSTFAULT RESULTS,* ECNSW DATA
I V z
Maximum Maximum Maximum
Variance Errors Variance Errors Variance Errors
(percent) about Mean (percent) about Mean (percent) about Mean
5.3 10.8, -13.5 3.0 +6.3, -7.5 5.6 13.1, -13.7
3.9 9.1, -7.5 1.9 +4.1, -5.0 4.2 8.8, -12.2
*
Results on second line reflect digital smoothing.

LLi
0

0
00
- 0-EJ- voltage
-A-A- current
-X-X- voltage -- - X - - impedance
-O---0- current -O--O-- impedance smoothing
Fig. 6. Fault B model line, phase plot. Fig. 7. Fault E, 132-kV ECNSW grid.

fault point to allow study of transient behavior. The second modulus. To observe the behavior of the angle measurements
considered 100 samples in the postfault steady-state region to over the fault point see Fig. 6.
allow more ready statistical treatment. The disturbances in voltage phase and current phase settle
The tabulation of the results for one typical fault illustrates down by the sixth postfault sample also. This is representative
the differences between the various numerical differentiations of all the results. Excluding the samples immediately around the
and in the effects of digital smoothing (Table I). fault point, the maximum errors from the line of best fit were
The different differentiation techniques do not give radically ±t50 for voltage and ±70 for current, this being true for all
different errors. The central difference expression with the runs. It is thus apparent that the angle of the impedance would
second term is slightly worse than the expression with only the be accurate to within 12°.
first term included. The backward difference expression yields It should be noted that, in Figs. 2-6, the current i has been
accuracies similar to the central difference expressions in the shifted in phase by 1800 for greater clarity.
case of impedance values but not in the case of peak current
and voltage, which are significantly worse. Results from High-Voltage Grid
The effects of digital smoothing are quite marked. Comparing Several recordings were taken of single phase-to-ground
runs 2, 5, and 7, it can be seen that the central expression for faults on the Electricity Commission of New South Wales
smoothing improves accuracies considerably, whereas the end (ECNSW) grid. These faults were at 132 kV at the end of a 23-
point expression makes only a marginal difference. mile line that was open circuit prior to the fault.
Overall maximum errors in Z from 800 calculations using a Representative results taken from one of these faults are
series of 8 faults were +16 percent, -10 percent, with variance shown in Table II, which relates more than 100 samples to the
of these calculations about 3.5 percent about the mean. Maxi- postfault steady state.
mum errors in Vpk and lpk were always less than 10 percent of The magnitudes of errors are similar to those for data from the
the mean. model line.
Results from the transient study are shown in Figs. 2-5. The graphical plot (Fig. 7) of v, i, and Z over the fault is also
The horizontal scale for each is time, and v, i, and Z are shown; shown.
Z appears both with and without digital smoothing. Each of the No special provision was made while recording to match the
figures represents a fault of different phase. CT secondary; thus there is some offset present in the current
Results for the angle determination are similar to those for the signal. Since the X/R ratio of the overall source plus line at the
MANN AND MORRISON: DIGITAL CALCULATION OF IMPEDANCE 275

relaying point was about 5, this offset decays reasonably quickly.

The offset is apparent on both the Z plot and the plot of current
angle.
The oscillatory noise superimposed on the voltage and current
imposes quite a severe test on the method. The use of digital
smoothing was absolutely necessary for these faults.
LLJ
In general the similarity between these results and those of the C]
model transmission line confirmed the validity of the method LL
and demonstrated its applicability in a power system environ- I)
ment.
0r A- MS
Calculation Times AFTER FAULT
The calculations described in previous sections were all
conducted off-line. Since the method is intended for on-line
implementation, calculation times for a small process computer 0
have been established. 00
0
The computer used was a DEC PDP8. This is a small general- 0
purpose computer with a 12-bit two's complement arithmetic.
It has a 4K random address magnetic core with a cycle time of -X-X- voltage
1.5 us, and hardware multiply divide facilities [10]. -OC{--O- current
The expressions for impedance and phase were calculated on Fig. 8. Fault E, 132-kV data, phase plot.
the PDP8 and the calculations timed. Digital smoothing was not
included since before any particular sample is stored it is envis- Second, a prior knowledge of the existence of a fault is not
aged that smoothing will be performed and the smoothed required since the sharp decrease in line impedance is in itself
value stored. Time of calculation of the derivative was not an indication of the presence of a fault. From Figs. 2-8 it can
included since this would probably be performed as the sampled be seen that impedance and angle values of reduced accuracy
values become available. The function calculated was are available in times considerably less than 5 ms, and these
could well be used for starting more refined measurement
= a2 + b2 (18) techniques. A further possible fault detection application
c2 + d2
would be the continuous computation of Vpk at the various bus
Since squaring removes all sign problems, unsigned multi- voltage levels in the substation, a sudden drop in voltage in-
plication and division routines could be used. Total time was dicating the occurrence of a fault within one of the protection
260 As. The expression for angle is zones.
a c
Third, the experimental work described indicates the need for
0 = arctan b - aretan -dd (19) careful choice of A/D conversion equipment for the digital com-
puter to be used in substation applications. The unit used in this
The calculation of arctangents is time consuming by exact case was not ideal either in accuracy or speed. Improved perform-
means. To overcome this a program using a coarse table lookup ance in these regards promise a further improvement in the
was used-this divided the range of 0 to 450 into 32 intervals. overall accuracy of impedance calculation.
Final calculation of arctan a/b was accurate to 10 and took
240 ,us. Thus overall calculation times for 4 were 480 ,s. APPENDIX I
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CONCLUSIONS
v, i instantaneous phase voltage and current, respec-
From the foregoing it can be seen that, for a faulted single- tively
phase line, the proposed technique calculates the modulus of the Vk value of v, sampled at time tk
impedance to within J 10 percent and the argument to within Vpk, lpk peak values of phase voltage and current, respec-
150. Measurements to at least this accuracy should be available tively
5 ms after fault occurrence. Furthermore, it seems that the v', it instantaneous values of first derivatives of phase
method is readily adaptable to the small, process-control type voltage and current, respectively
of computer and that the calculations can be performed in Vo estimate of Vpk at time to
acceptably small times. phase difference between voltage and current;
The logic of extension of calculations to a three-phase line i.e., impedance angle, tan-' wL/R where Z =
and to groups of these lines seems straightforward and is under R + jcoL
active investigation at present. a1! phase of incidence of fault as measured from
Several other comments arise from the work described. First, positive-going zero crossing of the source voltage
it is assumed that conventional iron-cored voltage and current N2/N1 CT ratio
transformers are the prime sources of fault data. Such data will
be of acceptable accuracy since the A/D conversion devices Vyk = (Yk Yk-1) -

place low voltampere requirements on the protective trans- bYk = (Yk+1/2 - Yk-112)
formers, and common problems of saturation can be avoided.
The accuracy of the method could only benefit from the use of AYk 2 (Yk+112 Yk-112).
= +
any new type of transducer.
276 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1971

Subscripts are best explained from Fig. 1: Using the first term only
L quantities relating to line from relaying point to fault hy k' = Yk - Yk-I (28)
1 CT primary quantities relating to overall source plus
line and with a second term
2 quantities measured in CT secondary circuit.
hy7c = 1(Y
2
- Yk-2) - (29)
Unsubscripted quantities denote general waveforms, e.g.,
(1) refers to a sinusoidal voltage signal in general.
Note that (25) and (26) for ye' involve sample values at
times later than tk, whereas (28) and (29) do not. Thus both
APPENDIX II central and backward differences were considered as possible
DERIVATION OF (3) AND (4) ways of performing the differentiation.
To derive (3) from (1) and (2), first rewrite (2) as ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable collaboration
-
co
= Vpk cos cot. (20) of their colleagues, G. C. Dewsnap, A. D. Mclnnes, and G. H.
Couch.
Squaring and adding (1) and (20) gives
REFERENCES'
Vpk = Vpk2 (sin2 cot + cos2 cot) = v2 + (5) [1] I. F. Morrison, "Prospects of on-line computer control in
transmission systems and substations," Elec. Eng. Trans., Inst.
which is (3). Eng., Australia., vol. EE3, pp. 234-236, September 1967.
[2] G. D. Rockefeller, "Fault protection with a digital computer,"
Equation (1) divided by (20) is IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-88, pp. 438-464,
April 1969.
tV- Vpk sin cot co =Var [31 B. J. Mann, "Real time computer calculation of the impedance
, Vpk cos cot i.e., cot(-arytan (21) of a faulted single phase line," Elec. Eng. Trans., Inst. Eng.,
Vt Vpk COS COt' VI Australia, vol. EE4, pp. 26-28, March 1969.
[4] P. Mathews, Protective Current Transformers and Circuits.
If the current waveform is represented as London: Chapman and Hall, 19.55, ch. 6, 7.
[51 P. Mathews and B. D. Nellist, "Transients in distance protec-
i = Ipk sin (cot+4) (22) tion," Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng. (London), vol. 110, pp. 407-418,
February 1963.
[61 A. Wright, Current Transformers: Their Transient and Steady-
then in a similar fashion State Performance. London: Chapman and Hall, 1968.
[7] A. Ralston, A First Course in Numerical Analysis. New York:
(cot + ') = arctan (V) (23) McGraw-Hill, 1965.
[8] L. Fox, Numerical Solution of Ordinary and Partial Differential
Equations. London: Pergamon; Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley, 1962.
and (4) results from subtracting (21) from (23), i.e., = arctan [9] E. Isaacson and H. B. Keller, Analysis of NVumerical Methods.
New York: Wiley, 1966.
arctan ( .
[10] Digital Equipment Corporation, Small Computer Handbook,
1966-1967.
[11] , Logic Handbook, 1968 ed.
APPENDIX III
DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS
Using the standard notations v, 6, and , for the operations of
backward differencilng, central differencing, and averaging,
respectively, the basic central difference expression for the
derivative [8] is Discussion

hYk' =( -$ ±46
+ Yk3-
)Y (24) G. Hope, D. Bell, and S. Jura (University of Calgary, Calgary,
Alta., Canada): The authors present a very valuable paper in the
where h = At and y stands for v or i. field of digital protection of transmission lines. Many universities
Using the first term only and companies are now working very hard in this area. There were
very few people five years ago who believed that it was possible to
1 realize a digital protection system by using a small digital computer.
hYk I= -
2 (Y k+I - Y k-1) (25) The opinions are changing very slowly, but we can say that the
number of believers is increasing, and this excellent paper shows
and with a second term further the possibility of proving the use of digital methods for power
system protection.
It is necessary to detect a fault very fast, and it seems to us that
= -3A (y 2 ±
hy1' e - ye-i ± 1j YX-2} (26) the method described in the paper is very suitable for this purpose
because it makes possible the calculation of the waveform before it
occurs. We are not sure, however, if the achieved accuracy is suffi-
For backward differences cient.
hyk'=(V - Y2-
) (27)
Manuscript received February 12, 1970.
MANN AND MORRISON: DIGITAL CALCULATION OF IMPEDANCE 277

The use of a coarse lookup table is a good solution for shortening REFERENCES
of a calculation time. Nevertheless, for a large network, the capa- [12] M4. Ramamoorty, "High-speed relaying based on improved
bilities of a small digital computer probably will not be sufficient. power system models," Ph.D. dissertation, Dep. Elec. Eng.,
The use of hardware implementing instruction may be a great help. University of Toronto, Ont., Canada, 1967.
Comments on speed and core requirements necessary to protect
several lines would be very useful.
The model used has some limitations. When considering voltage
levels of 735 and 500 kV, which constitute possibly the most im-
portant application of digital protection, high-frequency components
due to line capacitance are introduced. We have doubts that the
model of a transmission line without capacitance is sufficient. It is M. Ramamoorty (Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India):
possible that a model change would change the results considerably. Having done some work in the area of application of digital com-
It is unfortunate that there are limitations to the A/D converter puters for system protection, I intend to put forth the following ob-
used. The effects of digital filtering are very strong. Is the method servations on the paper. The authors have assumed sinusoidal wave-
feasible when many lines are to be considered? It may be noted that forms in deriving the basic equations (3) and (4) for the calculation
some of the difficulty encountered is due to the desire to obtain the of impedance of the faulted line. Later on, regarding [12], the error
derivative. However, the derivative is used in (3) to obtain the peak involved in the calculation of the gradient using the central dif-
value. If (2) is rewritten as ferences is discussed. However, if a computer is to be used for the
purpose of protection, the concerned line is generally a long tie line
e = fv dt requiring a highly sophisticated protection system to avoid any un-
necessary opening of the line. For such cases the line capacitance
then (3) becomes V,k2 = V2 + (,we)2. cannot be neglected and in [13], which is not cited by the authors,
Would this not lead to some improvement? It is generally dan- the short-circuit current waveforms are shown to be highly distorted
gerous to try to obtain a derivative, and the filter used is to correct with traveling wave fronts. Fig. 9 shows a typical fault current wave-
errors due to the equipment used. Will the system be able to dis- form obtained from [13] and also shows high distortions in the first
criminate for system swing and transient inrush due to transformers, few cycles after the disturbance. Evidently if (3) and (4) are applied
etc.? to this type of waveform the error will be much more than predicted.
Comments on the use of general-purpose computer with read- The application of a dc offset filter as mentioned in (9) will not be
only storage would also be useful. The read-only method is well- useful under these conditions.
suited for the table lookup procedure for calculating arctangents.
The authors' comments would be appreciated.

D
Carson W. Taylor (Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, 0-
Oreg.): The authors have made a valuable contribution to the z
numerical analysis aspect of digital computer fault protection. The
F-
protection engineer of the future will certainly have to be knowledge-
able in the fields of computer programming, numerical analysis, and
digital logic. D
u
Since a computer relaying system would probably only be justi-
fied in a multiterminal station, the first question that arises con-
cerns the computer requirements and speed obtainable when per-
haps 100 or more ac current and voltage quantities require mnonitor-
ing. The authors' conclusion that a less accurate or a nondirectional
"fault detecting" or "starting" calculation may be necessary is well
taken. Ramamoorty [12] has suggested two methods of nondirec- -20
tional fault detection to be followed by an impedance calculation
utilizing 18 samples per cycle (60-Hz basis) rather than the 40 Fig. 9. Sending-end current during fault on phase a (300 km, 5O).
samples per cycle (50-Hz basis), which the authors suggested.
Ain advantage of a digital computer impedance calculation is that
the protection engineer can program any type of operating charac-
teristic (impedance, mho, reactance, or others not in common use
today). One undesirable characteristic of electromechanical or static 1.6
distance relays is that their operating time increases for faults near
their "reach" setting. Do the authors envision more accurate and
hence slower impedance calculations for faults near its "reach"
setting? 1.2 Sudden load chan e
The author's conclusion that a digital impedance calculation would
benefit by nonconventional current transducers is true also for com-
mercial static relays. Current transducers become more attractive at 0.8
EHV and UHV and the electric utility industry should be encouraged 0.77 PU.D - _
to develop practical devices. V--
We at BPA are very interested in digital computer fault protection Single phase fault
not only to decrease fault clearing time, but also because of the ad-
vantages a digital computer in a multiterminal station offers to 0.4 0.29 Per Unit _ _
initiate such functions as breaker failure protection, transient block-
ing, out-of-step blocking, out-of-step tripping, generator dropping, 3-Phase andZ-phas foult TimeSeconds
load dropping, and series-capacitor switching. The functions are 0 0 ,
presently used at various places on the BPA system to maintain 0.00273 0.00834 0.0139 0.01668
system stability. Fig. 10. Time variation of impedance.

Manuscript received February 12, 1970. Manuscript received February 24, 1970.
278 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1971

To smooth out the variations in the measured impedance, the velop techniques requiring simple calculations, on the basis that as
authors have used 100 points at 0.5-ms intervals, which corresponds much main-frame time as possible should be available for other
to a 2-cycle relay operation, which apparently is much slower than protection (or other substation) activities.
the protection schemes using transistorized relays. The work described has been extended to a single three-phase line
In [13] the impedance is evaluated by obtaining the fundamental and then to a number of lines at the one bus-voltage level within
amplitude from the sampled values of the voltage and current wave- the substation [15]. From this work emerges an assessment of desir-
forms. Here the samples are taken at 180 apart corresponding to 20 able computer specifications and capabilities, and we would direct
points per cycle. Continuous evaluation of the impedance is made the discussers who raised these general points to that source. Broadly,
by the computer by adding one extra sample and deleting the first for a substation of 12 lines and two voltage levels, i.e., 42 ac quanti-
sample each time. Fig. 10 shows a typical plot of impedance varia- ties, a small general-purpose computer with a 16-bit word, approxi-
tions for different types of faults [13]. This method of calculation is mately 1-ps cycle time, minimum 8K store, direct memory access
very useful because the trend of the impedance variation is also facility, and appropriate A/D conversion will be required. The use
known, and for nearby faults the measured impedance falls within of a larger machine will conceivably allow greater accuracy to be
the relay setting in less than 1 cycle, thereby providing a rapid fault achieved and should allow a range of other substation functions
clearance. (some enumerated by Mr. Taylor) to be performed; but such a
The calculation of the fundamental quantity is done as follows: computer would cost more.
Several discussers query the omission of capacitance from the
F =(t) \V/a92+ b,2 sin (cot + tan-l' a, model transmission line. We are aware of this omission and the need
to evaluate the effects on our techniques. Although, we would intend
xl these techniques to be suitable for forthcoming 500- and 750-kV
a =- [fo +2fi cosxl + 2f2cos2x' + *+f0] levels, we also intend them to be suitable for the present voltage
2 levels of 132 and 330 kV. At these voltages, conditions in Australia
are such that the effects of distributed line capacitance are not
bL xi
- [2 fi sin xl + 2 f2 sin 2 xl +
2
+ 2 f0-, sin (n- 1)xl] usually significant.
Arising from the question of the inclusion of capacitance are the
(30) effects of various types of noise on the input signals. We feel that
where x1 is the sample interval in radians, n = 27r/x', and fo,fi,
f *, the possible source and frequencies of noise in the relaying signals
have not been adequately enumerated.
fn, are the sampled values of the input. In the analysis carried out Inaccuracies of impedance measurement introduced by the pres-
in [11], it is shown that reasonable accuracy is obtainied for all types ence of noise need to be evaluated. At present we anticipate that
of fault waveforms with n = 20. Thus (30) gives both the amplitude analog or digital filtering of the input signals will be helpful, even at
and phase angle of the fundamental from which the impedance is the expense of an additional calculation time in particularly difficult
calculated. Since the values of cos x', * *, cos n xl and sin xl, * * *, situations. Specifically we expect that the input bandwidth could
sin (n - 1)xl, are constants for each set of samples, they can be pre- usefully have its 3-dB point at about 200 Hz.
calculated and used as weighting factors for each of the samples The discussers also raise the question of the effects of transients
obtained. Thus the total niumber of computations involved in this other than those due to line capacitance and noise, such as system
method will be less than that indicated in the paper, where averag- swing, sudden load changes, etc. It is intended that the method of
ing has to be done using 100 points. Different types of logics that fault detection [151 will discriminate against those arLd that the
can be performed on the computed impedance to obtain the quadri- impedance calculation stage will not be reached for nonfault condi-
lateral tripping characteristic for the digital distance relay are also tions.
indicated in [13]. The impedance computed from the 20 sampled In reply to Mr. Hope, Mr. Bell, and Mr. Jura on the question of
values for each cycle using (30) is found to be generally unaffected accuracy, we have mentioned above that this is determined by the
by the dc offset and other high-frequency components present in need to complete the calculation in less than 10 ms. Reference [15]
the transient waveforms. shows that for 1000 faults of all types, impedance magnitude is
calculated with a variance of 4.3 percent, with 98.5 percent of
REFERENCES values within ± 10 percent of the mean; the variance for phase is
[13] M. Ramamoorty et al., "High-speed relaying based on improved 2.90, with 99.1 percent of values with ± 70 of the mean.
power system models," CIGRE, Rep. 31-09, 1968. We have considered the possibility of obtaining greater accuracy
[14] M. Ramamoorty, V. R. Sastry, and R. Raghanan, "Restriking by the use of integration rather than differentiation. It can be shown
voltage in circuit breakers due to single and multipole switching that for the sampling interval used (0.5 ms) and two approaches
in EHV systems," Paper 70 CP 596, presented at the IEEE are identical. Using the notation of (10)-(12), if we write v = v sin
Summer Power Meeting and EHV Conference, Los Angeles, cot, then
Calif., July 12-17, 1970.
u= vudt
Jk-at
V
= --[cos cotk (1 - cos wAt) - sin cotk sin coAt].
co

Barry J. Mann and I. F. Morrison: The authors wish to thank the Thus
discussers for their contributions; they raise numerous interesting
points. (Vk Sin coAt - U
V2 = Vk cos coAt t-12 (31)
We are becoming aware that an increasing amount of work is cos oAt - l
being done on the proposed use of digital computers for protection
purposes. Like Mr. Hope, Mr. Bell and Mr. Jura, we have found For At = 0.5 ms
that attitudes seem to have changed in four or so years from out-
right rejection to grudging acceptance that digital computers may sin At = cotAt (to at least four decimal places)
contribute to the protection field.
In the development of the technique of impedance measurement cos c.At 1 - (cAt)2
we have been conscious of a conflict between the requirements of
speed and accuracy. Broadly, we have sought a scheme that will
give an impedance to within ±10 percent in times comparable to and the integral u is approximated by u = vo At. Then (31) becomes
those of the best available static relays, i.e., less than 1 half-cycle. V2 = Vk2 + (AV/cAt)2, which is the expression of (12).
We further sought to minimize the amount of special-purpose hard- We agree with the remarks of Mr. Taylor on the potentially
ware required to achieve these aims; and we have attempted to de- flexible choice of relay operating characteristics and on the need
for a more accurate and slower calculation near the relay balance
point. Reference [16] describes a further method of impedance cal-
Manuscript received March 30, 1970. culation which, it is hoped, will provide greater accuracy of calcula-
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-90, NO. 1, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1971 279

tion in slightly longer times. The question of the range of available curacy of impedance calculation will be improved if data can be
characteristics is also raised there. In general the authors are greatly taken over longer time intervals. Here there seems to have been
encouraged by the interest shown by an organization of the size and some slight misunderstanding arising from our paper-although 100
technical preeminence of Bonneville Power in the use of digital postfault samples were typically processed, this was simply to study
computers for protection and other substation functions. the behavior of the method in time. Only six postfault samples are
The problem of distorted input signals has been mentioned earlier required for calculation of impedance with the accuracies described;
and those remarks apply to the waveform supplied by Dr. Rama- i.e., only information collected in 3 ms after fault occurrence is used
moorty. We have not had data of this general type available for our in calculation. This is to be contrasted with Dr. Ramamoorty's pro-
experiments to date. cedure, which utilizes information over 1 complete cycle.
We are particularly indebted to Dr. PRamamoorty for bringing his
own work to our attention. We had not been aware of it and look
forward to familiarizing ourselves with it in some detail. The present REFERENCES
remarks will, of necessity, be our initial impressions. [15] B. J. Mann and I. F. Morrison, "Relaying a three-phase trans-
The method he describes, and especially the interesting results of mission line with a digital computer," IEEE Trans. Power
Fig. 10, show that not only is a single cycle of sample values required App. Syst. (to be published).
for calculations, but that a decisive change in computed impedance [16] A. D. McInnes and I. F. Morrison, "Real time calculation of
is not available for times in excess of 1 half-cycle. We contrast here resistance and reactance for transmission line protection by
the results of Fig. 2, which shows a stable value of impedance avail- digital computer," paper p 1169, Elec. Mech. Eng. Trans.,
able 4 ms after fault occurrence. In general we expect that the ac- Inst. Eng., Australia (to be published).

Equivalent Circuits for Single-Phase Induction and

Hysteresis Motors
DENIS O'KELLY

Abstract-General steady-state equivalent circuits are derived induction and hysteresis motors with one or two stator windings
for the family of single-phase motors with unequal contrarotating and a cylindrical rotor. In particular, no restriction is placed on
magnetic fields produced by one or two stator windings and/or the disposition of the stator winding(c) with respect to the axis
stator saliency, and rotor torque due to hysteresis and/or eddy- of stator saliency, if present, and the representation of a tapped
current action. The derivation of an equivalent quadrature motor, winding [17], [6] is considered.
first shown by Kron, is extended to the range of motors under
consideration. The idealized treatment in the paper permits hystere- The treatment relies on linear theory: harmonics, end-winding,
sis to be included in the linear analysis of single-phase motors. and slotting effects, etc., are ignored and the usual assumptions
relevant to the Kron primitive machine are employed. All
voltages, currents, and impedances are phasor quantities.
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
IT IS WELL KNOWN that unequal contrarotating magnetic
fields in single-phase motors may be produced by split-phase Consider a machine, shown schematically in Fig. 1, to have a
wiindings, shaded lpoles, and/'or stator saliency [1]. Many equiv- cage winding on a cylindrical rotor and a stator with main and
alent circuits [2]-[5] employing these methods have been auxiliary windings inclined at angles a and B, respectively, to
derived for single-phase induction motors, but with some ex- a line of magnetic symmetry defined as the direct axis. Each
ceptions [6], [7], the treatment is often restricted to one type of stator winding has a leakage flux, rv flux that links the rotor, and
machine. Although the polyphase hysteresis motor has been a common mutual flux that does not link the rotor. For the
analyzed [8]-[131, little has been published with particular equivalent Kron primitive machine (Fig. 2) each stator winding
reference to single-phase hysteresis motors [1]. is represented by an orthogonal coil pair and the rotor has two
Based onl Kron's work [14], [15] and the analysis of asym- orthogonal coil pairs to represent the cage winding and hysteresis
metrical windings [6], [16], two types of general steady-state in the core material, respectively. A common mutual flux is
equivalent circuits are derived for the family of single-phase assumed for each axis.
With suitable assumptions for the representation of hysteresis
in the rotor core, considered in the following section, the eight
Paper 70 TP 9-PWR, recommended and approved by the Rotating simultaneous equations for steady-state operation of the prim-
Machinery Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presentation
at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January itive machine (Fig. 2) may be transformed by well-known
25-30, 1970. Manuscript submitted June 16, 1969; made available relationships [15] to rotating-field equations, in terms of forward
for printing October 15, 1969. and backward voltages and current (Appendix I) to give an
The author is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engi-
neering, University of Bradford, Bradford, England. equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.