CH 31 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Intended Learning Outcomes – after this lecture you will learn:

1. To use phasor diagrams to analyze ac circuits
2. The response of resistor, inductor and capacitor in an ac circuit
3. Power delivery and resonance in an L-R-C circuit
Textbook Reference: 31.1 – 31.5

An alternating current (ac) source provides a sinusoidal

voltage
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Convention: lower case 𝑣𝑣 is the instantaneous value, while
upper case 𝑉𝑉 is the maximum value
In HK and most of the world, 𝑓𝑓 = 50 Hz, i.e., 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 =
314 /s, whereas in North America, 𝑓𝑓 = 60 Hz

Period of the signal is 𝑇𝑇 = 1⁄𝑓𝑓 = 2𝜋𝜋/𝜔𝜔

Phasor diagram – represent a sinusoidal signal (e.g. 𝑖𝑖 =

𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) as a rotating vector in a 2D plane. The projection on
the 𝑥𝑥 axis gives the signal

Advantage:
while adding multiple signals of the same frequency, use
vector addition and then project to 𝑥𝑥 axis to get the final
answer.
Avoid drawing multiple sinusoidal graphs.

Question: For the phasor diagram for a sinusoidal current:

(A / B / C / D) is a +ve current that is becoming more +ve
(A / B / C / D) is a +ve current that is decreasing
(A / B / C / D) is a –ve current that is becoming more -ve

Answer: see inverted text on P. 1049

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 1

 Average a sinusoidal signal over period 𝑇𝑇 is zero and
makes no sense
2𝜋𝜋
1 𝑇𝑇 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔
𝐼𝐼av ≡ � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑇𝑇 0 2𝜋𝜋 0

A meaningful way – root-mean-square value defined as

𝐼𝐼rms = �(𝑖𝑖 2 )av
2𝜋𝜋
1 𝑇𝑇 2 𝜔𝜔𝐼𝐼 2 𝜔𝜔 𝐼𝐼 2
(𝑖𝑖 2 ) av ≡ � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2
� cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑇𝑇 0 2𝜋𝜋 0 2

2𝜋𝜋
𝜔𝜔 1 𝜋𝜋
� (1 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
0 2 𝜔𝜔
𝐼𝐼
⇒ 𝐼𝐼rms =
√2

Resistor in an ac Circuit
Take the current 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 as the reference in drawing phasor diagram. 𝑖𝑖 counterclockwise in
the following circuit is +ve
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 ≡ 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ≡ 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

potential drop Maximum of 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 is 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

after tranversing 𝑖𝑖 and 𝑣𝑣 are in phase, i.e. they have the
along 𝑖𝑖 same phase 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔, their phasors are
collinear

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 2

Inductor in an ac Circuit
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 90°)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿

𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 leads 𝑖𝑖 by 90°

Geometric meaning:
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 reaches its min. (or
max.) ¼ of a period
earlier than 𝑖𝑖

Define the inductive reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ≡ 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

SI unit: Ω
𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

Capacitor in an ac Circuit
𝑞𝑞 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = = � cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 90°)
𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶

𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 lags 𝑖𝑖 by 90°

Geometric meaning:
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 reaches its min. (or
max.) ¼ of a period
later than 𝑖𝑖

Define the capacitive reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ≡ 1/𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

SI unit: Ω
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐼/𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔

Summary:

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 3

 For a fixed applied 𝑉𝑉
For an inductor, higher 𝑓𝑓 means larger 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 and
smaller 𝐼𝐼 → low-pass filter
For a capacitor, lower 𝑓𝑓 means larger 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 and
smaller 𝐼𝐼 → high-pass filter
See Simulation of Resistor, Inductor, and Capacitor
in an ac Circuit

Question:
An ac voltage of fixed amplitude is applied across a circuit element. The frequency 𝑓𝑓 of the
voltage is increase. The amplitude of the current will:
(increase / decrease / remain the same) if the circuit element is a resistor
(increase / decrease / remain the same) if the circuit element is a inductor
(increase / decrease / remain the same) if the circuit element is a capacitor
Answer: see inverted text on P. 1054

The L-R-C Series Circuit

From Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the external emf source 𝑣𝑣 is
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 + 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 + 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶
Use phasor diagram to perform this addition.
Purpose: use 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 as reference, find the external emf in
the form 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙), i.e., to find the amplitude 𝑉𝑉 and
phase angle 𝜙𝜙

Amplitude:

𝑉𝑉 = �𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 + (𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 )2 = 𝐼𝐼�𝑅𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2

impedance of the ac circuit

𝑍𝑍 ≡ �𝑅𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 )2 = �𝑅𝑅 2 + [𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − (1⁄𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 )]2

Phase angle:
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
tan 𝜙𝜙 =
𝑅𝑅
Therefore
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑣𝑣 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + tan−1 �
𝑅𝑅
If 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 , more inductive than capacity, 𝜙𝜙 > 0,
i.e., 𝑣𝑣 leads 𝑖𝑖

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 4

 If 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 , more capacitive than inductive,
𝜙𝜙 < 0, i.e., 𝑖𝑖 leads 𝑣𝑣
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 − 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑣𝑣 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − tan−1 �
𝑅𝑅

Power in an ac Circuit
Average power delivered to inductor and capacitor are zero

𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 90°)
(𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅 )av = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(cos 2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)av 1
= 2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos(2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 90°)
1
= 2𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉rms 𝐼𝐼rms (𝑝𝑝)av = 0

For an arbitrary ac circuit 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)

1
= 2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉[cos(2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) + cos 𝜙𝜙]

average out to zero Like a projection

(𝑝𝑝)av = 1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 cos 𝜙𝜙 of 𝑉𝑉 along 𝐼𝐼
2
= 𝑉𝑉rms 𝐼𝐼rms cos 𝜙𝜙
power factor

𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 − 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅
tan 𝜙𝜙 = ⇒ cos 𝜙𝜙 =
𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 5

Resonance
When 𝜔𝜔 is tuned to 𝜔𝜔0 = 1/√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 and the
power factor cos 𝜙𝜙 = 1 is a maximum

The smaller 𝑅𝑅, the sharper the resonance

more capacitive more inductive

Tuning a radio (Example 31.8, P. 1063)

At resonance
𝜔𝜔0 1
𝑓𝑓0 = = = 800 kHz
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋�(0.4 × 10−3 H)(10−10 F)
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = 𝜔𝜔0 𝐿𝐿 = 2000 Ω
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 = 500 Ω
𝑉𝑉rms 1.0 V
𝐼𝐼rms = = = 2.0 mA
𝑍𝑍 500 Ω
(𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 )rms = 𝐼𝐼rms 𝑅𝑅 = (0.0020 A)(500 Ω) = 1.0 V
(𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 )rms = 𝐼𝐼rms 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼rms 𝜔𝜔0 𝐿𝐿 = (0.0020 A)(2000 Ω) = 4.0 V
(𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 )rms = 𝐼𝐼rms 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = (0.0020 A)(2000 Ω) = 4.0 V

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 6

Appendix Summary of trigonometrical relations
𝜋𝜋
In this Chapter we have used the relations cos �𝜃𝜃 ± 2 � = ∓ sin 𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋
If two angles 𝜙𝜙1 and 𝜙𝜙2 differ by 2 , then sin and cos interchanged: |sin 𝜙𝜙1 | = |cos 𝜙𝜙2 |, the sign
is determined by the following rule for trigonometric function in different quadrants:
𝜋𝜋⁄2

S A
sin is +ve all are +ve
𝜋𝜋 0
tan is +ve cos is +ve

T C
3𝜋𝜋⁄2
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 + 2 in second quadrant, cos
is -ve, therefore
𝜋𝜋
cos �𝜃𝜃 + 2 � = − sin 𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋⁄2

𝜋𝜋 𝜃𝜃 is in first quadrant,
𝜃𝜃 + 2
sin is +ve
𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋 0
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 − 2
𝜋𝜋
𝜃𝜃 − 2 in fourth quadrant, cos is
+ve, therefore
3𝜋𝜋⁄2 𝜋𝜋
cos �𝜃𝜃 − 2 � = sin 𝜃𝜃

Likewise, sin(𝜃𝜃 ± 𝜋𝜋2) = ± cos 𝜃𝜃

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 7

Clicker Questions

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 8

Ans: Q31.4) D, Q31.6) B, Q31.8) B

PHYS1114 Lecture 18 Alternating Current P. 9