Schedule and Venue

Laboratory
Time: Mon, Tue and Thu; 14:00 –17:00
Venue: ME UG Lab
Laboratory
• 6 experiments
• Each sub-group has to submit a lab-report within 1 week of
completion of experiment.
• Lab groups will be made in a day or two and shared.
 Experiments
Exp#1 Mounting a strain gage and measuring the stresses in a cantilever beam
Measurement of strain and deflection of a portal frame and comparison with
Exp#2
theoretical calculations
Exp#3 Measurement of shear modulus
Measurement of stresses due to combined bending and torsion using strain gages in
Exp#4
different bridge configuration
Exp#5 Stress analysis using photoelasticity

Exp#6 Digital image correlation for determination of strain fields

TAs

Divyansh Sagar ([email protected])

Ritam Borah ([email protected])
Prasad Chavan ([email protected])
Gnanendra Channamsetty ([email protected])
Hari Charan ([email protected])
Manoj Maurya ([email protected])
Why do experiments?

• Simplifying assumptions are usually made in analysis

• Boundary conditions cannot be satisfied exactly: Solution not
valid near such regions
• The physics of the problem is too complex
An example
• The I beam is connected to a column with
a bolted joint
• Beam theory provide simple and elegant
solution for the stresses in the beam
• Are these valid near the bolted joint?
• What will be the boundary condition at
the joint-Pinned or clamped?
• How to calculate the beam deflection? Engineering approach
• How to account for the effect of friction? Use appropriate factor of
• How to account for stress concentration? safety in design
Hybrid approach: Bolted joint
• In the absence of proper boundary conditions, even FEA cannot
provide accurate stresses and displacement
• Same problems exist when using brackets
• In some cases the load transfer itself is not clear
• One solution
ØMake measurements at selected critical points
ØCompare with the results from simulation
ØAdjust the boundary conditions (both support and load) to match
the two results
• An experimental technique that can give reliable data is needed
• Need to know the basic principle of the technique, it’s limitations and
artifacts
Hybrid approach: Bracket problem

Initial nodal loading Actual nodal loading

• Photoelastic coating method was employed to measure the

surface shear strain under the actual load.
• The loading and boundary conditions of the FE model was then
adjusted to minimize the error between the experimental and FEA
strains.
Experimental Techniques
• Experimental techniques can be broadly classified into two categories
ØLocalized measurements – Measures the local value of the
quantity of interest (strain or displacement) at selected point strain
gages, displacement gages etc.
ØFull field techniques – Provides information of the quantity of
interest at all points in the area of interest
• Full field measurements are made mostly through optical techniques
ØPhotoelasticity – Measures 𝜎! − 𝜎" or 𝜖! − 𝜖"
ØMoiré interferometry – Measures displacements (u or v)
ØDigital Image Correlation – Measures displacement (u & v)
ØElectronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (u & v)
Different Techniques
Experiment#1: Stresses in a cantilever beam
 Experiment#1: Stresses in a cantilever beam
• Where should we measure the thickness of the beam?
• Is accurate measurement of thickness important?
• Bonding of strain gauge to the beam should be perfect. Why so?
• Does the beam deform plastically?
• Justify that some designs are deflection-constrained.
• Can geometrical non-linearity be accounted for in our theoretical model? Will
the resulting differential equations be non-linear?
• What is the current level in strain gauge if voltage applied to bridge is 9 V?
What happens if voltage is considerably higher? What is the maximum allowed
current in a strain gauge? Is heat sink important?
• Dead weights of the beam and the pan were not considered. Does it introduce
error?
 Experiment#2: Strain and deflection of a portal frame
• Why do strains differ in nature (compressive and tensile) at S1 and S2?
Provide physical interpretation?
• Besides three equilibrium equations, how do we develop three additional
equations?
• Why should we measure thickness of flat accurately?
• Accurate thickness should be determined close to locations of strain
gauges. Why so?
• What are various ways to make the frame stiffer?
• Justify how partial differentiation of total strain energy with respect to an
internal force (generalized) is zero.
Experiment#2: Strain and deflection of a portal frame
 Experiment#3: Measurement of Shear modulus
∆" ∆"
• In the report you should include table of P and ,
plot of stress versus
# #
and relevant calculation for getting the shear modulus.
 Experiment#4: Stresses due to combined bending and
torsion using strain gauges in different bridge configuration.
 Experiment#4: Stresses due to combined bending and
torsion using strain gauges in different bridge configuration.
• How to measure stress at a point using a rosette strain gauge and quarter
bridge?
• How to measure stress developed by a bending moment using half bridge?
• How to measure stress developed by a torque in a tube (or round) using
full bridge?
• To learn that superposition works for linear elastic materials.
 Experiment#5: Stress analysis using photoelasticity
• Determination of material fringe value of a photoelastic birefringement
material using a circular disc.
• To find principal directions at a marked point on the disc. Clearly show
principal direction through a sketch.
• Determination of stress distribution over the depth of a beam under four
point bending.
• To study stress concentration through photoelastic fringes around a fillet
through several polyurethene rubber models.
Experiment#5: Stress analysis using photoelasticity
Experiment#6: Digital Image Correlation
 Important Videos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2HkwAuOTMw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGLoplkXshc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZNigw5VpCM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDS5fJDAMsE&t=370s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wcI2tGpUCg
Thanks to. Prof. P. Venkitanarayanan
Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
• Electrical resistance strain gages: Most commonly used strain sensor for measuring
normal strains
• Invented independently by Ed Simmons at Caltech, USA and Arthur Ruge of MIT, in late
1930s
• Principle: Resistance change due to change in dimensions of an electric conductor
• Construction: Grid of thin foil of a metallic alloy encapsulated between two protective
sheets of polyimide
• The gage is bonded to the structure and forms an integral part of it
• Since the gage area is finite the strain measured is the average strain over this area
• Gages having grid size as small as 0.2 x 0.2 mm are available
∆"
= 𝑆# 𝜀
"
• Sg – Gage factor
• △R measured through an electrical circuit
• Commercial strain gages are available in 120 Ω, 350 Ω and 1000 Ω
Strain Gauge Installation
• Bonded on the surface of the structure using an adhesive
• Adhesive should transfer the strain from the structure to the sensing element
without distortion
• Installation procedure is very important
• Surface preparation
ØCleaning to remove rust, dust, contaminants etc.
ØSmooth flat surface needed but not to be polished
ØRoughening with fine abrasive paper
ØEtch the surface with an appropriate acid
ØNeutralize the surface with a base solution
ØMark gage location with alignment line outside the area
Øwhere the gage is bonded
Øhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Nj4hbPz0Vg
 B

A C

D
 What is DIC ?
● Image Correlation (DIC) ) is an innovative non-contact optical
technique for measuring strain and displacement..

● DIC effectively tracks the movement naturally occurring on

applied surface pattern during the test or experiment.

● DIC is simple to use and cost effective compared to other

techniques such as speckle interferometry, and more accurate and
subjective than manual measurement methods, leading to a huge
range of potential applications.
 What is Image Correlation ?
An optical method to
measure deformation
on an object’s surface

https://www.slideshare.net/Instron/digitalmage-correlation-2015
 Methods
● DIC works by comparing digital photographs of a component or test
piece at different stages of deformation. By tracking blocks of pixels,
the system can measure surface displacement and build up full field
2D and 3D deformation vector fields and strain maps.

● Images can be obtained from a wide variety of sources including

conventional CCD or consumer digital cameras, high-speed cameras,
microscopes.
 Sample Preparation
Apply speckle pattern using:

• Airbrush

• Standard spray aerosol

• Transformable stickers

• Rubber stamps

https://www.slideshare.net/Instron/digitalmage-correlation-2015
 Equipment used
1) UTM: universal testing machine
3)

2)

Digital camera Light source

https://www.digitalimagecorrelation.com/en/products/strainmaster/system-components/cameras-for-dic/
 Software used

• Pylon Viewer : to operate the camera

• MATLAB with encorr: Post processing

 Working Principle of DIC
● Initially, digital image is divided into smaller regions called subsets.

● Subset shape functions are imposed to the reference subset to account for the deformed shape of
the subset in the deformed image.

● Correlation function (C) is

defined to match the
similarity between the subset
in the undeformed and
deformed image.

● Correlation function: is used for matching of the subset in the deformed

and undeformed image. the correlation algorithm used are sum squared
differences (SSD), Normalized sum square differences (NSSD), and Zero-
normalized square differences (ZNSSD)
 Calculating full field Displacement

Specimen Split into Pattern

surface image As the specimen deforms, axial (x)
small subsets recognized for
and transverse (y) displacements
each subset
For each subset are calculated

● Repeated for each subset over the entire surface.

https://www.slideshare.net/Instron/digitalmage-correlation-2015
 Calculating stains
Strains at each location is calculated using central differencing

Strain calculated in the X and Y directions separately

For X direction:

Δ𝐿 = 𝐿$ − 𝐿%
Δ𝐿
𝜖=
𝐿%
https://www.slideshare.net/Instron/digitalmage-correlation-2015
https://analytical-online.com/digital-image-correlation-dic.html
Photoelasticity
• Many transparent noncrystalline materials that are optically isotropic when free of stress become optically
anisotropic and display characteristics similar to crystals when they are stressed. This behavior is known as
temporary double refraction.
• Polymers like Epoxy, Polyester , Polycarbonate exhibit this property.

Ø The effect that an isotropic material can become birefringent (anisotropic)

when placed under stress.

Under compression Negative uniaxial crystal.

Under tension Positive uniaxial crystal.

Ø Optical axis is in the direction of stress.

Ø Induced birefringence is proportional to the stress.
Ø Can be used to study stress patterns in complex objects (e.g. bridges) by
building a transparent scale model of the device.

Fig 1:-Tension lines in a plastic protractor seen

under cross-polarized 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 !

1- martinnovacek.cz/Shutterstock.com
 Continued…
• Photoelasticity is a whole-field technique for measuring and visualizing stresses and strains in
structures.
• This method utilizes a birefringent model of the actual structure to view the stress contours
due to external loading or residual birefringence. Fig2(a):- Plate with circular
hole

Ø When white light is used for illumination, a colourful fringe pattern reveals the stress/strain
distribution in the part as shown in fig 2(b). Qualitative analysis such as strain concentration
points, uniform stress region etc. can be identified quite readily.

Note:- For quantitative information , a further analysis has to be performed. Up to quite recently
this was done by transforming the colour patterns to a black & white picture by utilizing a
monochromatic light source for illumination as shown in fig 2(c). Fig 2(b):- Colourful fringe
pattern at load of 250 N

Ø Using monochromatic light enable better definition of fringes especially in areas with dense
fringes as at stress concentration points.

Fig 2(c):-Black & white

fringe pattern
Polariscope
Polariscope is an optical instrument that utilizes the properties of polarized light in its operation.
For stress analysis two types are used:
1. Plane (Linear) polariscope.
2. Circular polariscope.
Optical equipments used to produces circular elliptically lights require both linear polarizer and wave plates.

Fig 3 :- Plane polariscope [LHS], Circular Polariscope (dark field arrangement) [RHS]
Plane Polariscope
• It is the simple arrangement in which a plane polarised light is incident on the model.
• One can use a monochromatic light source or white light for illumination.
• One observes two contour namely isochromatic (contours of difference in principal stress) and Isoclinics (
contours of principal stress orientation).

Components used :-
1. Light source (Monochromatic)
2. Polarizer & Analyzer are perpendicular
to each other.
3. Model which is birefringent which is
loaded

Fig 4:- Plane Polariscope (dark fringes is obtained when monochroma;c light is used)!

2-Experimental stress-analysis by Jindal

Isoclinics & Isochromatics
• By rotating the polarizer- analyzer crossed combination in step of 10 degree
one can record isoclinics in step of 10 degree.
• For understanding isoclinic field information it is desirable to plot only
isoclinics in the model domain.
• On an isoclinic contour, principal stress direction is constant.

Fig 5(a):- Isoclinic contour

• On the other hand in case of isochromatic contour, the magnitude of 𝜎! − 𝜎"

remains constant but the individual values of 𝜎! and 𝜎" and their orientation 𝜃
can vary.

Fig 5(b):- Isochromatic contour

Stress-optic law
• Maxwell reported that indices of refraction were linearly proportional to the loads thus to stresses or strains
for a linear elastic material. The relationship can be expressed as,
• 𝑛! − 𝑛# = 𝛼! 𝜎! + 𝛼" (𝜎" + 𝜎$ )
• 𝑛" − 𝑛# = 𝛼! 𝜎" + 𝛼" (𝜎! + 𝜎$ )
• 𝑛$ − 𝑛# = 𝛼! 𝜎$ + 𝛼" (𝜎" + 𝜎! ) , where 𝜎! , 𝜎" , 𝜎$ = principal stresses at point.
where 𝑛# =index refraction of material in unstressed state.
𝑛! , 𝑛" , 𝑛$ = principal indices of refraction which coincide with the principal stress directions.
𝛼! , 𝛼" , 𝛼$ = stress optic coefficients.

The equation indicates complete state of stress can be determined by

measuring the three principal indices of refraction and establishing the
directions of the three principal optical axes.
Continued…
For plane stress (𝜎$ = 0)
• 𝑛! − 𝑛# = 𝛼! 𝜎! + 𝛼" 𝜎"
• 𝑛" − 𝑛# = 𝛼! 𝜎" + 𝛼" 𝜎!
Ø Stress-optic law in terms of relative retardation.
The method of photoelasticity make use of relative changes in index of refraction, which can be written by
eliminating 𝑛# from earlier equation.
Δ𝑛!" = 𝑛" − 𝑛! = (𝛼" − 𝛼! )(𝜎" − 𝜎! )
Consider a slice of material (thickness h) oriented perpendicular to one of the principal-stress directions at the
point of interest in the model. If a linearly polarized light is passing through the slice at normal incidence, the
relative retardation ∆ accumulated along each of the principal-stress directions can be obtained by substitute
"%&'"# (
earlier relative index change into Δ!" =
)
2𝜋ℎ𝛼
Δ!" = (𝜎! − 𝜎" )
𝜆

If we can measure Δ , then we can get information about 𝜎! − 𝜎"

Stressed birefringent model in plane polariscope
Electromagnetic wave has two field electric and magnetic field which are perpendicular to each other and also
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.
We will use the electric field in our analysis assuming plane wave propagating in z-direction.
2𝜋
𝐸 = acos (𝑧 − 𝑐𝑡)
𝜆
Ø A model of uniform thickness h placed in plane polariscope.
Ø It is subjected to a state of plane stress.
Ø At point C one of the principal axis makes an angle 𝜃 with the polarizer axis.
Ø The electric vector at polarizer represented by 𝐸 * = acos 𝜔𝑡 . Once the light
is incident on model surface it resolved in two components one along 𝑛! axis
other along 𝑛" axis.
Ø This two components (𝐸!* , 𝐸" ′) travel with distance speed through the model.
Ø After emerging from the model two component of light 𝐸! & 𝐸" have relative
retardation of 𝛿.
𝐸! = acos 𝜃 cos(𝜔𝑡 − Δ! ) , 𝐸" = acos 𝜃 cos(𝜔𝑡 − Δ" ) Fig 6:- Plane polariscope arrangement

Ø The magnitude of emerging light will be

𝐸+ = E" cos 𝜃 − 𝐸! sin 𝜃
Continued..
& "%,-
• Intensity of light at point C , 𝐼 = 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑛 " 2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛 " ,Δ= 𝜎! − 𝜎"
" )
• 𝜃 & Δ are two important quantities one relates with the direction of principal stress axis and other relates with
𝜎! − 𝜎" .
How are the dark fringes formed?
• Dark fringes are the point where 𝐼 = 0
Case-1
Ø Intensity will be zero when 𝜃 = 0 or 𝜋/2 it means one of the principal stress axis aligns with polarizer axis.
At all points where one of the principal stress direction align with polarizer axis, Intensity will be zero. The
locus of such point constitute the Isoclinic fringes.
Case-2
Ø Intensity will be zero when Δ/2 =n𝜋, n=0,1,2……
The locus of such point is called the isochromatic fringe.
Circular Polariscope
• The use of circular polariscope eliminate the isoclinical fringe pattern while maintain the isochromatic fringe
pattern.
• In circular polariscope we use circularly polarized light.
How to produce the circularly polarized light ?
Ø The optical arrangement consist of polarizer and Quarter wave plate.
Ø The wave coming out of the polarizer its electric field magnitude is 𝐸 * =
acos 𝜔𝑡
Ø A quarter wave plate has fast axis and slow axis. Once the light wave
incident on quarter wave plate normal to surface the electric vector
resolves component along 𝑛! is 𝐸!* and along 𝑛" is 𝐸" ′.
Ø Once the two components exceed the quarter plate there will be a relative
retardation 𝛿.
Ø The magnitude of these two components after it exceeds quarter plate
𝐸! = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 cos(𝜔𝑡), 𝐸" = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 cos(𝜔𝑡 − Δ)

𝐸= 𝐸!" + 𝐸"" tan 𝛾 = tan 𝜔𝑡

𝛾 changes with time however 𝐸 remains constant. It means electric field

vector remains constant however it keeps on rotating in 𝐸! 𝐸" planes as it Fig 7:- Optical arrangement for producing circularly
propagates . polarized light
Continued…
• Generally quarter plate are kept crossed there can be inaccuracy in quarter wave plate the error produce by
first quarter wave plate can be nullified by second quarter wave plate.
• However polarizer & Analyzer can be kept parallel or crossed if it is crossed then dark field is produced and
in case of parallel it is light field.

Ø The stressed model is placed in circular polariscope and illuminated

with a monochromatic light source.
Ø The magnitude of emerging light for arrangement will be

Δ Δ
𝐸+ = asin sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃 − )
2 2
& "%,-
𝐼 = 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑛 " ,Δ= 𝜎! − 𝜎"
" )

Note:- For the arrangement shown in figure dark field will be produced Fig 8:- Circular polariscope arrangement
both quarter plate are kept crossed and also polarizer and analyzer are
kept crossed.
Important lectures
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UsuXTw7yqM&list=PLzwZBbdF
vin7KDZvi8xTxE3AI7EBB2ai9&index=25
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FOboR8NHU4&list=PLzwZBbdF
vin7KDZvi8xTxE3AI7EBB2ai9&index=27
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N58KVVdTwzE&list=PLzwZBbdFv
in7KDZvi8xTxE3AI7EBB2ai9&index=27
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mwy2N7SIolg&list=PLzwZBbdFvi
n7KDZvi8xTxE3AI7EBB2ai9&index=28
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAn2FwHlqXQ&list=PLzwZBbdF
vin7KDZvi8xTxE3AI7EBB2ai9&index=29

Thanks to. Prof. P. Venkitanarayanan