UNIT 2.

THE CELL
Chapter 5. Cell and organelles:
structure and function

1. Method for cell fractionation and observation

2. Cell size and scale
3. Cell and organelles structure and function
1. METHOD FOR CELL
FRACTIONATION AND
OBSERVATION

➢ Cell fractionation
➢ Cell observing under
microscope

Microscope of
Leeuwenhoek
(1674)
Light microscopy
Microscope of
Robert Hook
 The
cell Robert Hook draw (1665)
Exploring microscopy
Light microscopy
 Brightfield / Darkfield
Phase-contrast
Fluorescence
Confocal
Deconvolution
Super-resolution
…

Electron Microscopy (EM)

TEM (Transmission Electron
Microscope) SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscopy) Cryo-EM (Cryo-electron
microscopy)
• Fluorescence microscopy
 8

• Confocal microscopy
9
Brightfield (unstained specimen)
Phase-contrast

Brightfield (stained specimen)

Differential-interference contrast (Nomarski)
Confocal
Fluorescence

50 µm
Deconvolution Super-resolution
SEM
 Cryo-EM

2. THE SIZE RANGE

OF CELL
Relationships between surface area and
volume

5
1

Total surface area

Surface area increases while total
volume remains constant

[Sum of the surface areas (height υ width) of all boxes sides υ number of boxes]

Total volume
[height υ width υ length υ number of boxes]

Surface-to-volume
(S-to-V) ratio
 [surface area ÷ volume]
6 150 750 1 125 125 6 1.2 6

Cell shape
Surface Area Example (Animal):
Small Intestine: highly folded surface to
increase absorption of nutrients

❺ Villi: finger-like projections on SI wall

❺ Microvilli: projections on each cell
Folds → Microvilli
Surface Area Example (Plant):
Root hairs: extensions of root
epidermal cells;
increase surface area for absorbing water and
minerals
Cell types
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
How does the internal organization of eukaryotic
cells allow them to perform the functions of life?
3. CELL AND ORGANELLES STRUCTURE AND
 FUNCTION

Organelle: structure has specific function.

Parts of plant & animal cell p 108-109 Animal

cell
 Plant cell
Cell
1. Extracellular components
2. Plasma membrane
3. Cytoplasm
Cytosol
No membrane structures: Cytoskeleton
Centrosomes (MTOC)
Ribosome
Proteasome
One membrane organelles:
- Endomembrane system: Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Vacuole
- Peroxisome (glyoxysome)
Two membrane organelles: Mitochondria and
chloroplasts 4. Nucleus
 Main cell function

• Provide structure and support

• Control metabolism

• Produce energy
• Movement
• Reproduction
(1), Extracellular components and
connections between cells

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that

 are external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include: – The
extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells – Cell
walls of plants
– Intercellular junctions
Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of animal
cell Composed of glycoproteins (ex. collagen)
Function: Strengthens tissues and transmits
external signals to cell
Glycocalyx
Intercellular Junctions (Animal cells)
 • Tight junctions: 2
cells are fused to
form watertight seal
• Desmosomes:
“rivets” that fasten
cells into strong
sheets
• Gap junctions:
channels through
which ions, sugar,
small molecules can
pass
Plant cell
- Cell wall (pectic, cellulose and protein)
- Plasmodesmata: channels between cells
(2), Plasma membrane: a selective barrier that
allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients,
and waste to service the volume of every cell •
The general structure of a biological membrane
is a double layer of phospholipids
(a)
TEM of a plasma
Outside of cell

Hydrophobic
region

Hydrophilic

Inside of

cell 0.1 µm

Hydrophilic
region
 Carbohydrate side
chain

membrane
region Phospholipid Proteins
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
 Fluid-Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure
(Singer & Nicholson 1972)
(3), Cytoplasm
 - Cytosol (Intracellular fluid):
+ water (| 70% v/v)
+ protein
+ ions
+ macromolecules
- No membrane structures -
One membrane organelles -
Two membrane organelles
➢ Centrosomes: region from which
microtubules grow ❺ Also called microtubule
organizing center ❺ Animal cells contain
centrioles
➢ Cytoskeleton: network of
protein fibers
Function:
- support,
- motility,
- regulate
biochemical
activities
Main function of 3 types of cytoskeleton fibers
 Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate Filaments
• Cell shape maintenance • Cell shape
maintenance • Support cell on maintenance
• Shape/support cell smaller scale • • Permanent
• Guiding movement Cell movement fixtures •
Eg. ameboid Anchorage of
of organelles
• Forms spindle for movement, nucleus
cytoplasmic • Fix position of
mitosis/meiosis
• Component of streaming, organelles
cilia/flagella muscle cell • Formation of
• Cell shape contraction nuclear lamina

Microtubule structure and dynamics

Molecular motors
➢ Proteasome

➢ Ribosomes
• Function: protein synthesis
• Composed of rRNA + protein
• Two types: Free ribosomes
 Bound ribosomes

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

➢ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

- Network of membranes and
sacs - Types:
1. Rough ER: ribosomes on surface
Function: package proteins for secretion, send
transport vesicles to Golgi, make replacement
membrane
2. Smooth ER: no ribosomes on surface
Function: synthesize lipids, metabolize
carbohydrates, detox drugs & poisons, store Ca2+
➢ Golgi Apparatus
Function: synthesis and
packaging
of materials (small
molecules) for
transport (in vesicles);
produce
lysosomes
Series of flattened
membrane sacs
(cisternae)
➢ Lysosome:
intracellular
digestion, recycle
cell’s materials,
programmed cell
death (apoptosis). Contains hydrolytic enzymes
 Phagocytosis Autophagy
➢ Vacuoles
• Function: storage of materials (food, water,
minerals, pigments, poisons)
• Membrane-bound vesicles
• Eg. contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles
Plants: large central vacuole -- stores
water, ions
 Relationships among organelles of the
endomembrane system

Regulates protein traffic & performs metabolic functions

 ➢ Peroxisomes
Functions: break down fatty acids; detox alcohol.
Involves production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
➢ Mitochondria and chloroplasts
Mitochondria
• Function: site of cellular respiration
• Double membrane: outer and inner
membrane • Cristae: folds of inner
membrane; contains enzymes for ATP
production; increased surface area to ν ATP
made

• Matrix: fluid-filled inner compartment

Chloroplasts
• Function: site of photosynthesis
• Double membrane
• Thylakoid disks in stacks (grana); stroma (fluid) •
Contains chlorophylls (pigments) for capturing
sunlight energy

(4), Nucleus
• Function: control center of cell
 • Contains nucleolus and chromatin with DNA
(& mRNA) • Surrounded by double membrane
(nuclear envelope) – Continuous with the
rough ER

1 µm
 Nuclear
envelope:
Inner
membrane
Outer
membrane

Nuclear pore

Pore
complex
Surface of
nuclear envelope 0.25 µm

Ribosome

Close-up of
nuclear
Pore complexes (TEM) envelope
Nucleus

Nucleolus
Chromatin
 1 µm

Nuclear lamina (TEM)

Rough ER

Role of nucleus (Hammerling, 1934)

Acetabularia
mediterranea
(med)
A.
crenulata
(cre)

• Nuclear control the regeneration of caps