Embedded System and Internet of Things (ESIOT)

Introduction to Embedded Systems (Unit-1):

B.E.-CSE 3rd Sem.

Department of Interdisciplinary Courses in Engineering (DICE)

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 Embedded system
Embedded systems are a combination of
hardware and software where software is
usually known as firmware that is
embedded into the hardware. One of its
most important characteristics of these
systems is, it gives the o/p within the time
limits. Embedded systems support to make
the work more perfect and convenient. So,
we frequently use embedded systems in
simple and complex devices too.
The applications of embedded systems
mainly involve in our real life for several
devices like microwave, calculators, TV
remote control, home security and
neighborhood traffic control systems

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 Embedded Processor?
• An embedded processor is a microprocessor that is used in an embedded
system. An embedded system is a computer system that is designed to
perform a specific task within a larger system. It is a self-contained system
that is embedded within a larger device or system and is used to control the
operation of the device.
• Embedded processors are typically found in devices that require real-time
processing capabilities, such as industrial control systems, automotive
systems, and consumer electronics.
• Embedded processors are designed to be small, low-power, and efficient, as
they are typically used in devices where space and power are at a premium.
• They are also designed to be reliable and to operate for long periods of time
without failure.
• Some examples of devices that use embedded processors include
smartphones, TVs, washing machines, and aircraft systems.

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 Types of Embedded Processors

• General Purpose Processors (GPPs)

• Microprocessors
• Microcontrollers
• Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
• Single-Purpose Embedded Processor
• System-on-Chip (SoC)

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 Microprocessor
• A microprocessor is a processor that is contained on a microchip, or integrated circuit
(IC). It is a central processing unit (CPU) that executes the instructions of a computer
program. Some features of microprocessors include:
• Instruction set: Microprocessors have a specific instruction set that defines the
operations that they can perform.
• Clock speed: The clock speed of a microprocessor determines how fast it can execute
instructions. Microprocessors typically have high clock speeds, which allows them to
perform tasks quickly.
• Data bus: The data bus is a communication pathway that is used to transfer data
between the microprocessor and other components in a system.
• Address bus: The address bus is a communication pathway that is used to transfer the
address of a memory location between the microprocessor and other components in a
system.
• Cache: Many microprocessors have one or more levels of cache, which is a small amount
of high-speed memory that is used to store frequently accessed data. This helps to
improve the performance of the microprocessor.

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 Microprocessor

• Power consumption:
Microprocessors can have
relatively high power
consumption, which can be a
concern in devices where power is
limited.
• Size: Microprocessors are
designed to be small, as they are
typically used in devices where
space is at a premium.
• Cost: Microprocessors can vary in
cost depending on their
capabilities and features.

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 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a small, low-power computer that is contained in a single integrated
circuit (IC). It is a type of embedded processor that is used in a wide range of devices,
including consumer electronics, industrial control systems, and automotive systems.
Some features of microcontrollers include:
On-chip peripherals: Many microcontrollers have a variety of on-chip peripherals, such as
timers, serial ports, and analog-to-digital converters, which allow them to interface with
external devices.
Memory: Microcontrollers have both program memory, which stores the instructions
that are executed by the processor, and data memory, which is used to store variables
and other data.
Input/output (I/O) pins: Microcontrollers have a set of I/O pins that can be used to
interface with external devices, such as sensors or actuators.
Low power consumption: Microcontrollers are designed to be low-power, which makes
them suitable for use in battery-powered devices. 7
 Microcontroller

Cost: Microcontrollers are typically

less expensive than general-
purpose processors, as they are
designed for specific tasks and do
not have as many capabilities.
Size: Microcontrollers are small,
which makes them suitable for use
in compact devices.
Flexibility: Microcontrollers are
highly flexible and can be
programmed to perform a wide
range of tasks.
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Microprocessor vs Microcontroller

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 Characteristics of Embedded System
Generally, an embedded system executes a particular operation and does the
similar work continually. For instance: A pager is constantly functioning as a pager.
• Embedded system must posses the design metric in terms of execution
features like size, power, cost and also performance.
• It must perform fast enough and consume less power to increase battery life.
• Several embedded systems should constantly react to changes in the system
and also calculate particular results in real time without any delay. For
instance, a car cruise controller; it continuously displays and responds to speed
& brake sensors. It must calculate acceleration/de-accelerations frequently in a
limited time; a delayed computation can consequence in letdown to control
the car.

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Characteristics of Embedded System

• It must be based on a microcontroller or microprocessor

based.
• It must require a memory, as its software generally inserts in
ROM. It does not require any secondary memories in the PC.
• It must need connected peripherals to attach input & output
devices.
• An Embedded system is inbuilt with hardware and software
where the hardware is used for security and performance
and Software is used for more flexibility and features.

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 Applications of Embedded systems
these are applications of microcontroller

Consumer electronics: Embedded systems are used in many types of

consumer electronics, such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other portable
devices.
Industrial control systems: Embedded systems are used to control and
monitoring industrial equipment, such as robots, conveyor belts, and other
manufacturing systems.
Automotive systems: Embedded systems are used in automotive systems,
such as engine control, traction control, and advanced driver assistance systems
(ADAS).
Medical devices: Embedded systems are used in medical devices, such as
monitoring devices, imaging devices, and drug delivery systems.

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Applications of Embedded systems
these are also microcontroller applications

Military systems: Embedded systems are used in military systems,

such as missiles, aircraft, and other defense systems.
Communication systems: Embedded systems are used in
communication systems, such as routers, switches, and other
networking equipment.
Home automation systems: Embedded systems are used in home
automation systems, such as smart thermostats, security systems,
and lighting control systems.
Other applications: Embedded systems are used in many other
applications, such as point-of-sale systems, cash registers, vending
machines, and many others.

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Introduction to Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann Architecture is a digital computer architecture whose design is based

on the concept of stored program computers where program data and instruction
data are stored in the same memory. This architecture was designed by the famous
mathematician and physicist John Von Neumann in 1945.

Fig. 1. Block diagram of Von Neumann Architecture 14

 Introduction to Harvard Architecture

Harvard Architecture is the digital computer architecture whose design is based on

the concept where there are separate storage and separate buses (signal path) for
instruction and data. It was basically developed to overcome the bottleneck of Von
Neumann Architecture.

Fig. 2. Block diagram of Harvard Architecture 15

 Difference Between Harvard an Von
Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture
It is ancient computer architecture based on It is modern computer architecture based on
stored program computer concept. Harvard Mark I relay based model.

Same physical memory address is used for Separate physical memory address is used for
instructions and data. instructions and data.

There is common bus for data and instruction Separate buses are used for transferring data and
transfer. instruction.

Two clock cycles are required to execute single An instruction is executed in a single cycle.
instruction.

It is cheaper in cost. It is costly than Von Neumann Architecture.

CPU can not access instructions and read/write at CPU can access instructions and read/write at the
the same time. same time.

It is used in personal computers and small It is used in micro controllers and signal
computers. processing. 16
 Embedded Systems Architecture

The architecture of an embedded system is an abstraction of the

embedded device, meaning that it is a generalization of the system that
typically doesn’t show detailed implementation information such as
software source code or hardware circuit design. At the architectural
level, the hardware and software components in an embedded system
are instead represented as some composition of interacting elements.
Elements are representations of hardware and/or software whose
implementation details have been abstracted out, leaving only
behavioral and inter-relationship information. Architectural elements
can be internally integrated within the embedded device, or exist
externally to the embedded system and interact with internal elements.
In short, an embedded architecture includes elements of the embedded
system, elements interacting with an embedded system, the properties of
each of the individual elements, and the interactive relationships
between the elements. 17
Block Diagram of Embedded Systems
Architecture

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Embedded Hardware Units and Devices
in a System
1. Power Source: Most systems have a power supply of their own. The
Network Interface Card (NIC) and Graphic Accelerator are examples of
embedded systems that do not have their own power supply and connect to
PC power supply lines. The supply has a specific operation range or range
of voltages. Various unis in an embedded system operate in one of the
following four power ranges: 5.0V ± 0.25V, 3.3V ± 0.3V, 2.0V ± 0.2V and
1.5V ± 0.2V. There is generally an inverse relationship between
propagation delay in the gates and operational voltage. Therefore, the 5V
system processor and units are used in most high performance systems.
2. Clock Oscillator Circuit and Clocking Units: The clock controls the time
for executing an instruction. After the power supply, the clock is the basic
unit of a system. A processor needs a clock oscillator circuit. The clock
controls the various clocking requirements of the CPU, of the system timers
and the CPU machine cycles. The machine cycles are for fetching codes
and date from memory and then decoding and executing them at the
processor and for transferring the results to memory.
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Embedded Hardware Units and Devices
in a System
3. System Timers and Real-time Clocks: A timer circuit is suitably
configured as the system clock, which ticks and generates system interrupts
periodically; for example 60 times in 1s. The interrupt service routines then
perform the required operation. A timer circuit is suitably configured as the
real-time clock (RTC) that generates system interrupts periodically for the
schedulers, real-time programs and for periodic saving of time and date in
the system. The RTC or system timer is also used to obtain software-
controlled delays and time-outs.
4. Reset Circuit: the reset circuit activates for a fixed period and then
deactivates. The processor circuit keeps the reset pin active and then
deactivates to let the program proceed from a default beginning address.
The reset pin or the internal reset signal, if connected to the other units in
the system, is activated again by the processor; it becomes an outgoing pin
to enforce a reset state in other sister units of the system. On deactivation of
the reset that succeeds the processor activation, a program executes from a
start-up address.
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Embedded Hardware Units and Devices
in a System
5. Watchdog Timer: It is timing device that resets the system after a
predefined timeout. It is activated within the first few clock cycles after
power-up. It has number of applications. In many embedded systems reset
by a watchdog timer is very essential because it helps in rescuing the
system if a fault develops and the program gets stuck. On restart, the
system can function normally.
6. Memory: In a system, there are various types of memory as shown below:

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 Embedded Software in a System

The software is like the brain of the embedded system.

low level language

1. Coding of Software in Machine Codes: During coding in this format, the

programmer defines the addresses and the corresponding bytes or bits at
each address. In configuring some specific physical device or subsystem,
machine code-based coding is used. For example, in a transceiver, placing
certain machine code and bits can configure it to transmit at specific
megabytes per second or gigabytes per second, using specific bus and
networking protocols.
2. Software in High Level Language: Since the coding in assembly
language is very time consuming in most cases, software is developed in a
high-level language, C or C++ or Java in most cases. C is usually the
preferred language. The programmer needs to understand only the
hardware organization when coding in high level language.

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Application Specific Integrated Circuit
(ASIC)
What is an ASIC Chip (Application Specific Integrated Circuit)?
• ASICs are integrated circuits that are specifically
designed and tailored for a particular application or use.

• Unlike general-purpose integrated circuits that can be

used in a variety of devices, they are usually created
from the ground up, based on the specific needs of the
application they are intended for.

• Examples include chips found in toys or those used for

the interfacing of memory and microprocessors.
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 Types of ASIC

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 Types of ASIC

1. Full Custom ASICs

• These ASICs are designed from the ground up for a specific application. Every aspect of
the chip, from the logic gates to the layout of the circuit, is custom-made to meet the
precise requirements of the intended application.
• Full custom ASICs offer the highest performance and the lowest power consumption,
but they are also the most expensive and time-consuming to design and manufacture.
• They are typically used in applications where the volume is high enough or the
performance requirements are strict enough to justify the additional cost and effort.
2. Semi-Custom ASICs
Semi-custom ASICs, including Standard Cell ASICs and Gate Array ASICs, offer a balance
between customization and cost.
• Standard Cell ASICs: In standard cell-based ASIC design, a standard cell library contains
pre-designed logic cells like AND gates, OR gates, multiplexers, and flip-flops.
• These cells are standardized and stored for use in ASIC chip designs.
• The ASIC chip typically includes a standard cell area or flexible block, made up of these
cells arranged in rows, and may also incorporate mega cells such as microcontrollers or
microprocessors, referred to as mega functions, system-level macros, or fixed
blocks/functional standard blocks.
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 Standard Cell ASIC

Standard Cell ASIC

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 Gate Array ASIC

• Gate Array ASICs: Gate Array ASICs are a type of semi-custom ASIC with predefined transistors on
the silicon wafer, where the designer cannot alter the transistor placement but can change the
interconnections between them using the die's initial metal layers.
• The design utilizes a gate array library for configuration, typically resulting in Channeled, Channel-
less, or Structured Gate Arrays, each varying in interconnection approach. This method, known as
Masked Gate Array, relies on a base array pattern and base cells for circuit design.

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Gate Array ASIC and Programmable
ASIC
• Channeled Gate Arrays: Utilize predefined routing channels between logic cells for wire
connections, suitable for standardized designs needing flexible interconnect pathways.
• Channel-less Gate Arrays: Lack predefined routing channels, allowing more compact
designs by placing interconnects directly over cells, enhancing chip density.
• Structured Gate Arrays: Combine predefined logic blocks with customizable
interconnect layers, offering a balance between design flexibility and rapid
development.

3. Programmable ASICs
• Programmable Logic Devices (PLD): a type of digital integrated circuit that can
be programmed to perform a wide range of logical operations. They are used
in various applications to implement custom logic circuits without the need for
custom semiconductor manufacturing.
• FPGAs: Reprogrammable and can be used for various applications. They can be
configured by the user after manufacturing according to different needs.

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 Applications of ASIC

• The distinct characteristics of ASICs have transformed electronic

manufacturing, leading to smaller die sizes and greater logic gate
density per chip.
• Typically chosen for advanced applications, ASIC chips serve as IP
cores in satellites, are crucial in ROM production, and are utilized
in microcontrollers, as well as in a wide array of medical and
research applications.
• Currently, one of the most notable uses of ASIC technology is in
Bitcoin mining.

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Embedded Networking and Standards

Communication Interface:
• Communication interface is essential for communicating
with various subsystems of the embedded system and
with the external world.

• The communication interface can be viewed in two

different perspectives, namely:
1. Device/board level communication interface
(Onboard Communication Interface)
2. Product level communication interface (External
Communication Interface)
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Embedded Networking and Standards

1. Device/board level communication interface

(Onboard Communication Interface):

The communication channel which interconnects the

various components within an embedded product is referred
as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard
Communication Interface)

Examples: Serial interfaces like I2C, SPI, UART, Parallel

bus interface etc.

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Embedded Networking and Standards

2. Product level communication interface (External

Communication Interface):
The Product level communication interface (External Communication
Interface) is responsible for data transfer between the embedded
system and other devices or modules. The external communication
interface can be either wired media or wireless media and it can be a
serial or parallel interface.

Examples for wireless communication interface: Infrared (IR),

Bluetooth (BT), Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi), Radio Frequency waves
(RF), GPRS etc.
Examples for wired interfaces: RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485, USB,
Ethernet (TCP-IP), Parallel port etc.
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 Serial Communication-RS232

• A popular way to transfer commands and data between a

personal computer and a microcontroller is the use of
standard interface, like the one described by protocols
RS232 (older) or USB (newer).
• The protocol RS232 defines the signals used in
communication, and the hardware to transfer signals
between devices.

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 Serial Communication-RS232

• An RS232 serial bus consists of just two communication

wires - one for sending data and another for receiving. As
such, serial devices should have two serial pins: the
receiver, RX, and the transmitter, TX.

• RS232 data is sent serially, each bit is sent one after the
next because there is only one data line in each direction.
This mode of data transmission also requires that the
receiver knows when the actual data bits are arriving so
that it can synchronize itself to the incoming data.

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 Serial Communication-RS232

RS-232 Signals:
• Architecturally RS-232 is a bi-
directional point to point link.
• Two independent channels are
established for two-way (full-
duplex) communications.
• RS-232 can also carry
additional signals used for flow
control (RTS, CTS) and modem
control (DCD, DTR, DSR, RI).

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 Serial Communication-RS232

How fast can RS-232 be?

• The maximum speed, according to the standard, is
20kbit/s. However, modern equipment can operate much
faster than this. (i.e. Lynx can reach 115200 baud.)
• The length of the cable also plays a part in maximum
speed. The longer the cable the slower the speed at which
you can obtain accurate results.
• A large wire capacitance and inductance limits the
maximum length of the cable and/or the maximum speed;
Moreover higher is the capacitance of the cable higher is
the interference between two adjacent signal wire.
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 Serial Communication-RS485

• RS-485 is a standard interface for physical communication. It is a

form of serial communication.
• Typical serial communication standards are RS232 and RS485.
RS485 expands the physical function on the basis RS232 interface.
• RS-485 adopts balanced transmission and differential reception,
so it has the ability to suppress common mode interference.
• In addition, the bus transceiver has high sensitivity and can detect
voltages as low as 200mv, so the transmission signal can be
recovered from kilometers away.
• The RS485 maximum transmission rate is 10Mbps.
• The RS485 interface is strong, and the anti-noise interference is
good.

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Difference Between RS 485 and RS 232

Difference Between RS 485 and RS 232

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)

• The Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) is a

synchronous bi-directional full duplex four wire serial
interface bus. The concept of SPI is introduced by
Motorola. SPI is a single master multi-slave system.
• It is possible to have a system where more than one SPI
device can be master, provided the condition only one
master device is active at any given point of time, is
satisfied.
• SPI is used to send data between Microcontrollers and
small peripherals such as shift registers, sensors, and SD
cards.

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 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)

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 I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit)

I2C:
• Inter Integrated Circuit Bus (I2C - Pronounced as I square C) is a
synchronous bi-directional half duplex (one-directional
communication at a given point of time).
• The concept of I2C bus was developed by Philips Semiconductors
in the early 1980’s.
• The original intention of I2C was to provide an easy way of
connection between a microprocessor/microcontroller system and
the peripheral chips in Television sets.

• The I2C bus is comprised of two bus lines, namely: Serial Clock –
SCL and Serial Data – SDA.
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 I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit)

I2C Bus

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 I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit)

I2C:
• SCL line is responsible for generating synchronization clock pulses and SDA is
responsible for transmitting the serial data across devices.
• I2C bus is a shared bus system to which many number of I2C devices can be
connected. Devices connected to the I2C bus can act as either Master device or
Slave device.
• The Master device is responsible for controlling the communication by
initiating/terminating data transfer, sending data and generating necessary
synchronization clock pulses.
• Slave devices wait for the commands from the master and respond upon
receiving the commands.
• Master and Slave devices can act as either transmitter or receiver. Regardless
whether a master is acting as transmitter or receiver, the synchronization clock
signal is generated by the Master device only.
• I2C supports multi masters on the same bus.
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 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB:
• A common interface that is used to allow
communication between different peripheral devices
like mouse, digital cameras, printers, keyboards, media
devices, scanners, flash drives & external hard drives as
well as a host controller like a smartphone or PC is
known as USB protocol.

• There are different types of USB connectors available in

the market where Type A and Type B are the most
frequently used ones. At present, older connectors are
replaced by Mini-USB, Micro-USB & USB-C cables.
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 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

Pin Configuration of USB:

• The typical Type-A USB connector is used in various applications.
• These USBs include 4 pins that are given below.
• This type of USB is observed mostly in connecting various devices
to PC because it is the typical four-pin USB connector.
• This connector is taller and narrower including 4-pins arranged
within a box.

The pins of Type A USB are indicated with color wires to perform a particular
function.
• Pin1 (VBUS): It is a red color wire, used for providing power supply.
• Pin2 (D-): It is a differential pair pin available in white color, used for
connectivity of USB.
• Pin3 (D+): It is a differential pair pin available in green color, used for
connectivity of USB.
• Pin4 (GND): It is a Ground pin, available in black color. 45
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

• In the above pins, both the D+ & D- pins indicate the transfer of
data. When a ‘1’ is sent across the wires, then the D+ line will
have positive flow, and if ‘0’ is sent then the reverse happens.

How Does The USB Protocol Work?

• The USB protocol simply works on the polling principle because,
in polling, the processor continuously checks whether the
input/output device is prepared for transmitting data or not.
Thus, the I/O devices do not have to update the processor
regarding their conditions because it is the main responsibility of
the processor to check continuously. So this will make the USB
low-cost & simple.

46
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB Protocol Features

The features of USB include the following.
• The maximum speed of USB 2.0 is up to 480 Mbps.
• An individual USB length can reach up to 40 meters including a hub and up to five
meters without a hub
• USB is a plug & play device.
• It can draw power from a computer or through its own supply.
• By using a single USB host controller, above 100 peripherals can be connected.
• The power used by a USB device is up to 5 V & delivers up to 500 mA.
• Once a computer changes into power-saving mode then some types of USBs
convert automatically into sleep mode.
• A USB includes two wires; one wire is used for power & another is used for
carrying the data.
• At 5V, the computer can provide power up to 500mA on the power wires.
• Low-power-based devices can draw their power from the USB directly.
• Two-way communication is possible by using a USB in between the computer 47 &
peripheral devices.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB Standards and Specifications

The specifications of USB will change based on USB standards that include the
following.
USB supports three types of speed low speed -1.5 Mbps, Full speed -12 Mbps & High
speed – 480 Mbps.
USB 2.0 Standard
• It is a high-speed USB with 480Mbps of maximum data transfer speed. This USB
supports all connectors.
• The maximum length of the cable is 5 meters.
• Its max charging power is up to 15w.
USB 3.2 Standard
• USB 3.2 (Generation1) is a super speed USB with 5Gbps of maximum data
transfer speed.
• It supports different connectors like USB 3 USB-A, USB 3 USB-B & USB-C.
• The maximum length of cable for this USB is 3 meters.
• Its max charging power is up to 15w. 48
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB Standards and Specifications

USB 3.2 (Generation2)
• USB 3.2 (Generation2) is also a super speed USB with 10Gbps of maximum data transfer
speed.
• The maximum length of cable for this USB is 1meter.
• It also supports different connectors like USB 3 USB-A, USB 3 USB-B & USB-C.
• Its max charging power is up to 100w.
USB 3.2 Generation 2×2
• USB 3.2 Generation 2×2 is a super speed USB with 20Gbps of maximum data transfer
speed.
• The maximum length of cable for this USB is 1meter.
• It also supports USB Connector.
• Its max charging power is up to 100w.

49
 USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB Standards and Specifications

Thunderbolt 3 Standard
• This USB is also called thunderbolt including up to 40Gbps of maximum data
transfer speed.
• The maximum length of cable for this USB is 2 meters for active and 0.8meters
for passive cables.
• It supports USB Connector.
• Its max charging power is up to 100w.
USB 4 Standard
• This USB is also known as Thunderbolt 4 with up to 40Gbps of maximum data
transfer speed.
• The maximum length of cable for this USB is 2m for active & 0.8m for passive
cables.
• It supports USB Connector.
• Its max charging power is up to 100w.
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 USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Advantages of USB Disadvantages of USB
The advantages of USB include the following. The disadvantages of USB include the
• Easy to use. following.
• For multiple devices, a single interface • Some manufacturers design low-
is used. quality USBs with less cost.
• Its size is compact. • Its capacity is limited.
• Its connector system is robust.
• As compared to other systems, its
• These are not expensive. data transfer is not fast.
• These are available in different sizes
• USB does not give the
with different connectors.
broadcasting feature, so
• Auto configuration. individual messages are only
• Its expanding is easy. communicated between the host
• High speed. & peripheral.
• Reliable and low cost.
• Power consumption is low.
• Compatible and durable.
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 Bluetooth

• Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data

communication.
• It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is
used for data communications over smaller distances.
• It operates within the unlicensed, business, scientific, and clinical
(ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
• Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters.
• Depending upon the version, it presents information up to at
least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps.
• The spreading method that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping
unfold spectrum).
• A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a group of
interconnected piconets is called a scatternet.
52
 Bluetooth

• Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using
radio waves.
• It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should
be within the estimated communication range to connect.
• When two devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet
which can further accommodate more than five devices.

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 Bluetooth

Key Features of Bluetooth

• The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.

• Bluetooth is a wireless device.

• Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio

communications standard.
• Bluetooth is robust and flexible.

• The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

54
 Bluetooth

Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
• Piconet: Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that
contains one primary node called the master node and
seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes.
• Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8 active nodes which
are present at a distance of 10 meters.
• The communication between the primary and secondary
nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many.
• Possible communication is only between the master and
slave.
• Slave-slave communication is not possible.

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 Bluetooth

Architecture of Bluetooth

56
 Bluetooth

Architecture of Bluetooth
Scatternet:
• It is formed by using various piconets.

• A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master

or we can say primary in another piconet.
• This kind of node can receive a message from a master
in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in
the other piconet where it is acting as a master.
• This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A
station cannot be mastered in two piconets.

57
 Bluetooth

Advantages of Bluetooth
• It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.

• It can also penetrate through walls.

• It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without

any wires.
• It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages of Bluetooth
• It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

• It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.

• Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

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 Zigbee
• ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and
sensing the network.
• ZigBee is the Personal Area Network and it is based on IEEE
802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
• ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol designed to
provide an easy-to-use architecture for secure, reliable, low
power wireless networks.
• ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost
implementation of Low power devices with Low data rates for
short-range wireless communications.
• IEEE 802.15.4 supports star and peer-to-peer topologies. The
ZigBee specification supports star and two kinds of peer-to-peer
topologies, mesh and cluster tree.
• ZigBee-compliant devices are sometimes specified as supporting
point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies. 59
 Zigbee

Types of ZigBee Devices:

• Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with
routers. This device is used for connecting the devices.
• Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between
devices.
• Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be
controlled.

60
 Zigbee

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

• Low Power Consumption
• Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
• Short-Range (75-100 meters)
• Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
• Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory);
240 devices (Practically))
• Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source
Protocol)
• 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a
network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
61
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)
 Zigbee

Zigbee Network Topologies:

• Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a
coordinator and several end devices, end devices
communicate only with the coordinator.
• Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology
consists of one coordinator, several routers, and end
devices.
• Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of
a central node which is a coordinator, several routers,
and end devices. the function of the router is to extend
the network coverage.

62
 Zigbee

Zigbee Network:

63
 Zigbee

Zigbee Applications:
1. Home Automation

2. Medical Data Collection

3. Industrial Control Systems

4. meter reading system

5. light control system

6. Commercial

7. Government Markets Worldwide

8. Home Networking

64
 Real Time Embedded Systems
• One of the earliest decision points in embedded systems
design is whether the system will require real-time
computing capabilities
• From controlling elevators, stoplights, the valves of your
washing machine or even how long your toaster toasts,
embedded computing is everywhere.
• Real time systems are those systems that work within
strict time constraints and provide a worst case time
estimate for critical situations
• Think of a car’s airbag deployment system. If the
microcontroller doesn’t detect a collision or
electronically trigger the airbag within a fraction of a
second, the result is tragic.
• Real time computing describes the ability to react to
inputs and deliver the prescribed output within a
constrained time frame. Devices that use real-time
computing are deployed in applications where their
correct functioning can make the difference between life
and death.
 Embedded Systems v/s Real Time Embedded
Systems
Feature Embedded System Real-Time Embedded System
Specialized computing system Subset of embedded systems
Definition performing dedicated functions designed to perform tasks within
within a larger system strict timing constraints
May or may not have real-time Always have strict timing
Timing Constraints
constraints constraints
Timing is less critical Timing is crucial
Application
Focus on reliability and Deadlines must be met to avoid
Sensitivity
functionality unacceptable consequences
Generally more complex due to
Can range from simple to
the need to guarantee timely
Design Complexity complex, focusing on
responses, predictability, and
functionality, efficiency and cost
reliability
 Real Time Systems
I/O - data

event
time
Real-time
computing system

action

I/O - data
A real time system is a system that reacts to events in the
environment by performing predefined actions WITHIN
SPECIFIED TIME INTEVALS
 Real Time Embedded
Systems
• The embedded systems which
respond to real time situation with
the help of its embedded software
and hardware, within the specified
time constraints are called real time
embedded systems
 Real Time Embedded
Systems
• The Real time System is a system
which is used for performing
some specific tasks.
• The tasks assigned to real-time
systems need to be completed in
given time interval.
• A real-time embedded system
combines the technologies of
embedded systems and real-time
computing. To achieve the most
complete and accurate
description
 Real Time Operating System (RTOS)
• An RTOS is used for embedded systems applications that
are time sensitive or time critical.
• In a time-critical system, the value of completing a task
is linked to its timeliness and tasks that are completed
past the deadline may have a negative value.
• RTOS includes a task scheduler component whose goal is
to ensure that critical tasks meet their deadline, even
when it means sacrificing other areas of performance.
 Characteristics of RTES
1. Constant Response: A real-time embedded system
always responds in the same manner to a certain
situation, it is not allowed to deviate from its normal
designated output.
2. Deadline: A deadline is crucial to the working of an
embedded system, a missed deadline can cost lives and
finances
3. Accuracy: Accuracy is important characteristic for RTES.
what would happen if the pacemaker can't maintain the
heartbeat, patient would eventually die
4. Quick Response: The real-time embedded system must
be swift enough to respond to the changing external
environment with immediate effect
Examples of RTES
Domain Application

Avionics Navigation; displays

Multimedia Games; simulators

Medicine Robot surgery; remote surgery;

medical imaging
Industrial systems Robot assembly lines;
automated inspection
Civilian Elevator control
Automotive system; Global
positioning system (GPS)
Types of RTES
 Hard Real Time Embedded System
• This type of system makes sure that all critical processes are
completed within the given time frame.
• This means that all the delays in the system are strictly time
bound.
• Also, there is little to no secondary memory and data is
stored in short term memory or read only memory.
• Hard real time systems are used in various areas such as
missiles, airplanes etc.

Pacemaker
Hard RTES Example

Example of Hard RTES

 Hard Real Time Embedded System
Advantages:
• Reliability and Predictability: Ensures that critical tasks are completed within
strict deadlines, which is essential for safety-critical applications.
• Safety: Suitable for applications where failure to meet deadlines can result in
catastrophic consequences, ensuring safety and compliance with regulatory
standards.
• Deterministic Behavior: Provides precise and deterministic system behavior,
which is crucial for applications requiring high levels of precision and control.
Disadvantages:
• Complexity and Cost: Designing and implementing hard real-time systems is
complex and costly due to stringent timing and reliability requirements.
• Resource Utilization: Often requires over-provisioning of resources to
guarantee deadlines, leading to potentially inefficient resource utilization.
• Inflexibility: Lack of flexibility in handling dynamic workloads and changes in the
system environment, as strict adherence to deadlines is mandatory.
 Soft Real Time Embedded System
• This These are much less constrictive than hard real time
systems but the basic premise is the same i.e critical
processes need to be completed within the given time
frame.
• However, this time frame can be a little flexible.
• Soft real time systems are used in various areas such as
multimedia, scientific projects etc.
Soft RTES Example

Examples of Soft RTES

Soft Real Time Embedded System
Advantages:
• Flexibility: Can handle dynamic and variable workloads, making them
suitable for applications where occasional deadline misses are
acceptable.
• Efficiency: Higher resource utilization as the system can overcommit
resources and manage priorities dynamically.
• Cost-Effective: Generally cheaper to develop and maintain compared
to hard real-time systems due to more relaxed timing constraints.
Disadvantages:
• Unpredictability: Performance can be less predictable, and occasional
deadline misses can lead to a degradation of service quality.
• Suitability: Not suitable for safety-critical applications where missing
deadlines can have severe consequences.
• Quality Variability: The quality of service may vary depending on the
system load and priority management, leading to potential user
dissatisfaction.
 Firm Real Time Embedded System
• In a firm RTES, errors are occasionally permissible but
there is an understanding that missed deadlines result in
degraded performance of the device.
• A device using a firm RTES may occasionally miss a
deadline, but the application can recover as long as
failures are relatively infrequent.
 Firm RTES Example

Example of Firm RTES

A fully automated assembly line doesn't crash when a task isn't performed in time, it rather ignores that
missed part and continues to complete the rest.
 Firm Real Time Embedded System
Advantages:
• Balanced Approach: Combines the reliability of hard real-time systems with the
flexibility of soft real-time systems, offering a balanced solution for many
applications.
• Tolerance for Occasional Misses: Can tolerate occasional deadline misses
without catastrophic consequences, making them suitable for a wide range of
applications.
• Resource Optimization: Can achieve a good balance between resource
utilization and deadline adherence, optimizing overall system performance.
Disadvantages:
• Complexity: Balancing strict deadlines with occasional flexibility adds
complexity to system design and implementation.
• Resource Management: Requires careful management of resources to ensure
that the system remains reliable while allowing some flexibility.
• Potential for Degradation: Repeated or excessive deadline misses can still lead
to significant performance degradation or system errors, requiring robust
handling mechanisms.
 Hard v/s Soft v/s Firm
Hard Real-Time Soft Real-Time Embedded Firm Real-Time
Feature Embedded Systems Systems Embedded Systems
Systems where missing a Systems where missing a
Systems where missing a
deadline can degrade deadline occasionally is
Definition deadline can lead to
performance but is not tolerable but repeated
catastrophic failures.
catastrophic. misses are problematic.
Airbag systems,
Multimedia systems, online Automated teller machines
Examples pacemakers, industrial
transaction processing (ATM), navigation systems
control systems
Generally strict, but some
Flexible, negotiable within
Deadline Importance Strict and non-negotiable deadlines can be missed
limits
occasionally
Catastrophic failures, Degradation in quality,
Consequences of Reduced quality of service,
possible loss of life or potential for system errors
Missing Deadlines performance degradation
major system failures if repeated misses occur
Predictable with some
Highly predictable and Less predictable, can
System Predictability tolerance for infrequent
deterministic tolerate some variability
deadline misses
Priority-based or time- Best-effort or dynamic Mixture of hard and soft
Scheduling Approach
triggered priority-based real-time scheduling
High, due to need for strict Moderate, balancing Moderate to high,
System Design
timing guarantees and performance and deadline depending on tolerance for
Complexity
predictability adherence deadline misses
Financial systems, some
Critical systems where
Consumer electronics, mission-critical applications
Typical Use Cases safety and reliability are
telecommunication systems with tolerance for
paramount
occasional misses
Common Scheduling Algorithms for Real time systems
• Rate Monotonic Scheduling (RMS): This algorithm assigns static priorities to
tasks based on their periods, with shorter periods receiving higher priorities.
It is suitable for periodic task sets and provides a simple and efficient
scheduling mechanism.
• Earliest Deadline First (EDF): In this algorithm, tasks are scheduled based on
their absolute deadlines, with the task having the earliest deadline receiving
the highest priority. EDF is an optimal scheduling algorithm for preemptive
task sets and can achieve higher processor utilization than RMS.
• Least Laxity First (LLF): This algorithm schedules tasks based on their laxity,
which is the amount of time remaining before a task's deadline minus its
remaining execution time. Tasks with lower laxity values are given higher
priorities, as they have less flexibility in meeting their deadlines.
• Priority-based Scheduling: In this approach, tasks are assigned static or
dynamic priorities based on various factors, such as importance, criticality, or
deadline requirements. Higher-priority tasks are scheduled before lower-
priority tasks.
Types of Event to trigger RTES

 Periodic
 activity occurs repeatedly
 e.g., to monitor environment values, temperature, etc.

period

time
periodic
Types of Event to trigger RTES

 Aperiodic
 can occur any time
 no arrival pattern given

time

aperiodic
aperiodic
Types of Event to trigger RTES

 Sporadic
 can occur any time, but
 minimum time between arrivals

mint

time

sporadic
Typical Real time system example

Temperature
sensor Input port

CPU

Memory

Heater Output port

Typical Real time system example
While true do
{
read temperature sensor
if temperature too high
then turn off heater
else if temperature too low
then turn on heater
else nothing
}
Applications of RTES
Thank you