Module 2

Force Systems
OVERVIEW
A force is defined as an action of one body on another. It is
a vector quantity, because its effect depends on both the
direction and magnitude of the action. Thus, forces may be
combined according to the parallelogram law of vector addition.
In this module, we will study the effects of forces which are
acting on engineering structures and mechanisms. This is very
important and needs your mastery since this is the foundation for
a basic understanding not only of statics but also of the entire
subject of mechanics.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
1. add Cartesian vectors;
2. express vectors in terms of unit vectors, and;
3. solve for the dot product of force vectors.

LESSON 1: CARTESIAN VECTORS

1.1 TWO-DIMENSIONAL
y

j Cartesian Vector Notation . It is also possible to represent

the x and y components of a force in terms of Cartesian unit
F
vectors i and j. Each of these unit vectors has a dimensionless
Fy magnitude of one , and so they can be used to designate the
directions of the x and y axes, respectively. We can express F as
x
a Cartesian vector.
Fx i
F = Fxi + Fyj
Fig. 1

Coplanar Force Resultants . We can use either of the two

methods just described to determine the resultant of several
y
coplanar forces. To do this, each force is first resolved into its x
and y components, and then the respective components are
F1 added using scalar algebra since they are collinear. The resultant
F2
force is then formed by adding the resultant components using
the parallelogram law.
x
F3 For example, consider the four concurrent forces in Fig. 2,
F4 which have x and y components shown in Fig. 3.
a. Using Cartesian vector notation, each force is first
Fig. 2
represented as a Cartesian vector,
F1 = F1xi + F1yj
 y
F1
F2
F1y
F 2 = -F 2 x i + F 2 y j
F2y F 3 = -F 3 x i - F 3 y j
F2x F1x F4 = F4xi - F4yj
x
F3x F4x

F3y The vector resultant is therefore

F3 F4y
FR = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
F4
Fig. 3 = F 1 x i + F 1 y j -F 2 x i + F 2 y j -F 3 x i - F 3 y j + F 4 x i - F 4 y j
= (F 1 x - F 2 x - F 3 x + F 4 x )i + (F 1 y + F 2 y - F 3 y - F 4 y )j
= (F R x )i + (F R y )j

b. Using scalar notation, we have

(+ ) FRx = F1x - F2x - F3x + F4x
y
(+ ) FRy = F1y + F2y - F3y - F4y

The components of the resultant force are

FR F R x = ΣF x
ΣFy
F R y = ΣF y
θ
x
Therefore, the magnitude of the resultant force is
Fig. 4
ΣFx 2
√
F R = ( Σ F x) +( Σ F y )
2

Finally, the direction θ of the resultant is

θ = Arc tan Σ F y
Σ Fx | |
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE NO. 1. Determine the
magnitude of the resultant force acting on the pin and its
direction measured clockwise from the positive x-axis.

Solution:

In finding resultant force of more than two concurrent

forces, the first step is to find the rectangular components
of each force.

F 1 x = 30 cos45° = 21.21 lb F 1 y = 30 sin45° = 21.21 lb

F 2 x = 40 cos15° = 38.64 lb F 2 y = 40 sin15° = 10.35 lb
F 3 x = 25 sin 15° = 6.47 lb F 3 y = 25 cos15°= 24.15 lb

Next, let us sum up, algebraically, all the x components.

Since all the x-components are on the positive x-axis, therefore,
all magnitudes are automatically added.
+
ΣF R x = F 1 x +F 2 x +F 3 x = 21.21+38.64+6.47 = 66.32 lb

Then, let us do the same to all the y components. The y-

components of F 2 and F 3 are directed toward the negative y-axis,
therefore, their signs are negative.
+ ΣF R y = F 1 y – F 2 y – F 3 y = 21.21 – 38.64 – 6.47
= -13.29 = 13.29 lb

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The forces F 1 , F 2 , and F 3 , all of which act

on point A of the bracket, are specified in
three different ways. Determine the x and y
scalar components of each of the three forces.

2. If the magnitude of the resultant force

acting on the eyebolt is 600 N and its
direction measured clockwise from the
positive x-axis is θ = 20°, determine the
magnitude of F 1 and the angle ϕ.

3. If ϕ = 30° and the resultant force acting on the

gusset plate is directed along the positive x axis,
determine the magnitudes of F2 and the resultant
force.

4. Determine the magnitude and

direction measured counterclockwise
from the positive x-axis of the resultant
force of the three forces acting on the
ring A. Take F 1 = 500 N and θ = 20°.

5. Determine the magnitude and direction measured

counterclockwise from the positive x-axis of the resultant force
acting on the ring at O if F A = 750 N and θ = 45°.

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 1.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL

Before taking up three-dimensional force system, it is

important that you know how to draw three-dimensional figures.
Here is the procedure:

First, draw the three-dimensional coordinate system. You

can interchange the x, y and z axis, depending on what
orientation of the 3D object you want to portray or what will best
represent a particular problem. It should be noted that where the
axis name is located, that is the positive side of that axis.
z y

x z

y x

Next, locate the x, y and z components of a vector in their

respective axis. For example, draw vector A = 3i – j + 2k.
z y

x z

y x

Draw parallel lines including the point on particular axis

parallel to the two other two axes. As an example, for point x-
axis, draw a line passing this point parallel with the z and y axes.
z
y

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z
 Connect the intersection points of lines along the same
plane.
y
z

x
x

To locate the resultant vector R, form a box by connecting

the intersection points and creating last sides of the box. The
vector R starts from the origin pointing to the farthest corner of
the box.
z y

R z
x

x R
y

Even the coordinate system has different orientation, the

two figures represent the same vector R.
Rectangular Components of a Vector . A vector A may
have one, two, or three rectangular components along the x, y, z
coordinate axes, depending on how the vector is oriented relative
to the axes. A is represented by the vector sum of its three
rectangular components.
A = Ax + Ay + Az

Cartesian Unit Vectors . In three dimensions, the set of

Cartesian unit vectors, i, j, k, is used to designate the directions
of the x, y, z axes, respectively. As stated in the previous module,
z
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k
 the sense (or arrowhead) of these vectors will be represented
analytically by a plus or minus sign, depending on whether they
are directed along the positive or negative x, y, or z axes. As
emphasized previously, the positive Cartesian unit vectors are
those directed toward the positive axes (the side with the name of
the axis), as shown.

Cartesian Vector Representation . Since the three

components of A act in the positive i, j, and k directions, we can
write A in Cartesian vector form as
A = Axi + Ayj + Azk

Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector . The magnitude of A is

equal to the positive square root of the sum of the squares of its
components.

A = √( A ) +(A
x
2
y
2
) +( A z )
2

Direction of a Cartesian Vector . We will define the

z direction of A by the coordinate direction angles α (alpha), β
(beta), and γ (gamma), measured between the tail of A and the
Az k positive x, y, z axes provided they are located at the tail of A.
Note that regardless of where A is directed, each of these angles
uA A will be between 0° and 180°.
To determine α, β, and γ, consider the projection of A onto
γ the x, y, z axes. Referring to the blue colored right triangles
shown in each figure, we have the so-called direction cosines
α β Ay j
y
Ax Ay Az
cos α = cos β = cos γ =
Ax i A A A
x
Fig. 7 If A is expressed in Cartesian vector form, A = A x i + A y j +
A z k, then unit vector u, will have a magnitude of one and be
dimensionless provided A is divided by its magnitude,

A A A A
uA = = x i + y j + z k
A A A A

which is also equal to

u A = cos α i + cos β j + cos γ k

Finally, A may be expressed in Cartesian vector form as

A = Au A
= A cos α i + A cos β j + A cos γ k
z = Axi + Ayj + Azk
(Az+Bz) k

1.3 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS

R

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A
(Ay+By) j y
 The addition (or subtraction) of two or more vectors are
greatly simplified if the vectors are expressed in terms of their
Cartesian components.

In Fig. 8, if A = A X i + A y j + A z k and B = B x i + B y j + B z k, then

the resultant vector, R, has components which are the scalar
sums of the i, j, k components of A and B,
R = A + B = (A x + B x )i + (A y + B y )j + (A z + B z )k

In general, applying to a system of several concurrent

forces, then the force resultant is the vector sum of all the
forces in the system and can be written as

F R = ΣF = ΣF x i + ΣF y j + ΣF z k

where ΣF x , ΣF y , and ΣF z represent the algebraic sums of the

respective x, y, z or i, j, k components of each force in the
system.
z

1.4 POSITION VECTORS

B In this section you will learn the concept of a position
vector. It will be shown that this vector is of importance in
4m
O formulating a Cartesian force vector directed between two points
y
2m in space.
1m 4m

4m x, y, z Coordinates . Throughout our lessons, we will use a

x
3m right- handed coordinate system to reference the location of
points in space. We will also use the convention followed in many
A technical books, which requires the positive z axis to be directed
upward (the zenith direction) so that it measures the height of an
Fig. 9
object or the altitude of a point. The x, y axes then lie in the
horizontal plane, Fig. 9. Points in space are located relative to
the origin of coordinates, O, by successive measurements along
the x, y, z axes. For example, the coordinates of point A are
obtained by starting at O and measuring x A = +4m along the x
axis, then y A = +4 m along the y axis, and finally z A = -3 m along
the z-axis. Thus, A(4 m, 4 m, -3 m). In a similar manner,
z
measurements along the x, y, z axes from O to B yield the
coordinates of B, i.e., B(2 m,-1 m, 4 m).

Position Vector. A position vector r is defined as a fixed

P (x,y,z) vector which locates a point in space relative to another point.
zk
For example, if r extends from the origin of coordinates, O, to
r point P(x, y, z), Fig. 10, then r can be expressed in Cartesian
vector form as
O yj y
xi r = xi + yj + zk

In the more general case, the position vector may be

x Fig. 10 directed from point A to point B in space, Fig. 11. This vector is
also designated by the symbol r. As a matter of convention, we
will sometimes refer to this vector with two subscripts to indicate
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z
from and to the point where it is directed. Thus, r can also be
designated as r A B . Also, note that r A and r B in Fig. 11 are
referenced with only one subscript since they extend from the
origin of coordinates.

From Fig. 11, by the head-to-tail vector addition, using the

triangle rule, we require
rA + r = rB
Solving for r and expressing r B and r A in Cartesian vector form
yields
r = r B - r A = (x B i + y B j + z B k) - (x A i + y A j + z A k)
or
r = (x B – x A )i + (y B – y A )j + (z B – z A )k

1.5 FORCE VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG A LINE

Fig. 12

Figure 12 is an example of a three-dimensional statics

problem, wherein the direction of a force is specified by two
points through which its line of action passes. As shown in the
figure, the force F is directed along the cord AB. We can
formulate F as a Cartesian vector by realizing that it has the
same direction and sense as the position vector r directed from
point A to point B on the cord. This common direction is specified
by the unit vector u = r/r. Hence,

F = Fu = F
r
r ()
= F
[√ 2 2
]
( x B − x A ) i+ ( y B − y A ) j+ ( z B − z A ) k
( xB − x A ) +( y B − y A ) +( z B − z A )
2

Although we have represented F symbolically in Fig. 12,

note that it has units of force, unlike r, which has units of length.

The force F acting in the direction of a position vector r can

be represented in Cartesian form if the unit vector u of the
position vector is determined and it is multiplied by the magnitude
of the force, i.e., F = Fu = F(r/r).

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

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1. Determine the coordinate angle γ for F 2 and then express each
force acting on the bracket as a Cartesian vector.

2. The force F acts on the bracket

within the octant shown. If the
magnitudes of the x and z
components of F are F x = 300 N
and F z = 600 N, respectively, and β =
60°, determine the magnitude of F
and its y-component. Also, find the
coordinate direction angles α and γ.

3 .

3. If F 3 = 9 kN, θ = 30°, and ϕ= 45°,

determine the magnitude and
coordinate direction angles of the
resultant force acting on the ball-
and-socket joint.

4. Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of

the resultant force acting at A.

5. The door is held opened by means of two chains. If the tension

in AB and CD is F A =300 N and F C = 250 N, respectively, express
each of these forces in Cartesian vector form.

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 LESSON 4: DOT PRODUCT

The dot product of vectors A and B, written A • B, and read

A "A dot B" is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B
and the cosine of the angle θ between their tails, Fig. 13.
Expressed in equation form.
θ
O B A • B = AB cos θ
Fig. 13 where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180”. The dot product is often referred to as the
scalar product of vectors since the result is a scalar and not a
vector.

Laws of Operation

1. Commutative law: A • B = B • A
2. Multiplication by a scalar: a(A • B) = (aA) • B = A • (aB)
3. Distributive law: A • (B + D) = (A • B) + (A • D)

Cartesian Vector Formulation

A • B= (A x i + A y j + A z k) • (B x i + B y j + B z k)
= A x B x (i•i) + A x B y (i•j) + A x B z (i•k)
+ A y B x (j•i) + A y B y (j•j) + A y B z (j•k)
+ A z B x (k•i) + A z B v (k•j) + A z B z (k•k)

Note: i•i = j•j = k•k = (1)(1) cos 0° = 1

i•j = i•k = j•k = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0
Carrying out the dot-product operations, the final result becomes
A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Applications. The dot product has two important applications in

mechanics.
• The angle formed between two vectors or intersecting lines .
θ = cos - 1
A ∙B
AB ( )
0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°
• The components of a vector parallel and perpendicular to a line .

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 A⊥
A

θ a
a
O Aa = A cosθ ua ua

Fig. 14

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the projected

component of the force F A B = 560 N
acting along cable AC. Express the
result as a Cartesian vector.

2. Determine the magnitudes of

the components of force F = 56 N
acting along and perpendicular to
line AO.

3. Determine the length of side BC of

the triangular plate. Solve the problem
by finding the magnitude of r B C ; then
check the result by first finding θ, r A B ,
and r A C and then using the cosine law.

4. Two forces act on the hook. Determine the angle θ between

them. Also, what are the projections of F 1 and F 2 along the y axis?

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SUMMARY
 The resultant of several coplanar forces can easily be
determined if an x, y coordinate system is established and the
forces are resolved along the axes.
 The direction of each force is specified by the angle its line of
action makes with one of the axes, or by a sloped triangle.
 The orientation of the x and y axes is arbitrary, and their
positive direction can be specified by the Cartesian unit
vectors i and j.
 The x and y components of the resultant force are simply the
algebraic addition of the components of all the coplanar forces.
 The magnitude of the resultant force is determined from the
Pythagorean theorem, and when the components are sketched
on the x and y axes, the direction can be determine form
trigonometry.
 Cartesian vector analysis is often used to solve problems in
three dimensions.
 The positive directions of the x, y, z axes are defined by the
Cartesian unit vectors i, j, k, respectively.
 The magnitude of a Cartesian vector is A = √ A x2 + A y2 + A z2.
 The direction of a Cartesian vector is specified using
coordinate direction angles α, β, γ which the tail of the vector
makes with the positive x, y, z axes, respectively. The
components of the unit vector u A = A/A represent the direction
cosines of α, β, γ. Only two of the angles α, β, γ have to be
specified. The third angle is determined from the relationship
cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1.
 Sometimes the direction of a vector is defined using the two
angles θ and ϕ. In this case the vector components are
obtained by vector resolution using trigonometry.
 To find the resultant of a concurrent force system, express
each force as a Cartesian vector and add the I, j, k
components of all the forces in the system.
 A position vector locates one point in space relative to another
point.
 The easiest way to formulate the components of a position
vector is to determine the distance and direction that must be

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 traveled along the x, y, z directions—going from the tail to the
head of the vector.
 A force F acting in the direction of a position vector r can be
represented in Cartesian form if the unit vector u of the
position vector is determined and it is multiplied by the
magnitude of the force, i.e., F = Fu = F(r/r).
 The dot product is used to determine the angle between two
vectors or the projection of a vector in a specified direction.
 If vectors A and B are expressed in Cartesian vector form, the
dot product is determined by multiplying the respective x, y, z
scalar components and algebraically adding the results, i.e.,
A • B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
 From the definition of the dot product, the angle formed
between the tails of vectors A and B is θ = cos - 1 (A • B / AB).
 The magnitude of the projection of vector A along a line aa
whose direction is specified by u a is determined from the dot
product A a = A • u a .

SUGGESTED READINGS

https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/principles-
statics

https://www.physicsclassroo.com/class/vectors/Lesson-1/Vector-
Resolution

REFERENCES

Hibbeler, R.C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, Amazon,

14th Edition
Kraige, L. G. and Meriam, I. L., Engineering Mechanics:
STATICS, 5 t h Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002

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