Chapter 1: Relations and Functions

Key Points and Concepts

1. Relation: A subset of the Cartesian product A×BA \times BA×B, where AAA and BBB are non-
empty sets.

o Types of relations: Reflexive, Symmetric, Transitive, Equivalence relation.

2. Function: A relation f:A→Bf: A \to Bf:A→B where each element of AAA has a unique image in
BBB.

o Types of functions: One-one (Injective), Onto (Surjective), Bijective.

3. Composite Functions: (f∘g)(x)=f(g(x))(f \circ g)(x) = f(g(x))(f∘g)(x)=f(g(x)).

4. Inverse of a Function: Exists if the function is bijective.

Important Formulas

 Number of relations: 2m×n2^{m \times n}2m×n, where mmm and nnn are the cardinalities
of AAA and BBB.

 Inverse of f∘g=g−1∘f−1f \circ g = g^{-1} \circ f^{-1}f∘g=g−1∘f−1.

Important Questions

1. Prove a given relation is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

o Solution: Analyze each property using the definition.

2. Find the inverse of a function.

o Example: f(x)=2x+3f(x) = 2x + 3f(x)=2x+3.

Solution: Solve y=2x+3y = 2x + 3y=2x+3 for xxx: x=y−32x = \frac{y - 3}{2}x=2y−3.

Chapter 2: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Key Points and Concepts

1. Principal value branch for inverse trigonometric functions.

2. Domain and range for each function.

3. Properties of inverse trigonometric functions.

Important Formulas

 sin⁡−1(−x)=−sin⁡−1(x)\sin^{-1}(-x) = -\sin^{-1}(x)sin−1(−x)=−sin−1(x), cos⁡−1(−x)=π−cos⁡−1(x)\

cos^{-1}(-x) = \pi - \cos^{-1}(x)cos−1(−x)=π−cos−1(x).

 tan⁡−1(−x)=−tan⁡−1(x)\tan^{-1}(-x) = -\tan^{-1}(x)tan−1(−x)=−tan−1(x).

Important Questions

1. Simplify expressions involving inverse trigonometric functions.

 o Example: Prove sin⁡−1(x)+cos⁡−1(x)=π2\sin^{-1}(x) + \cos^{-1}(x) = \frac{\pi}{2}sin−1(x)
+cos−1(x)=2π.
Solution: Use the identity directly.

Chapter 3: Matrices

Key Points and Concepts

1. Types of matrices: Row, Column, Square, Diagonal, Scalar, Identity, Zero.

2. Operations: Addition, Scalar multiplication, Multiplication of matrices.

3. Properties of matrix multiplication.

4. Transpose, Symmetric, and Skew-symmetric matrices.

Important Formulas

 (AB)T=BTAT(AB)^T = B^T A^T(AB)T=BTAT.

 A+B=B+AA + B = B + AA+B=B+A.

Important Questions

1. Find the product of matrices.

o Example: Multiply A=[1234]A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix}A=[1324

] and B=[5678]B = \begin{bmatrix} 5 & 6 \\ 7 & 8 \end{bmatrix}B=[5768].
Solution: Compute element-wise products and sum.

Chapter 4: Determinants

Key Points and Concepts

1. Properties of determinants.

2. Area of triangle using determinants.

3. Applications in solving linear equations (Cramer’s Rule).

Important Formulas

 Area of triangle: 12∣x1(y2−y3)+x2(y3−y1)+x3(y1−y2)∣\frac{1}{2} \left| x_1(y_2 - y_3) +

x_2(y_3 - y_1) + x_3(y_1 - y_2) \right|21∣x1(y2−y3)+x2(y3−y1)+x3(y1−y2)∣.

 Cramer’s Rule: x=det(Dx)det(D)x = \frac{\text{det}(D_x)}{\text{det}(D)}x=det(D)det(Dx).

Important Questions

1. Evaluate determinants of higher orders.

o Example: Evaluate det[123456789]\text{det} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 4 & 5 &

6 \\ 7 & 8 & 9 \end{bmatrix}det147258369.
Solution: Use cofactor expansion.
Chapter 5: Continuity and Differentiability

Key Points and Concepts

1. Continuity: A function f(x)f(x)f(x) is continuous at x=cx = cx=c if:

o lim⁡x→c−f(x)=lim⁡x→c+f(x)=f(c)\lim_{x \to c^-} f(x) = \lim_{x \to c^+} f(x) = f(c)limx→c−

f(x)=limx→c+f(x)=f(c).

2. Differentiability: A function f(x)f(x)f(x) is differentiable at x=cx = cx=c if f′(c)f'(c)f′(c) exists.

3. Derivatives of composite, implicit, parametric functions, and logarithmic differentiation.

4. Mean Value Theorem (MVT): If f(x)f(x)f(x) is continuous on [a,b][a, b][a,b] and differentiable
on (a,b)(a, b)(a,b), there exists c∈(a,b)c \in (a, b)c∈(a,b) such that:

o f′(c)=f(b)−f(a)b−af'(c) = \frac{f(b) - f(a)}{b - a}f′(c)=b−af(b)−f(a).

Important Formulas

 ddx(uv)=vuv−1dudx+uvln⁡(u)dvdx\frac{d}{dx} \left( u^v \right) = v u^{v-1} \frac{du}{dx} + u^v \

ln(u) \frac{dv}{dx}dxd(uv)=vuv−1dxdu+uvln(u)dxdv (logarithmic differentiation).

 Derivatives of trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions.

Important Questions

1. Prove continuity and differentiability of a given function.

o Example: Prove f(x)=x2sin⁡xf(x) = x^2 \sin xf(x)=x2sinx is continuous everywhere.

Solution: Check limits and apply definitions.

2. Find the derivative of a parametric function.

o Example: If x=t2x = t^2x=t2, y=t3y = t^3y=t3, find dydx\frac{dy}{dx}dxdy. Solution:

dydx=dydtdxdt=3t22t=32t\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\frac{dy}{dt}}{\frac{dx}{dt}} = \
frac{3t^2}{2t} = \frac{3}{2}tdxdy=dtdxdtdy=2t3t2=23t.

Chapter 6: Application of Derivatives

Key Points and Concepts

1. Rate of Change: dydx\frac{dy}{dx}dxdy represents the rate of change of yyy w.r.t. xxx.

2. Increasing and Decreasing Functions:

o A function is increasing if f′(x)>0f'(x) > 0f′(x)>0, and decreasing if f′(x)<0f'(x) < 0f′
(x)<0.

3. Tangents and Normals:

o Equation of tangent: y−y1=m(x−x1)y - y_1 = m(x - x_1)y−y1=m(x−x1), where m=f′

(x1)m = f'(x_1)m=f′(x1).

o Equation of normal: Perpendicular to tangent.

4. Maxima and Minima:

 o First derivative test: f′(x)=0f'(x) = 0f′(x)=0 and sign analysis of f′(x)f'(x)f′(x).

o Second derivative test: f′′(x)>0f''(x) > 0f′′(x)>0 (minima), f′′(x)<0f''(x) < 0f′′(x)<0
(maxima).

Important Formulas

 Radius of curvature: R=[1+(f′(x))2]3/2∣f′′(x)∣R = \frac{[1 + (f'(x))^2]^{3/2}}{|f''(x)|}R=∣f′′(x)∣[1+(f

′(x))2]3/2.

Important Questions

1. Find local maxima and minima.

o Example: f(x)=x3−3x2+4f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 + 4f(x)=x3−3x2+4.

Solution: Differentiate, solve f′(x)=0f'(x) = 0f′(x)=0, and test for f′′(x)f''(x)f′′(x).

2. Equation of a tangent.

o Example: Find the tangent to y=x2+3y = x^2 + 3y=x2+3 at x=1x = 1x=1.

Solution: m=f′(1)=2x=2(1)=2m = f'(1) = 2x = 2(1) = 2m=f′(1)=2x=2(1)=2. Equation:
y−4=2(x−1)y - 4 = 2(x - 1)y−4=2(x−1).

Chapter 7: Integrals

Key Points and Concepts

1. Indefinite Integral: General form ∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C\int f(x) dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C, where F′

(x)=f(x)F'(x) = f(x)F′(x)=f(x).

2. Definite Integral: ∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_a^b f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a).

3. Properties of definite integrals.

4. Substitution, Integration by Parts, and Partial Fractions.

Important Formulas

 ∫exdx=ex+C\int e^x dx = e^x + C∫exdx=ex+C.

 ∫sin⁡n(x)dx\int \sin^n(x) dx∫sinn(x)dx: Reduction formulas.

 ∫abf(x)dx=∫abf(a+b−x)dx\int_a^b f(x) dx = \int_a^b f(a + b - x) dx∫abf(x)dx=∫abf(a+b−x)dx

(property).

Important Questions

1. Evaluate definite integrals.

o Example: ∫0πxsin⁡xdx\int_0^\pi x \sin x dx∫0πxsinxdx.

Solution: Use integration by parts.

2. Solve integrals using substitution.

o Example: ∫1x2+a2dx\int \frac{1}{x^2 + a^2} dx∫x2+a21dx.

Solution: Use x=atan⁡θx = a \tan \thetax=atanθ.
Chapter 8: Application of Integrals

Key Points and Concepts

1. Area under a curve: ∫ab[f(x)−g(x)]dx\int_a^b [f(x) - g(x)] dx∫ab[f(x)−g(x)]dx.

2. Areas bounded by curves and lines.

Important Formulas

 Area between two curves: ∫ab[f(x)−g(x)]dx\int_a^b [f(x) - g(x)] dx∫ab[f(x)−g(x)]dx, where

f(x)≥g(x)f(x) \geq g(x)f(x)≥g(x) in [a,b][a, b][a,b].

Important Questions

1. Find the area under the curve.

o Example: Area under y=x2y = x^2y=x2 and y=xy = xy=x from x=0x = 0x=0 to x=1x =
1x=1.
Solution: ∫01(x−x2)dx\int_0^1 (x - x^2) dx∫01(x−x2)dx.

Chapter 9: Differential Equations

Key Points and Concepts

1. Order and Degree:

o Order: The highest order derivative in the equation.

o Degree: The highest power of the highest order derivative (provided it is free from
radicals and fractions).

2. Formation of Differential Equations: Eliminate arbitrary constants from a given relation.

3. Solution of a Differential Equation:

o General solution: Contains arbitrary constants.

o Particular solution: Derived using initial/boundary conditions.

4. Methods of solving:

o Variable separable form.

o Homogeneous equations.

o Linear equations: dydx+Py=Q\frac{dy}{dx} + Py = Qdxdy+Py=Q, where PPP and QQQ

are functions of xxx.

o Integrating factors.

Important Formulas

 For dydx+Py=Q\frac{dy}{dx} + Py = Qdxdy+Py=Q:

y⋅μ=∫Q⋅μ dx+Cy \cdot \mu = \int Q \cdot \mu \, dx + Cy⋅μ=∫Q⋅μdx+C, where μ=e∫Pdx\mu =
e^{\int P dx}μ=e∫Pdx.
  General solution for separable form: ∫f(y)dy=∫g(x)dx+C\int f(y) dy = \int g(x) dx +
C∫f(y)dy=∫g(x)dx+C.

Important Questions

1. Solve dydx+y=ex\frac{dy}{dx} + y = e^xdxdy+y=ex. Solution: P=1,Q=exP = 1, Q = e^xP=1,Q=ex,

so μ=ex\mu = e^xμ=ex. General solution: y⋅ex=∫e2xdx+Cy \cdot e^x = \int e^{2x} dx +
Cy⋅ex=∫e2xdx+C.
Final answer: y=Ce−x+exy = Ce^{-x} + e^xy=Ce−x+ex.

2. Form the differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants from y=Ax2+Bxy = Ax^2 +
Bxy=Ax2+Bx.
Solution: Differentiate twice to eliminate AAA and BBB.

Chapter 10: Vector Algebra

Key Points and Concepts

1. Vector Operations:

o Addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication.

o Dot product: a⋅b=∣a∣∣b∣cos⁡θ\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = |\mathbf{a}| |\

mathbf{b}| \cos \thetaa⋅b=∣a∣∣b∣cosθ.

o Cross product: a×b\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}a×b is perpendicular to both a\

mathbf{a}a and b\mathbf{b}b.

2. Properties of dot and cross products.

Important Formulas

 Dot product: a⋅b=a1b1+a2b2+a3b3\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = a_1b_1 + a_2b_2 +

a_3b_3a⋅b=a1b1+a2b2+a3b3.

 Cross product: a×b=∣ijka1a2a3b1b2b3∣\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b} = \begin{vmatrix} \

mathbf{i} & \mathbf{j} & \mathbf{k} \\ a_1 & a_2 & a_3 \\ b_1 & b_2 & b_3 \
end{vmatrix}a×b=ia1b1ja2b2ka3b3.

Important Questions

1. Find the angle between two vectors a\mathbf{a}a and b\mathbf{b}b if a⋅b=0\mathbf{a} \
cdot \mathbf{b} = 0a⋅b=0.
Solution: cos⁡θ=0\cos \theta = 0cosθ=0, so θ=90∘\theta = 90^\circθ=90∘.

2. Find a×b\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}a×b for a=i+j\mathbf{a} = \mathbf{i} + \mathbf{j}a=i+j

and b=j+k\mathbf{b} = \mathbf{j} + \mathbf{k}b=j+k.
Solution: Use determinant formula.

Chapter 11: Three-Dimensional Geometry

Key Points and Concepts

 1. Direction Cosines and Ratios:

o l2+m2+n2=1l^2 + m^2 + n^2 = 1l2+m2+n2=1, where l,m,nl, m, nl,m,n are direction

cosines.

2. Equation of a Line:

o Vector form: r=a+λb\mathbf{r} = \mathbf{a} + \lambda \mathbf{b}r=a+λb.

o Cartesian form: x−x1a=y−y1b=z−z1c\frac{x - x_1}{a} = \frac{y - y_1}{b} = \frac{z - z_1}

{c}ax−x1=by−y1=cz−z1.

3. Equation of a Plane:

o General form: ax+by+cz+d=0ax + by + cz + d = 0ax+by+cz+d=0.

o Vector form: r⋅n=d\mathbf{r} \cdot \mathbf{n} = dr⋅n=d.

Important Formulas

 Distance of a point from a plane: ∣ax1+by1+cz1+d∣a2+b2+c2\frac{|ax_1 + by_1 + cz_1 + d|}{\

sqrt{a^2 + b^2 + c^2}}a2+b2+c2∣ax1+by1+cz1+d∣.

 Shortest distance between two skew lines:

Distance=∣b⋅(a2−a1)∣∣b∣\text{Distance} = \frac{|\mathbf{b} \cdot (\mathbf{a_2} - \
mathbf{a_1})|}{|\mathbf{b}|}Distance=∣b∣∣b⋅(a2−a1)∣, where b=b1×b2\mathbf{b} = \
mathbf{b_1} \times \mathbf{b_2}b=b1×b2.

Important Questions

1. Find the distance of the point (1,2,3)(1, 2, 3)(1,2,3) from the plane 2x+3y+4z−5=02x + 3y + 4z
- 5 = 02x+3y+4z−5=0.
Solution: Use the distance formula.

2. Find the equation of a plane passing through (1,2,3)(1, 2, 3)(1,2,3) and perpendicular to
n=2i+j+3k\mathbf{n} = 2\mathbf{i} + \mathbf{j} + 3\mathbf{k}n=2i+j+3k.
Solution: Equation: 2(x−1)+1(y−2)+3(z−3)=02(x - 1) + 1(y - 2) + 3(z - 3) =
02(x−1)+1(y−2)+3(z−3)=0.

Chapter 12: Linear Programming

Key Points and Concepts

1. Linear Programming Problem (LPP):

o Objective function: Z=ax+byZ = ax + byZ=ax+by (maximize or minimize).

o Constraints: Linear inequalities.

2. Feasible region, corner points, and optimal solutions.

Important Formulas

 Objective function is optimized at a corner point of the feasible region.

Important Questions
 1. Solve Z=3x+2yZ = 3x + 2yZ=3x+2y subject to x+y≤4x + y \leq 4x+y≤4, x≥0x \geq 0x≥0, y≥0y \
geq 0y≥0.
Solution: Plot the constraints, find corner points, and evaluate ZZZ.

Chapter 13: Probability

Key Points and Concepts

1. Conditional Probability: P(A∣B)=P(A∩B)P(B)P(A|B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}

{P(B)}P(A∣B)=P(B)P(A∩B).

2. Bayes’ Theorem: P(A∣B)=P(B∣A)P(A)P(B)P(A|B) = \frac{P(B|A) P(A)}

{P(B)}P(A∣B)=P(B)P(B∣A)P(A).

3. Random variables, probability distributions, mean, and variance.

Important Formulas

 Mean: E(X)=∑xiP(xi)E(X) = \sum x_i P(x_i)E(X)=∑xiP(xi).

 Variance: Var(X)=E(X2)−[E(X)]2\text{Var}(X) = E(X^2) - [E(X)]^2Var(X)=E(X2)−[E(X)]2.

Important Questions

1. A bag contains 3 red and 5 black balls. Find the probability of drawing 2 red balls.
Solution: Use combinations: P=(32)(50)(82)P = \frac{\binom{3}{2} \binom{5}{0}}{\binom{8}
{2}}P=(28)(23)(05).

2. Solve using Bayes' theorem for given events AAA and BBB.