Lecture: 01

vision
sensation perception
 Detection of sensory stimuli by sensory  Interpretation and organization of sensory
receptors. information.
Process: Process:
 Reception of raw sensory information from  Integration and understanding of sensory
the environment. information to form meaningful experience.
Example: Example:
 Feeling the warmth of sunlight on your skin.  Recognizing the sunlight as a pleasant and
comforting warmth.

o brain receives 80% of all the

information from our eyes

o Eyes are covered in orbital cavity

o each eye is attached to orbital cavity

with 6 nerves.

The 1st stage in vision is eye, which contains 02 systems:

1- Optics System:
 includes the cornea, lens
 focus light on the retina creating a clear visual scene.
 responsible for forming the image

2- Neural System:
 Includes retina + optic nerve

 Once light has been focused onto the retina, specialized cells called photoreceptors convert
the light signals into electrical signals.

 responsible for converting light into electrical signals and transmitting them to the brain for
processing.
 1. Cornea: Helps to focus light entering the eye.
2. Retina: Converts light into signals for the brain.
3. Pupil: Controls the amount of light entering the eye.
4. Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
5. Iris: Controls size of pupil.
6. Choroid: Supplies blood to retina.
7. Blind Spot:
Area where optic nerve exits in the eye
lacks photoreceptor cells.
The spot in our eye where there are no cells to detect light, like a small gap in our vision.
8. Ciliary Muscles: Control shape of lens for focusing.
9. Aqueous Humour: Helps maintain eye pressure + nourishes nearby tissues.
10. Vitreous Humour: Gel-like substance that helps maintain eye shape + support the retina.
11. Optic Nerve: Transfers visual information from retina to brain.

Human eye consists of 03 layers:

1. Sclerotic Coat:
Outermost layer
Made up of thick white fibrous material called Sclera.
Protective layer
2. Choroid Coat:
Middle layer
Black or very dark grey in colour
Contains pigments that absorb excess light.
Contains thin blood vessels that supply blood to the eye.
3. Retinal Coat:
Inner most layer
Cup-shaped
Optic nevers are located in it.
Very sensitive part
 1) Sclerotic Coat:
The tough, outermost layer of the eye, providing structural support and protection.
Shape: Round/curved.
Color: White.
Location: Outermost layer of the eye, surrounding the entire eyeball.

2) Choroid Coat:
A layer of tissue containing blood vessels that supply nutrients to the retina and absorb
excess light.
Shape: Thin and flat.
Color: Dark brown or black.
Location: Lies between the sclera and the retina, covering the back of the eye.
Melanocytes: Cells responsible for producing melanin, giving choroid its dark color.

3) Retinal Coat:
The innermost layer of the eye containing light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) that detect
light and transmit visual signals to the brain.

Shape: Thin and delicate.

Color: Varied shades of pink or reddish.
Location: situated inside eyeball, opposite choroid coat, where it detects light and sends signals to
the brain.

Difference b/w Photo-receptors

rods cones
1 o help us see in dim light. o help us see in bright light during the
daytime.
2 o responsible for night vision. o responsible for color vision
3 o mostly found at the outer edges of the o clustered together in the center of the retina,
retina particularly in a small area called the fovea.
4 o good at detecting motion. o provide high visual acuity,
5 o More sensitive to low light o Less sensitive to low light
6 o detect shades of gray, so they help us see o allow us to see a wide range of colors and
in black and white, but they don't perceive color contrasts.
distinguish colors very well.

Dark adaptation: is the process where the eyes adjust to low light conditions
color vision: is the ability to perceive different colors in the environment.
 Lecture: 02
Learning & Memory
Learning: process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, understanding through experience,
study, instruction.

Memory: ability to store, retain, recall information.

 It is cognitive process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Stages/steps of Memory
1) Encoding:
 Known as input- stage
 process of receiving, processing, combining information.
 information is collected and processed in the form of visual, sound and semantic (meaning).
 transforming sensory input into a meaningful mental representation that can be stored and
later retrieved.
2) Storage:
 retention of en-coded information.
 Deals with:
nature of memory,
time duration of memory
type of memory
amount of information stored
3) Retrieval:
 Recalling stored information when needed.

Types of Memory
 Sensory memory Short term memory long term memory
known as  sensory register  working memory.  permanent memory

Duration  < 1 sec  < 1 min  Life time

Capacity  Large  Limited capacity (7 ± 2  Virtually unlimited

items)
Encoding  raw sensory information Encoding based on: Encoding based on:
 Meaning  semantic meaning
 interpretation
Purpose  Filters + selects  Holds information  Stores information for
information for further temporarily for future retrieval and
processing ongoing/current tasks utilization
Example  hearing a sudden sound  Remembering a phone  Recalling your childhood
number temporarily home address years later

Types of long-term Memory

Explicit Memory Implicit Memory

types  declarative memory.  procedural memory
Known as  declarative memory  procedural memory
nature  Conscious in nature.  Unconscious in nature.
define  Remembering things on purpose  Remembering things automatically
example  your birthday  how to ride a bike
 phone number.
acquired  conscious effort + intention.  Repetition
through  practice

Declarative memory Procedural memory

nature  Conscious in nature  Unconscious in nature
define  Memory for facts + events  Memory for skills + procedures
example  your birthday  how to ride a bike
 phone number.  Driving a car
 swimming
Learned  Study  Repetition
through  understanding  practice
affected by  severely  Less affected by amnesia
amnesia  Affected by motor disorders
Relies on /  hippocampus  basal ganglia
storage  cerebellum
 Episodic Memory Semantic Memory:
define  Memories of personal experiences  General knowledge + facts +
concepts about the world
example  first day at a new job  capital of cities
Time aspect  Focuses on when specific event  Time is not important
occurred
Context  Remembering events in specific  Context is not important
contexts
nature  Specific to individual experiences  Universal knowledge
 unique experiences
emotions  Emotions are closely linked with  Emotions are not closely linked
memories with memory
Acquired through  Direct involvement in events  direct experience
 education

Types of Learning
1- Motor learning: process of getting better at doing physical tasks by practicing them over and
over again.
Example:
 riding a bike or playing piano by practicing them over time.
2- Perceptual Learning: Improving your ability to recognize and understand things through
practice + experience.
Example:
 distinguish between different types of fruits by their appearance,
 distinguishing between different birds voices
3- Relational learning: understanding how things are connected or related to each other.
Example:
 Understanding that a bicycle has wheels, pedals, and handlebars, recognizing the relationship
between its parts to operate it.
4- Stimulus-Response Learning: Learning where a specific action happens automatically in
reaction to a certain situation.
major categories: 02
 Classical conditioning
 operant conditioning.

Conditioning: type of learning where behaviors become associated with certain events or
consequences through repeated experiences.

Classical learning Operant learning

1)Identified as pavlovian conditioning 1)Identified as instrumental
conditioning

2)recognized in Russia 2)recognized in U.S.

3)involuntary behaviors are being 3)voluntary behaviors are being

involved involved

4)begins in 1900s 4)begins in 1938

5)reinforcement took place before 5) reinforcement took place after

response response

6)when 2 stimuli combined jointly to 6)form of conditioning: enlightening

create new learned response in a relationship between behavior and
person then, it took place their consequences

7)behavior is indicated as elicited 7)behavior is indicated as emitted

8)dog experiment of Pavlov’s create 8)rat box experiment of skinner proves

this theory this theory

9) Ivan Pavlov discovered this theory 9) B.F. skinner introduced this theory

10)There is passive role of learner that 10)There is active role of learner that is
is being involved being involved
 Role in Memory
Basal Ganglia:
o Located deep within cerebral hemispheres.

Functions:

o involved in emotional regulation

o aids in cognitive functions: attention
o Dysfunction can lead to Parkinson's + Huntington's disease.
o Control of muscle tone
o remembering tasks or habits through repetition
o remembering emotional experiences
o storing memories related to movement and coordination. (playing sports / dancing.)
o aid in storing memories related to learning new skills
o remembering past decisions and outcomes, guiding future choices.

amygdala

1) almond-shaped structure
2) derived from Greek word amygdale
3) Located on temporal lobe
4) located next to hippocampus
5) located below the uncus
6) comprises of 13 nuclei
7) Known as emotional center of the brain
8) Aids in forming new memories specially related to fear.
9) play a central role in our emotional responses like
 pleasure,
 fear,
 anxiety
 anger
 aggression
10) When stressed, the amygdala can affect memory, sometimes making it harder to remember things
accurately.
11) helps in transforming short-term memories into long-term memories
12) Adds emotions to memories to make them strong.
13) aids in decision-making based on past experiences.

Role of Cortex
o Processing Information
o Storing past Memories / experiences
o Recalling Memories: friend's birthday
o Learning New skills or knowledge.
o Aids in Making Connections with different memories: helping us understand relationships between them.
o Aids in storing Emotional Memories: joy of a graduation day.

Amnesia Kor-sak-off’s Alzheimer’s Dementia

Syndrome disease
 type of memory loss  progressive brain  severe loss of
 having difficulty in caused by severe lack disorder causing cognitive abilities
recalling of vitamin B1. memory loss, like memory,
information. thinking problems, thinking, and
define  severe anterograde and difficulty with reasoning,
amnesia daily tasks.
 common type of
dementia
 Head injury  long-term alcohol  Genetic factors  Alzheimer's disease
misuse  Amyloid beta  Vascular dementia
 Psychological accumulation  Lewy body
cause trauma  Malnutrition:  Tau protein dementia
abnormalities  Fronto-temporal
 Damage to  Environmental dementia
hippocampus factors  Traumatic brain
 Age-related changes injury
 Anterograde  Difficulty learning new  Difficulty in  Difficulty in
amnesia information communication problem-solving
 Retrograde
 Difficulty in giving  Difficulty in
amnesia  Cognitive decline
Attention communication
effects  Organic amnesia
 Post-hypnotic  Visual + Emotional  mood swings  Hallucinations
amnesia disturbances

Antero-grade
amnesia:
 Difficulty forming
new memories
after an event.
 difficulty in
learning new
information.
Retro-grade amnesia:
 Difficulty
remembering past
events or
information.
 inability to
remember events
that happened
 before brain
damage
Adopting healthy Adopting healthy
lifestyle habits: lifestyle habits:
 regular physical  regular physical
 Psychotherapy  Psychotherapy
exercise, exercise,
 balanced diet rich in  balanced diet rich in
treatment  Cognitive  Cognitive fruits, vegetables, fruits, vegetables,
Rehabilitation and omega-3 fatty and omega-3 fatty
Rehabilitation
acids, acids,
 adequate sleep  adequate sleep
 social engagement.  social engagement.
 Thiamine
Supplementation medications includes: medications includes:
 cholinesterase  cholinesterase
inhibitors inhibitors
(donepezil, (donepezil,
galantamine) galantamine)
 me-man-tine  me-man-tine

Lecture: 03
Psycho-pharmacology: study of how drugs affect mood, behavior & mental processes.
02 broad classes:
 therapeutic drugs
 drugs of abuse.
o ‘Pharma-con’ is Greek word used for “drug”.

Drug:
 1st-refers to medication we obtain from pharmacist as medicine that has therapeutic effect
on disease.
 2nd- refers to chemical that people mis-use such as: heroin / cocaine.

Drug effects:
effects of codeine, morphine includes:
 decreases sensitivity to pain,
 slowed digestion,
 muscular relaxation,
 pupil constriction
 high doses causes euphoria.

Sites of action of drugs:

Refers to locations where drug molecules bind with molecules located on / in cells of body, to
affect bio-chemical processes of these cells.
1) Receptor sites on cell surfaces:
Drugs can bind to specific receptors on the surface of cells, triggering a response within the
cell.
2) Enzymes within cells:
Drugs may inhibit or activate enzymes within cells, affecting various biochemical processes.
3) Ion channels:
Drugs can change / reduce / disturb the flow of ions through ion channels, influencing electrical
signaling within cells.
4) Neurotransmitter uptake sites:
Drugs can interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters, affecting their levels and
prolonging their activity in the synaptic cleft.
5) Organs or tissues:
Drugs may target specific organs or tissues in the body, exerting their effects locally or
systemically.

Pharma-co-kinetics: is how the body processes a drug, including absorption, distribution,

metabolism, excretion.
includes 04 steps by which drugs are:
(1) Absorbed
(2) Distributed within the body
(3) Metabolized
(4) Excreted

Detailed explanation:
1- Absorption: (Routes of Administration)
Intra-venous Injection:
 Injection into a vein.
 medicine / fluids are delivered directly into a vein using a needle.
Disadvantages:
 risk of getting an infection at the injection site.
 people face pain if the needle is not inserted properly.
 small chance of developing blood clots
 Veins can be damaged from frequent injections
 Some people may feel faint or dizzy during or after the injection.
 Bruising and swelling can occur at the injection site, causing discomfort.

Intra-peri-toneal injection:
 drug is injected through the abdominal wall into the peritoneal cavity (space that surrounds
the stomach, intestines, liver, other abdominal organs.)
 medicine / fluids are injected into the space inside the abdomen
Intra-muscular Injection:
 medicine / fluids are injected directly into a muscle using a needle.

Sub-cu-taneous Injection:
 Medicine / fluids are injected under the skin into the fatty layer.
Intra-cerebral Administration:
 Medicine is directly injected into the brain tissue.
 Intra-cerebro ventricular administration: when medicine is injected directly into the fluid
spaces within the brain 's ventricles.
Sub-ling-ual Administration:
 Medicine is placed under the tongue and absorbed through the mucous membranes.
 it is taken without use of water.
 tablets are small in size
Topical Administration:
 Medicine is applied directly to the skin or mucous membranes.
 Examples: lotions, gels, patches, powders, creams, ointments.
Oral Administration:
 Medicine is taken by mouth and swallowed into the digestive system.
 Examples: tablet, capsules, syrups
Inhalation:
 Medicine is breathed into the lungs through the nose / mouth.
 Nicotine, freebase cocaine, marijuana are usually smoked.
 inhaled in the form of vapors

2- Distribution: (Entry of Drugs into the Brain)

 Distribution in the body is affected by several factors, such as lipid solubility.

 Example: heroin (di-acetyl-morphine) is more lipid soluble than morphine. Because it is

highly lipid soluble.

 intravenous injection of heroin produces more rapid effects than injection of morphine.
3- Metabolism and Excretion:
 Drugs do not remain in the body forever.
 Many are metabolized and deactivated by enzymes, and all are eventually excreted, by
kidneys. liver plays active role in enzymatic deactivation of drugs.

Drug Effectiveness
Question: why do drugs vary in their effectiveness?
There are reasons:
sites of action
 affinity of a drug:
 refers to how strongly a drug is attracted to + binds with its targeted specific location in the
body where it produces its effects.
 Drugs with high affinity work at low doses
 Drugs with low affinity need higher doses.
 Effective drugs bind strongly to their target sites for better results.
Body Differences: Everyone's body is different, so drugs can affect people in different ways.
Metabolism: How fast or slow our bodies break down drugs can impact their effectiveness.
Illness Severity: seriousness of the illness can affect how well a drug works. Example: mild
infection might be easier to treat than severe one.
Dosage: right amount of drug is important to check its effective-ness.

 Example too little might not works well while too much could be harmful.

 Morphine and aspirin both are analgesics (medications or substances that are used to relieve
pain)
 morphine suppress the activity of neurons in the spinal cord and brain that are involved in pain
perception
 aspirin reduces the production of chemical involved in transferring information from damaged
tissue to pain sensitive neurons.
 drugs act very differently
 morphine aids in more pain reduction
 aspirin aids in less pain reduction

Health Conditions: factors like age, weight can impact how well a drug works in our bodies.

Genetics: Our genes play key role in how we respond to drugs, influencing their effectiveness.
some people may metabolize drugs faster or slower than others.

Effects of Repeated Administration

With repeated use, drugs can produce:
1- Tolerance: When a drug becomes less effective after repeated use.
2- Sensitization: When a drug becomes more effective after repeated use.
3- Withdrawal effects:
o using drugs over and over brings physical dependence.
o For example: Heroin produce euphoria, constipation, relaxation
o withdrawal brings discomfort like: dysphoria, nausea, cramping.

placebo effect:
is a phenomenon in which patient experience real improvements in their condition such as pain
relief /symptom alleviation, after receiving an inactive treatment like placebo pill, (sugar pill /
saline injection) due to their belief in its effectiveness.
 03 characteristics of the placebo effect:

1) Subjective Improvement:
o Patients will notice genuine improvement in their symptoms / condition, even though the
treatment itself lacks therapeutic properties.
2) Psychological Component / Belief Matters:
o placebo effect is strongly influenced by the patient's beliefs, expectations and doctor-patient
relationship
o highlights the role of human psyche in healthcare outcomes.
o People feel better when they believe a treatment is helping them, even if it's not real
medicine.
o It shows how powerful our thoughts and feelings can be in making us feel better or worse.
3) Variable Response / Different for Everyone:
o placebo effect is not same for everyone
o strength of placebo effect can vary among individuals and conditions.
o it can vary from person to person + condition to condition
Lecture: 04
Emotions
 Shows how people react with situations

 conscious mental reaction practiced as strong feeling

commonly directed toward a specific object

 normally expressed through biological and developmental

changes in the body.

 Linked with reactions of body, activated through

neurotransmitters and hormones released by brain

 comes from Latin word "emo-vere" which means “to move out”
 Theories of Emotions
James-Lange Theory Facial feedback theory
define  emotions happen because our body reacts to  our facial expressions can influence
event first how we feel emotionally.
 Emotions are the result of physiological  Emotions are influenced by facial
reactions in the body. expressions.
 Body reacts first, then we feel emotion  Facial expression happens, then we
feel emotion

example  feeling scared because we start to shake.  Smiling makes you feel happy."
 See a bear → Heart races → Feel fear  Smile → Feel happier

Proposed by  William James + Carl Lange  Paul Ekman

Proposed in  Late 19 century  20 century

process  Event → Physiological response → Emotion  Event → Facial expression → Emotion

Fear
Feeling scared that something bad will happen.
 Components of Emotional Response: 03
1- Behavioral:
 Observable actions or expressions.
Examples:
 Crying when feeling sad.
 facial expressions
 body language
2- Autonomic:
 Involuntary physiological reactions.
Examples:
 Heart rate increases, when feeling scared.
 sweating
3- Hormonal:
 Release of hormones, like adrenaline or cortisol, that affect the body's state.
 Example: Feeling anxious due to increased cortisol levels.
Aggression

 Assertive behavior with varying intensity

Common in situations of:
 conflicts,
 competition
 frustration
stem from:
 anger
 fear
 Coping Mechanisms:
1. conflict resolution,
2. negotiation
3. establishment of social hierarchy.
Examples:
 Yelling, insulting

Research with Humans

(Human violence & aggression)
Role of Heredity:
 Heredity: passing of characteristics from parents to their offspring through the genes.
Role of Serotonin:
o associated with inhibiting aggression.
o Low level of serotonin leads to increased aggression + impulsivity
o higher level of serotonin leads to reduced aggression + greater emotional stability.
o Reduced serotonin release is associated with aggression and other forms of antisocial behavior,
including assault, murder, child abuse.

 Aids in Mood Regulation

 promoting healthy sleep patterns
 Appetite Control
 Memory and Learning:
 influences social behavior
 Aids in Digestion

Impulse Control
 prefrontal cortex plays important role in emotional reactions.
 prefrontal cortex, a part of the brain involved in decision-making, impulse control, emotional
regulation.

 Damage to the brain's prefrontal cortex causes:

individuals to act without thinking

frequently exhibit sudden, unwarranted bursts of anger.
 Damage or dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex can lead to difficulties in:
emotional regulation,
impulsivity
impaired decision-making abilities.

 This leads to depression, anxiety disorders, personality disorders.

 Decreased prefrontal activity and increased subcortical activity are associated with impulsive,
violent behavior.

 People with anti-social personality disorder have reduced gray matter volume in prefrontal
cortex.
prefrontal cortex functions:
 Controls emotions and reactions.
 Guides decision-making and social behavior.
 Empathy and understanding others' feelings.
 Stores emotional memories for reference.
 Recognizes and understands own emotions.
 Aids in Emotional Regulation

Role of Serotonin:
 Serotonergic input to the prefrontal cortex inhibits the amygdala and suppresses aggressive
and impulsive behavior.
 Increasing serotonergic activity reduces impulsive behavior.

Communication of Emotions
Facial Expression of Emotions: Innate Responses
 Darwin believed that expressions of emotion are innate
 muscular movements were inherited behavioral patterns.
Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Recognition
 Understanding other people's emotions using right side of brain than the left side
 amygdala aids in recognizing emotional expressions,
 damage to amygdala can make it hard to identify fearful faces.
 Lecture: 05
Sleep & Biological Rhythms
 Sleep is a natural state of rest where your body and mind relax and recover.
Stages of Sleep
N-REM Stage 1 N-REM Stage 2 N-REM Stage 3 REM Sleep
 Light sleep,  Light sleep,  Deep sleep,  Active sleep,
Brain Waves  theta waves  sleep spindles  delta waves  similar to
 K-complexes wakefulness
Muscle  Slight relaxation,  Muscle paralysis
Activity  some muscle  Reduced muscle  Very relaxed (except for eye
activity activity muscles muscles)
Brain  Decreased from  Brief bursts  Very slow  High
Activity wakefulness
Eye  Slow,  No eye movement  No eye movement  Rapid eye movement
Movement  rolling eye
movements
Heart Rate  Slowdown begins  Further slowing  Slowest  Irregular,
&  most regular  increases,
 erratic
Breathing
 Increases throughout
 Shortest,
 Longest  Lasts 20-40 minutes the night,
 longest in early
Duration  lasts a few minutes
 Lasts around 20 morning
minutes  lasts about 90-120
 lasts 5 – 10 mints
minutes
Function  Transition b/w  Consolidation of sleep  Re-storation  Dreaming,
wakefulness &  recovery  memory
sleep consolidation,
 emotional processing
Body  Begins to drop  Continues to drop  Lowest body  Irregular
Temperature temperature  fluctuate
 Easy to wake up,  Easy to wake up  Difficult to wake up,  Hard to wake up,
Awareness  may feel like  slightly deeper than  deeper sleep  vivid dreams
drifting N1

N-REM Sleep REM Sleep

Full Name  Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep  Rapid Eye Movement sleep
Sleep Stages  3  1
Brain Activity  slow  very active
Heart Rate  Slow + steady  Fast
 Breathing  Slow + regular  Fast + irregular
Eye  Eyes do not move  Eyes move quickly
Movement
Body  Body can move  Body is mostly still
Movement
Muscle Tone  Muscles can move  Muscles are relaxed
Dreaming Dreams are: Dreams are:
 Rare  common
 less vivid  vivid

Brain Activity During Sleep

Biological Clock Circadian Rhythm

Time Frame  months,  Always daily (24 hours).
 years  derived from Latin phrase
meaning "about a day“.
 Growth,  Sleep-wake cycle,
Examples  puberty,  eating times.
 aging.  body temperature fluctuations.
 menstrual cycle
Define  internal mechanism that controls  24-hour cycle in the physiological
timing of various physiological processes of living beings.
activities.
Influence  Not always affected by light.  Strongly affected by light +
darkness.
Body  Controls long-term processes.  Controls short-term daily
Functions functions.
Re-setting  Harder to reset quickly.  Can reset quickly
nature  endogenous in nature.  endogenous in nature.
 Biological rhythms can be:
1- Internal (endogenous):
2-External (exogenous):
Endo-genous Biological rhythm Exo-genous Biological rhythm
define  generated from within an  influenced by external factors
organism
example  Sleep-wake cycle,  Migration patterns,
 hormone secretion rhythms  seasonal breeding
Known as  Internal Biological rhythm  External Biological rhythm
 Zeit-ge-bers are external cues
 Zeit-ge-bers are external stimuli
Zeitgebers function:
 regulate our biological clock
 regulates our sleep-wake cycles.
 Reset biological clock to a 24-hour
day.
 German word meaning “time
givers”.
 Genetic  light,
Influenced  biochemical mechanisms  temperature
by  noise
 environmental factors
Control  Your body controls them  controlled by changes around you
Adaptability  Can adjust to changes slowly  change quickly in response to the
environment

Supra-chiasmatic Nucleus:
 In humans (and other mammals) circadian clock is located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN).
 suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a tiny group of nerve cells in the brain that acts as our body's
internal clock.
 located in the hypothalamus
 aids in regulating our daily rhythms, like sleeping and waking, based on external cues like light
and social interaction.
 Problems like jet lag, shift work, or aging can effect body’s internal clock, leading to negative
effects on both mental and physical health.
 Diurnal rhythm: natural pattern of changes that happen in your body and behavior
within a day, like feeling awake during the day and sleepy at night.
 jet lag, shift work schedules, or aging can effect body's natural rhythm regulated by the internal
clock in the brain's supra-chiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
  Control of Seasonal Rhythms: (Role of Pineal Gland and Melatonin)

Pineal Gland
 controls seasonal rhythms
 Located at top of midbrain, just in front of cerebellum.
 releases melatonin

me-lato-nin
 affects body's internal clock.
 darken the skin temporarily in some animals. (fish, reptiles, and amphibians)
 controls seasonal rhythms in mammals.
 it is a hormone produced by the pineal gland in the brain.
 regulates sleep-wake cycles

Mela-nin:
 It is a pigment produced by cells called melanocytes in the skin, hair, and eyes.
 determines the color of these tissues
 provides protection against the harmful effects of UV radiation from the sun.

 Changes in Circadian Rhythms: Shift Work and Jet Lag

Shift work:
 Working at times other than the usual daytime hours, like evenings or nights.
 working in shifts that cover period
 examples: evenings, nights, or early mornings.
 This can effect body's natural circadian rhythms, leading to sleep disturbances + health
issues.
Jet lag:
 feeling of tiredness and confusion caused by traveling quickly across different time zones.
 result in fatigue, insomnia, difficulty in concentration
 body struggles to adjust to new schedule.

Disorders of Sleep
Hypnotics: are medicines that help people to fall asleep and stay asleep.

Insomnia Sleep Apnea Narcolepsy

define   inability to sleep and 
breathe at the same time
 Stress and anxiety  Obesity  Genetic factors
 Poor sleep habits  Enlarged tonsils or  Loss of hypocretin-
 Medical conditions (e.g., adenoids producing neurons
Causes asthma, arthritis)  Genetic factors  Autoimmune disorders
 Age  Brain injuries
  Environmental factors (e.g.,  Smoking  Infections
noise, light)  Alcohol or sedative use  Environmental factors
 Daytime fatigue and  Daytime fatigue  Excessive daytime
drowsiness  Poor concentration sleepiness
 Impaired cognitive function  Mood swings  Cataplexy (sudden loss of
 Mood disturbances (e.g.,  High blood pressure muscle tone)
irritability, depression)  Heart problems  Sleep paralysis
 Reduced concentration and  Increased risk of accidents (momentary paralysis on
memory problems awakening or at sleep onset.
 Increased risk of accidents
Effects person may be able to see
and errors
what is happening in the room
body is totally unable to move
for seconds or minutes.
inability to move just before
the onset of sleep or on
waking in the morning.)
 Hallucinations
 Disrupted nighttime sleep
 Cognitive impairment
 Light therapy  Continuous Positive Airway  Stimulant medications (e.g.,
 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Pressure (CPAP) therapy modafinil)
for Insomnia  Oral appliances  Antidepressants (for
 Medications (e.g., sedatives,  Surgery (such as cataplexy)
sleep aids) tonsillectomy or  Sodium oxybate (for
Treatment
 Lifestyle changes (e.g., uvulopalatopharyngoplasty) cataplexy and daytime
regular sleep schedule,  Lifestyle changes (weight sleepiness)
relaxation techniques) loss, quitting smoking)  Good sleep hygiene
 Sleep hygiene practices  Positional therapy  Scheduled naps
(1- keep your room dark as  Hypoglossal nerve  Lifestyle adjustments (e.g.,
possible 2-keep your room cool stimulation regular sleep schedule)
3-create a bedtime routine)
 REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
define
 Neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson’s disease)
 Certain medications (e.g., antidepressants)
 Withdrawal from alcohol / sedative drugs
 Brain-stem abnormalities
 Auto-immune disorders
Causes
 Idiopathic (unknown causes)
 Physical injury to self or bed partner
 Sleep disruption
 Daytime fatigue
Effects  Stress
 anxiety
 Relationship strain
 Melatonin supplements
 Clonazepam (a benzodiazepine)
 Safe sleep environment modifications
Treatment  Reducing or changing medications that may worsen
symptoms
 Managing underlying conditions (e.g., Parkinson’s
disease)
 Lifestyle changes (e.g., avoiding alcohol and caffeine)

Hallucinations
 False sensation or perceptions
Hypna-gogic Hallucinations Hypno-pompic Hallucinations
occurs  When falling asleep  When waking up
Time of day  Evening  Morning
 night
Sleep transition  Transition from wakefulness to  Transition from sleep to wakefulness
sleep
Duration  Lasts for a few seconds to minutes  Lasts for a few seconds to minutes
Frequency  happen occasionally or frequently  happen occasionally or frequently
Common  Visual or auditory hallucinations  Visual or auditory hallucinations
experiences
Associated with  linked to sleep disorders like  linked to sleep disorders like narcolepsy
narcolepsy
Consciousness  partially aware  partially aware
level  semi-conscious  semi-conscious
Experience type  Often vivid  Often vivid
 Lecture# 6
Classification of Nervous System

PNS:
o made of nerves outside of the brain + spinal cord.
o includes 02 types of nerves:
1- sensory nerves: convey information from the body to CNS
o Transfer signals from sensory organs (like eyes, ears, skin) to brain + spinal cord.
2- motor nerves: carry signals from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
o Carry signals from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, controlling movement &
responses.

spinal cord:
protected by:
o ver-tebral column
o cere-bro-spinal fluid
o men-inges
functions:
 o Sending messages between brain and body parts.
o Controlling reflexes: like pulling away from something hot.
o Transferring sensations: like pain, touch, and temperature.
o aids in movement by coordinating muscles.
o Aids in basic bodily functions: like breathing and heartbeat.

Structure/shape:
o like a long, thin tube that runs down your back.
o like a cylinder / thin rope.
Location:
o inside our backbone, which is also called vertebral column / spine.
o positioned securely within bony ver-teb-rae/ backbone.
Layers of men-inges:
o dura mater---outer layer (tough + protective)
o arachnoid mater -----Middle layer (web-like membrane).
o pia mater------inner-most layer (very thin + closely covers spinal cord + containing several
blood vessels)

made of:
o neurons
o support cells: called glial cells

Cerebrospinal fluid:
o clear, colorless liquid
o surrounds and cushions the brain + spinal cord,
 o acting like protective fluid.

Functions:
o Cushions the brain + spinal cord.
o Provides nutrients
o removes waste products from CNS
o maintain stable chemical environment for brain.
o Assists in regulating intra-cranial pressure.
o Acts as shock absorber: preventing damage to delicate neural tissues.

Somatic NS Autonomic NS
 Voluntary in nature  In-Voluntary in nature
Target organs: Target organs:
 Skeletal muscles  Smooth muscles,
 cardiac muscles,
 glands
Neurotransmitter involved: Neurotransmitter involved:
 Acetylcholine  Acetylcholine
 norepinephrine
 Division: Division:
 Single  Sympathetic
 parasympathetic
Response rate: Response rate:
 quick (movement)  Slower
 sustained response (digestion, heart rate)
 Responsible for "fight & flight" response,  responsible for "rest and digest" response,

Lecture: 03 (remaining part)

Psycho-pharmacology:
Sites of Drug Action
 drugs affect behavior + synaptic transmission.
 Drugs that affect synaptic transmission are of 02 types.

types: 02

Antagonist: Agonist:
 Blocks action  Activates action

 Inhibits function  Enhances function

 Binds to receptors, but doesn't  Binds to receptors and triggers

activate them response

 Blocks Receptors  Activates Receptors

Reduces Response: Increases Response:
 Decreases biological effect.  Boosts biological effect.

Examples: Examples:
 Beta-blockers,  Morphine,
 Anti-his-ta-mines.  adrenaline.

used to treat conditions: Used to treat conditions:

 allergies,  pain,
 hypertension  diabetes
 muscle spasms.  hormone deficiencies.
Used to treat: over-active conditions Used to treat: conditions by mimicking
natural agonists.
 Iono-tropic Receptors Meta-bo-tropic Receptors
 Directly opens ion channels  Indirectly activates signaling pathways
 Fast response (milliseconds)  Slower response (seconds to minutes)
 Simple structure  Complex structure
 Having multiple subunits  Having single protein
Examples: Examples:
 Nico-tinic acetyl-choline receptors,  GABA-B receptors
 AMPA receptors  dopamine receptors.

 Immediate effect on cell activity  Gradual change in cell behavior

 Binding triggers rapid ion flow  Binding initiates intracellular cascade

Neurotransmitter:
 chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and balances signals between neurons & target cells
throughout the body.

Lecture: 7
Sound: is vibrations traveling through air that can be heard by the human ear.
ear have 03 types of layers:
outer ear:
o includes: pinna (auricle) + ear canal.
o collects sound waves and directs them inward.
middle ear:
o includes:
 ear-drum (tympanic membrane)
  ossicles (3 small bones: malleus, incus, stapes)
 eus-ta-chian tube.
o Eardrum & ossicles transfer sound vibrations,
o eustachian tube equalizes air pressure.
inner ear:
o includes: cochlea (responsible for hearing) + vestibular system (responsible for balance).
o Cochlea: converts sound vibrations into electrical signals for the brain to interpret sound
o vestibular system: maintain balance and spatial orientation.

Components of ear
1- Pinna:
o Collect sound waves and direct them into ear canal.
o Assist in localizing the source of sound.
2- Ear Canal:
o Conduct sound waves from pinna to eardrum.
o Provide protection to delicate structures of middle + inner ear.
3- Ear Drum (Tympanic Membrane):
o Vibrates in response to sound waves, transferring vibrations to ossicles.
o Separates external ear from middle ear,
o protecting the middle ear from external bacteria.
4- Ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes):
o Amplify and transfer vibrations from eardrum to inner ear.
o Serve as a mechanical lever system, converting sound waves into mechanical vibrations.
5- Eustachian Tube:
o Equalize pressure between middle ear and atmosphere.
o Drain fluids from middle ear into throat.
6- Cochlea:
o Convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals.
o Analyze the frequency & intensity of sound waves.
7- Vestibular System:
o Maintain balance + spatial orientation.
o Detect linear + angular acceleration of the head.
8- Basilar Membrane:
o Act as a frequency analyzer, separating incoming sounds into different frequency components.
o Transfer the vibrations (caused by sound waves) to hair cells.
9- Hair Cells:
o Convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals.
o Transfer auditory information to brain through auditory nerve.
10- Malleus: (hammer)
o Transfer vibrations from eardrum to incus.
o Amplify sound waves by leveraging the lever mechanism.
11- Incus: (anvil)
o Transfer vibrations from malleus to stapes.
o Serve as an intermediary in the transmission of sound vibrations.
12- Stapes: (stirrup)
o Transfer vibrations from incus to inner ear.
o Act as a piston to amplify and transfer sound waves to cochlea.

Physical aspect of sound:

• Sound waves require a medium (air, water) to travel
Frequency: How fast a sound wave vibrates, determining its pitch.
Pitch: How high or low a sound is, based on its frequency.
Amplitude: loudness of a sound wave.
Timbre: The unique quality of a sound that distinguishes it from others, like the difference
between a piano and a guitar.

Frequency: no. of wave cycles that occur in a sec

Pitch:
• Low f that humans are capable of hearing is 20 hz
 • People can detect 20,000 hz
Amplitude:
• We are capable of hearing 120 db sound

Sound has 03 perceptual

dimensions:
 Pitch
 Loudness
 timbre

Theories of Sound
Place theory of hearing Frequency theory of hearing
 Proposed by Hermann von Helmholtz  Proposed by Georg von Békésy
 1863  1920s
 suggests that different areas in the inner ear  proposes that the rate at which nerve impulses
are sensitive to different pitches of sound. travel matches the frequency of a sound wave,
allowing us to perceive pitch.

 Provides a better explanation for how we  Provides a better explanation for how we
perceive high-frequency sounds. perceive low-frequency sounds.

 Focus: Location of stimulation on basilar  Focus: Rate of neural firing.

membrane.
 Suggests pitch perception is based on location.  Suggests pitch perception is based on
frequency.

 Better explains how we detect different  Better explains how we detect pitch changes
frequencies. over time.

 Important for understanding how we hear  Important for understanding how we hear
complex sounds. continuous sounds.

 Explains how we hear higher pitches better.  Explains how we hear lower pitches better.

Vestibular system:

1- Balance Maintenance:
o Helps you stay upright and steady, preventing falls.
o maintain balance by detecting changes in head position and movement, allowing the body to adjust
accordingly to stay upright.
2- Spatial orientation:
o Tells you which way is up, down, left, and right.
o It provides information about body's movement and direction, helping us find our way and avoid
obstacles.
 o It provides information about the body's position in relation to gravity and space, helping you
understand your orientation whether you're standing, sitting, moving.

3- Motion detection:
o Detects movement of your head and body in any direction.
o helps to perceive motion, allowing us to detect changes in speed and direction when moving, such as
during walking or riding in a vehicle.

4- Coordination: Works with our eyes & muscles to control movements like walking and turning.
5- Nausea prevention: Helps our brain adjust to motion, reducing feelings of dizziness or sickness.
6- Aids in maintaining focus: Keeps us aware of changes in our position and surroundings, helping us to react
quickly.
7- Aids in maintaining Good Posture.

Auditory Sensation and Perception:

Sensation: Auditory sensation involves the detection and encoding of sound waves by the ear.
The ear's primary sensory organ, the cochlea, contains hair cells that convert sound vibrations into
neural signals sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.
Perception: Auditory perception encompasses the brain's interpretation of sound information,
including processes like sound localization, speech recognition, and the perception of music and
other complex auditory stimuli.
1- Tactile Sensation and Perception:
 sense of touch, which involves the detection and interpretation of pressure, temperature,
and pain sensations on the skin.
 Researchers study how we perceive textures, temperatures, physical pain.
Gate control theory of pain:
 suggests that the perception of pain is influenced by signals in the spinal cord that can either
"open the gate" to allow pain signals to reach the brain or "close the gate" to block them,
affected by factors like touch and emotions.
 proposed by: Ronald Mel-zack + Pat-rick Wall in 1965.
 known as "Gate Control Model" / "Gate Theory" of Pain.
2- Gustatory Sensation and Perception:
sense of taste, where chemo-receptors on the tongue detect different chemicals in food, leading
to taste perceptions such as sweet, sour, salty, bitter.
• There are 10,000 taste buds on tongue.
• Taste buds are replaced every 10 days/2 weeks

3- Ol-factory Sensation and Perception:

 sense of smell is based on the detection of odor molecules by olfactory receptors in the nasal
passages.
 perception of smell is our ability to identify and interpret a wide range of scents.
  More than 1000 receptor cells, known as olfactory cells, spread across the nasal cavity.
 Olfaction (sense of smell) permits us to detect more than 10,000 separate smells.

4- Pro-pri-o-ception:
 sense of position + movement of our body parts.
 It allows us to perceive the location of our limbs, joints, muscles without having to rely on
visual feedback.

Lecture# 8

Neurons
 are specialized cells that transfer
chemical and electrical signals to brain.

 also known as nerve cells

Nerve:
 Wire like Structure
 made of nerve cells / neurons
 Nerves send messages between your
brain and body parts, helping you
feel, move, and respond to the world
around you.

Neurotransmitter:
 chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and balances signals between neurons & target cells
throughout the body
Specialized cells of nervous system include:
o Receptor cells: found in sense organs, (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching).
o Effector cells:
o Neurons: They are basic building blocks of CNS
o Nerve

Structure of neurons have: “3 parts”

1) Cell body:
 also called as soma
 processes incoming signals
 supports the metabolic functions necessary for the neuron's survival and activity.
 contains a nucleus.
 It is the life support center
 provides energy for all cell activity.
2) Dendrites:
 receive incoming signals or information from other neurons and transmit them to the
cell body of a neuron.
 Tree like structure
 Covered in small, outward extensions called dendritic spines.
3) Axons:
 Most neurons have 1 axon which can range in size from 0.1 millimeters to over 3 feet.

 Function: it conducts nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or
glands.
 A projection from the cell body is called the axon.
 At the end of the axon, fiber like projections collectively called the axon terminals.
 It carries an electrical impulse from the cell body to the opposite end of the neuron-axon
terminals and then it passes to the another neuron.
 Axon includes Myelin Sheath: a fatty material that wraps around the axon.
 Myelin’s presence on the axon increases the speed of conduction of the electrical signal,
because the fat prevents any electricity from leaking out.
 Synaptic Gap: The synapse is the chemical joint between the axon terminals of one neuron and
the dendrites of the next.
 It is a gap where specialized chemical interactions can occur.

Receptor Cells Effector Cells

Location  Found in sensory organs  Distributed in throughout the
body
(eyes, skin) (muscles, glands)
Function  Detect stimuli from the  Respond to signals from the
environment nervous system
Example  Photo-receptors in the retina,  Muscle cells,
 Mechano-receptors in the skin  gland cells
Sensitivity  Highly sensitive to specific stimuli  Not sensitive to external
stimuli unless triggered by
nerves or hormones
Signal  Convert stimuli into electrical  Execute responses based on
Conversion signals received signals
Stimulus Type  Respond to stimulus  Execute responses
(light, sound ) (muscle contraction, secretion)

Classification OF neurons by function: 03

1)sensory neurons:
 Transmit signals from sensory organs (like eyes, ears, skin) to the brain and spinal cord.
 Also known as afferent neurons.
2) motor neurons:
 Carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, controlling
movement & responses.
 Also known as efferent neurons.
3) inter-neurons:
 facilitating communication & transferring signals between sensory and motor neurons.
 Process signals within the brain and spinal cord
 Also known as association neurons.

Classification OF neurons by structure: 03

1) Unipolar neurons:
 Found in: sensory ganglia outside the central nervous system.
 Sensitive to stimuli in external environment.

 Neurons with a Single process extends from the cell body, serving as both dendrite and axon.
 The process splits into 2 branches
1 branch heading towards periphery
1 branch heading towards CNS

2) Bipolar neurons:
 found in sensory organs: eyes, nose, retina of eye, olfactory epithelium, inner ear.
 Specialized for relaying sensory information from receptor cells to the brain.

 Neurons with Two processes extend from the cell body.

1 process acts as a dendrite, receiving signals
1 process acts as an axon, transmitting signals.

3) Multipolar neurons:
 found in brain + spinal cord.
 specialized for information processing and transmission.

 Neurons with Multiple processes extend from the cell body having:
 1- axon
 multiple dendrites.

Supporting cells OF CNS

Satellite cells
o are support cells
o found in muscle tissue.
o help to repair and regenerate muscle fibers.
o small + flat, surrounding muscle cells.
o can be colorless
Glia cells
o support cells
o present in brain + nervous system.
o provide structural support and insulation to neurons.
o vary in shape and size,
o look like tiny stars / branches.
o Can be color-less

CNS PNS FUNCTIONS

Astrocyte Support

Oligodendrocyte Schwann cell Myelination

Microglia Immune

Astrocytes
o Present in brain + spinal cord.
o provide support to neurons,
o regulate neurotransmitter levels
o helps in repairing brain tissue.
o have star-like shape with multiple branches.
o can be colorless or have a pale color, depending on staining,

Oligodendrocytes:
o look like small, branching cells with multiple extensions.
o size is usually between 5 to 10 micrometers.
o Functions include:
  producing myelin,
 supporting nerve cells,
 maintaining the nervous system
 facilitating electrical signal transmission.
o white or light gray in color.
o present in brain + spinal cord.
o myelin is made up of 80% lipid (fats) + 20% protein.
o responsible for producing myelin in CNS

Microglia:
o small cells
o present in brain and spinal cord.
o look like tiny, amoeba-shaped cells.
o size is very small, about 5-10 micrometers.
o vary in color ( light gray / bluish color)
o functions include:
 immune response,
 act as phagocytes
 maintaining homeostasis,
 Defend the brain.
 Protect nerve cells.
 Respond to infections.
 Aid in healing.
 Manage inflammation.
 Support brain development.
 helps in communication between brain cells.
 Cleaning up debris and dead cells.
 Supports for growth + survival of neurons.
 Removing damaged neurons to maintain brain health.
 Balancing the brain's chemical environment.
 Playing a role in learning and memory processes.

Supporting cells OF PNS

Schwann cells:
o wrapped around nerve fibers, (to form the myelin sheath.)
o Having flattened nucleus.
o size is small + elongated cells
o Functions:
 provide insulation,
 provide support,
 repair damaged nerves
 aid in nerve signal transmission.
o white or colorless.
o present in PNS

Blood-Brain Barrier
 is a protective barrier in the brain that controls the passage of substances from the
bloodstream into the brain tissue to maintain its optimal environment.

functions:
o keep the brain safe by blocking harmful substances from reaching it.
o regulates the entry of nutrients like glucose and amino acids into the brain
o It limits the passage of large molecules into the brain
o maintain stable environment for nerve cells by controlling the levels of ions in the brain
o helps in removal of waste products
o blood–brain barrier is more permeable in the area post-rema
(a part of the brain that controls vomiting)

Lecture: 9
Communication with-in a neuron by action potential

Measuring Electrical Potentials of axons:

Membrane potential:
 is like a tiny electric charge difference across a cell's outer layer, important for cell
communication and function.
Resting potential
 is stable electric charge inside a cell when it's not actively sending signals

 is calm state of electrical charge in a neuron

 When the neuron is at rest and not involved in communicating with any other neurons.

 Hyperpolarization: When the inside of an axon becomes more negative (from resting
potential) relative to the outside.
 Depolarized: When the inside of the axon becomes more positive (from resting potential)
relative to the outside.
 hyperpolarized axon: is less likely to send an electrical message.
 depolarized axon: is more likely to send an electrical message.
 Membrane potential: balance between 2 forces
Force of diffusion:
 refers to the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration
Force of electrostatic pressure:
 is the attraction or repulsion between charged particles, caused by the presence of electric
charges, which can push or pull particles towards or away from each other.
Ions in intra-cellular and extra-cellular fluid
Electrolytes:
 are minerals in our body fluids that carry electrical charges
 helps in regulating various bodily functions like:
 muscle contraction
 fluid balance.
Ions:
A charged molecule.
Cations (positively charged)
Anions (negatively charged )
Anions repel anions
cations repel cations
Ions in the extra cellular & intracellular fluid:
 fluid within + outside of the cell contain ions
Many ions are present in the fluid 4 of them are:
1. organic ions ( A‾) ( found in intracellular fluid because of impermeability)
2. Chloride ions ( CL ‾) ( found in both predominately in extracellular)
3. Sodium ions ( Na +) ( found in both mostly extracellular)
 4. Potassium ions ( K +) ( predominantly in intracellular )

Action Potential:
 It is electrical signal that travels along a nerve cell's membrane

 allows communication between neurons

 aids in various physiological processes

Properties of action potential

o Action potential are electrical signals.
o speed of action potential propagation can vary depending on factors like:
axon diameter
myelination
o travel along nerve cells.
o originates at axon hillock
o travels at 2-120m/second
o triggered by voltage-gated ion channels.
o they either occur fully or not at all.
o frequency and pattern of action potentials encode information that is important for neuronal
communication and signaling within the nervous system.
 Phases of Action potential:
1. Resting phase: all Na+ & k+ channels are closed
2. De-polarizing phase: Na+ channels opens
3. Re-polarizing phase: Na+ channels are closed & k+ channels are opened
4. Hyper-polarizing phase: Na+ channels are closed & k+ channels are opened

depolarization phase:
o where the inside of the neuron becomes more positively charged.
o depolarization is facilitated by the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels.

repolarization phase:
o where neuron returns to its resting membrane potential.

o Repolarization occurs due to the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels, allowing

potassium ions to leave the cell.

o Action potential transmission is facilitated by re-fractory period, during which the neuron is
temporarily unable to generate another action potential.

Polarization:
neuron is polarized because the voltage within the neuron is negative as compaired to the voltage
outside the neuron.
Depolarization:
When an action potential occurs
sodium ions (Na+) travel into the cell causing the intracellular area to become positive
relative to the extracellular area.
Hyperpolarization:
It is a change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more negative.
It inhibits action potentials by increasing the stimulus required to move the membrane
potential to the action potential threshold.
Hyperpolarization is caused by:
 efflux of K+ through K+ channels
 influx of Cl– through Cl– channels.

Lecture:10
Communication between neuron by neurotransmitters

o synapse is a tiny gap between neurons where signals pass to communicate in the brain
and nervous system.
 o Synaptic transmission: process of passing signals between nerve cells through
chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

Types of Synapse:
a) Axo-dendric (b/w axon & dendrite)
b) Axo-somatic (b/w axon & cell body)
c) Axo-axonic (b/w axon & axon)

Electro-chemical neuro-transmission:
o is the way neurons communicate by combining electrical impulses with chemical signals.

Synaptic Transmission:

Activation of receptors
o Neurotransmitters produce depolarization and hyperpolarization in the post synaptic membrane
by:

diffusing across synaptic cleft

attaching with the binding sites of special protein molecules at the post synaptic membrane
called the post-synaptic receptors.
 Lecture: 11

Classification of Nervous System

 Structure of brain

 weight: 1300 grams

 composed of billions of neurons

parts of brain: 03
1. Hindbrain
2. Midbrain
3. Forebrain

Hind-Brain Mid-Brain Fore-Brain

(largest + complex part of

brain)

known as  rhomb-ence-phalon  mes-ence-phalon  pros-ence-phalon

 brain stem
 front of brain,
 Base of skull  between hindbrain &  below cerebral cortex.
Location forebrain
 Medulla oblongata  tectum,  Di-ence-phalon
 Pons,  tegmentum, (thalamus +
Composed  Cerebellum  cerebral peduncles hypothalamus)
of  cerebrum
 regulates basic bodily  sleep regulation,  sensory processing
functions like
breathing and heart  temperature regulation  emotional regulation
rate.
functions
 hormone regulation
 directs movement &  aids in arousal.
balance.

hind-brain parts: 03

1- Medulla Oblongata:
 Regulation of autonomic functions such as: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure.
 Coordination of reflexes like: swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting.
 Transfer signals between spinal cord & higher brain centers.
 controls tongue movement.
2- Pons:
 Acts as Relay station for transferring signals between cerebrum and cerebellum.
 Aids in regulation of sleep and arousal
 controlling facial movements: chewing + facial expressions.
 Aids in in processing auditory information
 controls jaw movement
 controls eye movement.

3- Cerebellum:
 helps in initiation of bodily movements.
 involved in motor learning, allowing individuals to acquire and refine motor skills through
practice and experience.
 regulates equilibrium,
 regulate muscle tone
 aids in cognitive functions: attention, language, spatial cognition
 maintenance of physical posture + body balance.
 Comes from Latin word which means ‘Little brain’

4- Reticular Formation:
 located in brainstem.
 also known as reticular activating system
 composed of interconnected nuclei and fibers.
Functions:
o Arousal regulation: Sleep-wake cycle
o Sensory filtering: Attentional processing
o Motor coordination: Movement initiation
o Pain modulation: Pain perception
o Cardiovascular control: Blood pressure regulation

5- Basal Ganglia:
o Located deep within cerebral hemispheres.

Functions:

o involved in emotional processing and regulation

o aids in cognitive functions: attention
o Dysfunction can lead to Parkinson's + Huntington's disease.
 o Control of muscle tone, activity, posture, large muscle movements and inhibit unwanted
muscle movements.

6- Sub-statia Nigra
o located in the midbrain, specifically in basal ganglia.
Functions:
o Regulation of movement,
o initiation and coordination of voluntary movements,
o dopamine production,
o motor learning,
o aids in reward processing.

fore-brain parts: 03
1- thalamus
 composed of gray matter nuclei.
 Located:
center of brain,
above brainstem,
below cerebral cortex.
Functions:
o Acts as sensory relay,
o regulating consciousness,
o controlling sleep-wake cycles,
o processing emotional information,
o coordinating motor functions.

2- hypo-thalamus

1) Located below thalamus

2) small part of brain
3) it is center of limbic system
4) controls pituitary gland
5) provides constant body temperature.
6) connected with frontal lobes
7) it controls:
 hunger,
 thirst,
 body temperature,
 blood pressure,
  heart rate
 sexual activity

8) If hypothalamus is impaired, this can lead to

 aggressive behavior,
 feeling over-stressed,
 hypo-thermia,
 hyper-thermia,
 fatigue,
 weight gain/loss
 active/under-active sex drive.

3- Cerebrum:
 responsible for: thinking, memory, voluntary movement.
 Located: top + front of brain

 divided into 02 hemispheres:

left hemisphere
right hemisphere.
Left hemisphere:
o controls right side of the body
o responsible for production of language, logical reasoning, analytical thinking, problem
solving.

Right hemisphere:
o controls left side of the body
o responsible for creativity, imagination, spatial ability.

limbic system
“located in fore-brain”

1) part of brain
2) also known as pale-o-mammalian cortex
3) located on both sides of thalamus
4) located below temporal lobe
5) located within the cerebrum
6) involved in our behavioral & emotional responses
7) composed of 04 main parts:
  amygdala
 hippo-campus
 hypo-thalamus
 thalamus

8) term limbic comes from the Latin limbus which means edge
9) Paul Broca coined the term
10) Involved in five “F’s”:
 Feeding (satiety & hunger)
 Forgetting (memory)
 Fighting (emotional response)
 Family (sexual reproduction and maternal instincts)
 Fornicating (sexual arousal)

11) Function:
 Feeding
 Reproduction
 caring for our young
 fight & flight responses.

amygdala

10) almond-shaped structure

11) derived from Greek word amygdale
12) Located on temporal lobe
13) located next to hippocampus
14) located below the uncus
15) comprises of 13 nuclei
16) Known as emotional center of the brain
17) Aids in forming new memories specially related to fear.
18) play a central role in our emotional responses like
 pleasure,
 fear,
 anxiety
 anger
 aggression
Hippo-campus
1) It is a place where neurogenesis occurs
2) complex brain structure
3) C-shaped structure
4) deeply located in temporal lobe
5) derived from the Greek hippokampus (hippos, meaning “horse” & kampos meaning
“sea monster”
6) Amnesia occurs when hippocampus is Damaged
7) involved in storing long-term memories.
8) functions:
 learning
 memory

Lobes of brain: 04

Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

o front of brain o behind frontal o on the sides of o back of brain
lobe brain
located
o behind fore-head o (behind
o above ears. parietal &
temporal
lobes)

o Thinking o Language o Hearing o vision

o Memory o touch o Learning
function
o Behavior o feeling
o movement
 Frontal lobe:

Broca’s Area:
o Aids in Speech Production
o Aids in Language Comprehension
o assists in finding the right words from your memory when you're speaking or writing.
o located in frontal lobe, in left hemisphere.

Temporal lobe:
Wer-nicke’s Area:
o Aids in Language Comprehension
o Aids in Word Recognition
o Language Fluency
o Reading Comprehension
o Semantic Processing: helps us to understand meaning of words + sentences.
o Located in temporal lobe, in left hemisphere

Occipital lobe:

Corpus Callosum:
o Connects left and right hemispheres together.
o assists in language processing
o shares sensory information like touch, sight, and hearing between left and right hemispheres
of brain.
o located below cerebral cortex.

Topic: Brain plasticity

 refers to ability of brain to change and grow by learning new things and adapting to different
situations throughout life based on learning, experiences & environment.

 also known as neuro-plasticity.

Functions:
o allows us to acquire new information
o allowing us to develop new skills and behaviors
o refinement and improvement of motor skills
o supports cognitive flexibility
 o allows us to solve problems creatively

Communication Within a Neuron

1. Input (Dendrites): Dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors.
2. Processing (Cell Body): The cell body (soma) integrates incoming signals.
3. Output (Axon): If the integrated signal is strong enough, an action potential (electrical signal)
is generated and transmitted along the axon.
4. Ion Channels & Synaptic Terminals: Action potentials travel down the axon to the synaptic
terminals, where they trigger the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft,
allowing communication with the next neuron or target cell.
1-Electrical Signals:
 Within a neuron, communication occurs through electrical impulses. These impulses travel
along the neuron's axon
2-Action Potential:
 This electrical signal is action potential
 Action potential is generated when neuron receives a stimulus.
 Action potential travels down the axon to the synapse, where it triggers the release of
neurotransmitters.
3-Ion Channels:
 Ion channels play crucial role in facilitating the transmission of electrical signals within a
neuron.
 They allow ions, such as sodium and potassium, to flow in and out of the neuron, which helps
in generating and propagating the action potential.
4-Axon Terminal:
 At the end of the axon, there are small structures called axon terminals.
 These terminals contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters, which are released into the
synapse in response to the arrival of the action potential.
5-Pro-pagation:
 action potential travels along the axon in a rapid and efficient manner, ensuring that the
signal reaches its destination within the neuron without significant loss of strength.
6-Integration:
 Within the neuron, various signals from dendrites and cell body are integrated to determine
whether an action potential will be generated and propagated down the axon.

Communication Between Neurons

1. Pre-synaptic Neuron (Neuron A): This neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic
cleft.
2. Synapse & Neurotransmitter: Neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic cleft and bind to
receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (Neuron B).
3. Post-synaptic Neuron (Neuron B): Neurotransmitter binding triggers changes in the post-
synaptic neuron, either exciting or inhibiting its activity.
 4. Integration and Propagation: If the signal is strong enough, it may generate an action
potential in the post-synaptic neuron, continuing the communication process.

1-Chemical Signals:
 Communication between neurons occurs through neurotransmitters.
 These neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminals of 1 neuron and bind to
receptors on the dendrites or cell body of another neuron.
2-Synaptic Cleft:
 space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron is called
synaptic cleft.
 Neurotransmitters are released into this gap and diffuse across it to bind to receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron.
3-Neurotransmitter Receptors:
 Neurotransmitter receptors are proteins embedded in the membrane of the post-synaptic
neuron.
 When neurotransmitters bind to these receptors, they can either excite or inhibit the post-
synaptic neuron, depending on the type of neurotransmitter and receptor.
4-Reuptake and Enzymatic Degradation:
 After neurotransmitters have relayed their message, they can be taken back up into the
presynaptic neuron through a process called reuptake or broken down by enzymes in the
synaptic cleft.
5-Post-synaptic Potentials:
 binding of neurotransmitters to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron can lead to changes in
its membrane potential, known as post-synaptic potentials.
 These potentials can either depolarize the neuron, making it more likely to fire an action
potential, or hyperpolarize it, making it less likely to fire.
6-Summation:
 Post-synaptic neuron integrates the excitatory and inhibitory signals it receives from multiple
pre-synaptic neurons through a process called summation.
 If net effect is excitatory and reaches a certain threshold, it may trigger an action potential in
the post-synaptic neuron.

Neuro-transmitters
Acetyl-choline:
1. Aids in Muscle Movement:
2. Memory and Learning:
 plays key role in memory formation
 plays key role in learning processes
 helps in remembering things
 aids in acquiring new skills.
3. Maintaining Attention and Focus:
 affect your ability to concentrate on tasks and stay alert.
4. Regulating Heart Rate:
5. Controlling Autonomic Functions:
 Like: digestion, sweating, and salivation
6. Sleep and Dreaming:
 plays key role in sleep-wake cycle
 involved in the regulation of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep,which is the stage of sleep
associated with dreaming.
 helps maintain the balance between different stages of sleep.

Mono-amines:
Nore-pine-phrine

1) Alertness and Attention:

 involved in promoting arousal
 increases our ability to focus on tasks
2) Aids in Mood Regulation:
 influencing emotions: happiness, sadness, and anxiety.
3) Works during Stress Response:
 released during stressful situations
 prepare the body to react
 like: increasing heart rate + blood pressure
4) involved in Memory Formation:
 important for encoding and storing information.
5) Regulating Blood Pressure:
6) regulates breathing rate

Dopamine:
1. known as happy hormone:
 Dopamine is often called the "feel-good" neurotransmitter
 involved in experiencing pleasure and reward.
 released when you do something enjoyable, like eating your favorite food or spending
time with loved ones.
2. Aids in Motivation and Reward Seeking:
 Dopamine helps drive motivation and encourages you to pursue rewarding activities.
 responsible for that feeling of satisfaction you get when you accomplish a goal or
complete a task.
3. plays a key role in controlling movement and coordination
4. Learning and Memory processes.
5. Regulating Mood:
 Imbalances in dopamine levels can leads to conditions like depression + bipolar disorder
6. Attention and Focus:

Serotonin:
o Mood Regulation:
 making you feel happier and more stable.
o promoting healthy sleep patterns
o Appetite Control:
 regulate your appetite,
 making you feel satisfied after eating.
o Memory and Learning:
 involved in memory and learning processes,
 helping you retain and recall information.
o influences social behavior:
 affecting how you interact with others.
o Aids in Digestion:
regulate digestion and bowel movements, keeping your gut healthy.

Amino Acids
Glutamate:
1) Learning and Memory:
 forming memories.
 acquiring new information
 recalling past experiences.
2) Brain Development:
 development of the nervous system
 growth of neural networks.
3) excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
 plays a key role in communication between neurons,
 facilitating transfer of electrical impulses.
4) involved in regulating motor function,
 controlling movement and coordination
5) involved in processing sensory information like: sight, sound, taste, touch.
 It helps relay sensory signals from PNS to brain, allowing us to perceive and interpret our
surroundings.
6) Maintaining Brain Health:
 plays key role in neuronal communication,
 plays key role in brain plasticity
7) involved in controlling our movements
 allowing us to walk, talk, and perform other actions smoothly.

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid):

1) acts as a neurotransmitter
2) prevent excessive muscle contraction
3) promoting feelings of relaxation
4) involved in appetite modulation
5) controlling food intake and cravings.
6) Aids in Seizure Prevention
7) regulate muscle tone
8) act as a Mood Stabilizer
9) promoting healthy sleep patterns
 10) reduces feeling of anxiety / stress.

Lecture: 12
Control of Movement

Skeletal muscles:
 are muscles attached to bones that
help us to move.
Functions:
 Move bones
 Maintain posture
 Support organs
 Generate heat
 Control swallowing
 Aid breathing
 Facilitate speech
 Enable facial expressions

Flexion:
 moving a limb toward the body.
 Example: Bending your elbow to touch your shoulder.

Extension:
 moving a limb away from the body
 example: Stretching

Myo-fib-rils:
 Tiny fibers in muscles that help them contract.
 actin + myosin are present in myofibrils.

Skeletal muscle is composed of 02 types of fibers:

Extra-fusal fibers Intra-fusal fibers

Function  Create movement  Sense stretching
Location  Outside muscle spindles  Inside muscle spindles
Size  Larger  Smaller
Contractile Ability  Strong  Weak
Type of Control  Voluntary  In-Voluntary
Connected to  motor neurons  sensory + motor neurons
 Complex Motor Behavior
focus on:
 imitating (Role of Mirror Neuron System)
 comprehending movements (Role of Mirror Neuron System)
Mirror neurons:
 Defined as Brain cells that mimic actions.
 Aids in: imitation, learning, empathy, understanding.
 located: in ventral premotor cortex.

Audio-visual neurons:

 brain cells that respond to both sound and sight.

 Certain parts of brain like:
Fusi-form face area,
extra-striate body area
para-hippocampal place area.
parietal reach region,
 these areas are specialized in processing specific visual information related to objects +
actions.
 Grasping Behavior: parts of brain that helps us to control our hand & fingers when picking up
something.
posterior parietal cortex.
Anterior part of intra-parietal sulcus.

Deficit of Skilled Movement

 individuals may experience difficulties in executing movements that require fine motor control
and coordination

 include problems with:

 handwriting,
 playing a musical instrument,
 performing complex tasks

1- Apraxia:
 Difficulty in performing purposeful movements despite having the physical ability.
 inability to imitate movements
 Example: Knowing how to brush your teeth but having trouble doing the movements in the
right order.
2-Dys-praxia:
  Trouble with planning and coordinating movements, making daily tasks harder.
 Example: Finding it hard to tie shoelaces or use utensils because of trouble coordinating your
hands.
3-Limb apraxia:
 problem to move arms, legs, fingers smoothly, even though there's no muscle weakness.
 Example: Struggling to wave goodbye or point to things accurately
4-Constructional apraxia:
 Difficulty in understanding how to put things together or build objects, like puzzles or
models.
 People with this disorder have difficulty in drawing objects.
 Example: Difficulty following the steps to assemble a simple piece of furniture.

Control of Movement by Spinal Cord

Mono-synaptic Reflexes: Poly-synaptic Reflexes:

 Single synapse involved  Multiple synapses involved
 Quick response  Slower response
 Involves 1 muscle group  Involves multiple muscle groups
 Basic reaction  Complex reaction
 Example: Knee-jerk reflex  Example: Withdrawal reflex
 Fewer nerve cells  More nerve cells
 Limited brain involvement  Greater brain involvement

Control of Movement by brain

Primary motor Cortex Pre-motor Cortex

function  Executes movements  Plans movements
Located in  frontal lobe, in front of central  frontal lobe, in front of primary
sulcus. motor cortex.
Damage can  paralysis affects:
cause  coordination
 planning
 movement organization
known as  Brod-mann's area 4.  Brod-mann's area 6
connected  spinal cord.  primary motor cortex
with  cortical areas
Functions  Initiates voluntary muscle  Prepares body for motion.
movements.
 Controls learned motor skills.
 Controls precise hand motions.  Prepares body posture and
positioning.
 Directs speech muscle movements.
 Plans and organizes complex
 Coordinates facial muscle actions.
motor actions.
 Manages limb movement execution.
 Executes fine motor tasks.  Coordinates sequences of
movements smoothly.