STI Myanmar University

&
University of Bedfordshire
BEng (Hons:) Civil Engineering
Department of Engineering and Technology

Student Name : WAI YAN PHONE MYINT

UOB ID : 2341759
Degree Pathway : Undergraduate
Unit Name : Geotechnical Engineering
Unit Coordinator : Ms. Yin Mar Kyaw
Title of Project : Geotechnical Design of Shallow Foundations
and Pile Foundations
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

In civil engineering, foundations are very important for the safety and stability of any
building or structure. Foundations are the base structures that support the weight of buildings
and other infrastructure by transferring the load to the soil or rock beneath. They are the main
connection between the structure and the earth, making their design a critical part of the
engineering process. Foundations are built to handle not only the weight of the building above
but also forces from nature like earthquakes, strong winds, or soil movement.

The type of soil, its strength, and how it settles play a big role in choosing the right
foundation. Different soil types, like clay, sand, or rock, have different properties that affect the
choice of foundation. A proper understanding of the soil’s ability to bear weight, its stickiness
(cohesion), friction, and moisture content is needed to make sure the foundation can support the
structure well and avoid problems like settling or soil liquefaction. By knowing these soil factors,
engineers can choose the right foundation type, whether shallow (like spread footings or mat
foundations) or deep (like pile foundations). Proper foundation design is key to the safety,
longevity, and cost-effectiveness of construction projects.

1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Study

1.2.1 Aims

The main goal of this study is to apply soil mechanics to real-world foundation design.
This includes understanding how soil behaves under load and using this knowledge to design
foundations that are safe and affordable. The study also wants to look at how geotechnical
engineering connects with environmental issues, such as climate change and sustainability. The
aim is to design foundations that not only meet safety standards but also reduce environmental
impact, improve energy efficiency, and follow health and safety guidelines.

Additionally, the study will explore how foundation design relates to broader societal
issues, like diversity and inclusion in the engineering workforce. The aim is to develop a well-
rounded approach to foundation design that balances technical performance with social and
environmental responsibility.

1.2.2 Objectives
The specific objectives of this study include:
 To design and evaluate foundation structures based on real soil data, considering
different soil types and their properties.
 To solve problems related to foundation types, such as limitations due to soil, settlement
behavior, and bearing capacity.
 To compare shallow foundation systems (like spread footings, strip footings, and mat
foundations) with deep foundation systems (like pile foundations).
 To include environmental sustainability, health, and safety concerns in the foundation
design process, making sure the designs are both strong and environmentally friendly.
 To study the impact of climate change on foundation design, specifically how changing
weather, groundwater levels, and soil conditions affect foundation performance.
1.3 Problem Statement
Engineers face several challenges when designing and building foundations. One main
issue is selecting the right foundation type based on the soil conditions at the site. Shallow
foundations work well for stable, compacted soils, but deep foundations are needed when the
surface soil can't support the load or when more stable layers are deeper in the ground.
Problems like soil settlement, poor bearing capacity, and unfavorable soil behavior can lead to
delays, high costs, structural failures, and safety risks.
Another challenge is dealing with groundwater. High water tables or wet soils can create
pressure that affects deep foundations. In such cases, dewatering methods may be needed to
dry the site and ensure safe foundation construction. Also, working in unstable soils can be risky
during excavation. Temporary stabilization methods, such as shoring and bracing, are used to
prevent accidents and keep the excavation stable. These methods are important for maintaining
the structural integrity of the foundation.
Additionally, the foundation design must consider environmental factors such as soil
erosion, earthquakes, and the impact of climate change. As weather patterns change, it is
becoming more important to design foundations that can handle these new challenges.

1.4 Scope of the Study

This study will focus on soil classification and how it affects foundation design. Different
soil types vary greatly in their ability to support weight, their compaction, and their resistance to
settlement, all of which influence the choice of foundation. The study will also look at how
factors like water content, friction, and soil weight can impact foundation design.
Beyond the technical side, the study will consider broader issues related to foundation
construction, including sustainability and climate change. The goal is to find ways to design
foundations that minimize environmental impact while maintaining structural safety. This
includes exploring how foundation designs can be adjusted to cope with challenges such as
rising groundwater or soil degradation.
The study will also address health and safety during construction, focusing on how to
prevent accidents related to soil instability and excavation. Additionally, it will consider ethics
and inclusion in the engineering profession, examining how these values contribute to more
responsible and sustainable foundation design practices.
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1General
Foundation design is fundamental to the stability and longevity of structures, transferring
loads to the underlying soil or rock. The selection of the foundation type—shallow or deep—
depends on the soil properties, load-bearing capacity, and environmental conditions.
Geotechnical engineering provides vital insights into soil behavior, helping engineers design
safe and effective foundations.
In addition to technical considerations, modern foundation engineering incorporates
broader concerns such as sustainability, climate change, and health and safety. Sustainable
practices aim to reduce environmental impact, while addressing the risks posed by climate
change is increasingly important for long-term foundation stability. Health and safety measures
are essential to protect workers and the public. Additionally, ethics and diversity are key in
ensuring responsible, inclusive practices in the engineering field.

2.2Geotechnical engineering
Geotechnical engineering is a critical branch of civil engineering that focuses on
understanding the behavior of soil and rock materials in relation to construction and
environmental factors. This discipline combines principles from soil mechanics, rock mechanics,
geophysics, hydrogeology, and geology to assess how these materials interact with structures
and the surrounding environment. Geotechnical engineers play a vital role in designing
foundations for buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure, ensuring they can safely support the
loads imposed upon them. They also design retaining walls and earth dams, which must
effectively resist lateral earth pressures and water forces. Additionally, geotechnical engineers
evaluate ground conditions for transportation projects, such as railways and highways, and
address challenges related to load-bearing capacity, soil deformation, and groundwater flow.
Importantly, they must consider the impacts of climate change and prepare for natural disasters
like earthquakes and landslides. By understanding the complexities of soil and rock behavior,
geotechnical engineers are essential in ensuring the safety, stability, and sustainability of civil
engineering projects, ultimately contributing to the resilience of infrastructure in an ever-
changing environment.

2.3 Foundation Engineering

Foundation engineering is an important part of civil engineering that deals with designing
and building foundations for structures like buildings and bridges. Engineers choose between
shallow or deep foundations based on the type of soil, the weight of the structure, and the site
conditions. They must consider factors like ground movement, earthquakes, water levels, and
soil settling, as these can affect the foundation's strength and safety. Foundation engineers work
with structural engineers to make sure that the entire building, including walls and roofs, is
properly supported. By using knowledge of soil behavior and structural design, foundation
engineering helps ensure that buildings can handle different challenges and last a long time.

2.4 Soil Properties

Soil properties are essential for understanding how soil behaves and its impact on
construction and the environment. Key characteristics include color, texture, grain size, porosity
(the amount of empty space), density (how heavy the soil is), and consistency (how firm it feels).
These properties affect how water moves through the soil and how it retains air. Common
problems in poor-quality soil include low shear strength, which can lead to instability, and high
permeability, which allows too much water to flow through, potentially causing erosion. Soils that
swell when wet and shrink when dry can create cracks and further issues. Engineers also
consider factors like plasticity (how much the soil can change shape), hydraulic conductivity
(how easily water flows through it), and consolidation (how soil settles over time). Soil
classification can be challenging due to its variability, and engineers typically use systems like
the AASHTO method and the Unified Soil Classification System. Understanding these
properties helps engineers make informed decisions for safe and effective construction.

2.5 Soil Investigation

Soil investigation is a critical process conducted to assess the ground conditions for
construction projects. It involves testing soil on-site to determine key factors such as bearing
capacity, settlement rate, and the position of the water table. One common method is digging
trial pits and conducting visual inspections, followed by the collection of samples with minimal
disturbance for laboratory testing. When possible, drilling is preferred as it allows the retrieval of
undisturbed samples, enabling accurate measurement of settlement rate and bearing capacity.
For soils like sand and gravel that tend to loosen, plate-bearing tests can be performed in situ to
determine the soil's bearing capacity and help in the design of foundations, particularly spread
footings. If the soil’s strength is insufficient to bear the intended loads, foundation improvements
may be necessary, such as introducing piles, enlarging the footing, or reinforcing it to better
support the increased loads. The process also includes identifying potential challenges such as
expansive soil, collapsible soil, and locating the water table. Additionally, methods like trial pits
and borehole digging are commonly used to extract soil samples for testing and analysis.

2.6 Types of Foundations

Foundations are typically classified into two major types: deep foundations and shallow
foundations. Shallow foundations are those that are placed closer to the ground surface,
typically at depths between 2 to 5 meters. These foundations are suitable for areas where the
surface soil has enough strength to bear the load. Common types of shallow foundations
include mat foundations, strip footings, isolated footings, combined footings, and wall footings.

On the other hand, deep foundations are used when the upper layers of soil cannot
support the load, requiring the foundation to be extended deeper into the ground. These
foundations are typically placed at depths exceeding 5 meters and include pile foundations,
drilled piles, pile caps, and caissons.

The primary difference between shallow and deep foundations lies in the depth of the
foundation relative to its width. Shallow foundations have a wider base compared to their depth,
whereas deep foundations have a greater depth in relation to their width. The selection of
foundation type depends on factors such as the load to be supported, soil characteristics, and
economic feasibility. The right choice ensures both structural stability and cost-effectiveness.
 Figure-1- Types of
Foundations

2.7 Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations are commonly used for construction when the soil near the surface
is strong enough to support the structure. These foundations are typically placed at depths
between 2 to 5 meters below the ground. Shallow foundations are used when the surface soil
has good load-bearing capacity, such as loam, clay, or sand. They are more cost-effective and
suitable for smaller buildings or areas with stable soil.Types of shallow foundations include wall
footings, isolated footings, combined footings, strip footings, and mat foundations. These are
typically used when the structure’s weight is relatively light, and the soil can bear the load
without significant settlement.

The depth of shallow foundations is also influenced by climate conditions. For example,
in cold climates, foundations must be placed below the freezing depth of the soil to prevent frost
heave. The foundation's depth must ensure that the structure’s settlement remains within safe
limits after load application.

2.8 Raft Foundation (Mat Foundation)

Raft foundations, also known as mat foundations, are used when other foundation types,
like shallow or pile foundations, are unsuitable. These foundations are ideal for weak soil, large
loads, or buildings subject to vibrations or shocks.A raft foundation consists of a large reinforced
concrete slab that covers the entire building area, spreading the load evenly. This design helps
reduce stress on weak or loose soil, making it more effective than individual footings or pile
foundations that concentrate weight in specific spots.For example, if a 50-ton building measures
5x5 meters, the stress on the soil is 50 tons divided by 25 square meters, resulting in just 2 tons
per square meter. With individual footings, the stress would be much higher.Raft foundations
are also advantageous for basement construction. Excavating to solid, compact soil creates a
strong base, ideal for building a basement while providing excellent load distribution across the
foundation.
2.9 Pile Foundations

Pile foundations are a type of deep foundation consisting of long, vertical columns
typically made of concrete, steel, or timber. These piles are driven or drilled deep into the
ground to transfer the weight of the structure to stronger, more stable layers of soil or bedrock
below, bypassing weaker surface soils. The support comes from either end bearing, where the
pile rests on solid material, or skin friction, where the pile’s surface transfers load along its
length.

Pile foundations are used when surface soils cannot bear the structure's load. They are
common for heavy structures like high-rise buildings, bridges, or tanks, ensuring stability by
transferring loads to deeper, stronger layers. Additionally, they provide resistance against lateral
forces such as wind or seismic activity.

Different types of pile foundations include driven piles, bored piles, and cast-in-place
piles, each suited to particular soil conditions. Piles can reach depths of 20 to 30 meters or
more, depending on the soil's strength. They offer reliable vertical and lateral stability, making
them suitable for areas with weak surface soils.

2.10 Sustainability, Climate Change Emergency, Health and Safety Risk,

Management, Professionalism, Ethics, Diversity and Inclusion

2.10.1Sustainability

Sustainability in foundation design focuses on reducing the environmental impact of the

business throughout its lifecycle. The key to sustainability is the inclusion of recycled materials.
Common materials such as concrete and steel can be sourced from recycled materials,
reducing the demand for additional materials and reducing carbon emissions Another important
sustainable practice is supply chain which is used properly. By properly planning the quantity of
supplies needed, overuse can be avoided, leading to excessive waste and expense.

Environmental protection is also important. Protecting the soil is essential to prevent

erosion, maintain stability and protect the surrounding vegetation. During excavation,
contractors must use techniques such as temporary walls or barriers to minimize dust
contamination in the immediate vicinity. Additionally, by carefully analyzing soil strength and
moisture content, engineers can tailor the foundation to a specific site, minimizing unnecessary
environmental impacts

The guarantee of sustainable land use is another important aspect of green buildings.
Engineers should use environmentally friendly materials, such as recycled plastic, timbercrete,
or carbon-free cement, which help reduce the environmental impact of construction What in
addition, stormwater management and groundwater recharge strategies are used to ensure that
construction activities do not adversely affect water quality or availability.
2.10.2Climate Change
Climate Change is a right away issue for the construction industry. As a first-rate
contributor to carbon dioxide emissions, production has performed a direct function in
accelerating international warming. Reducing carbon emissions is key to addressing this
difficulty. One powerful technique is to replace conventional concrete and metal with sustainable
alternatives which includes recycled materials and carbon-loose cement. For example, the use
of materials which includes AshCrete, a mixture of fly ash and cement, drastically reduces the
carbon footprint. In addition to cloth conversion, lowering production waste and decreasing on-
site carbon emissions can contribute significantly to reducing environmental footprints.
Foundations need to be advanced to address the challenges associated with climate alternate,
together with rising sea degrees, increasing land erosion and temperature variability. Engineers
need to don't forget how these demanding situations might also have an effect on soil properties
which include density and thermal conductivity, which have an effect on the stableness and
integrity of foundations over the years Extreme climate activities which includes floods, heat
waves, or hurricanes can directly have an effect on soil conditions, inflicting soil erosion,
swelling or shrinkage so foundations ought to be built that could resist these changing
conditions. Geotechnical engineers need to be proactive in ensuring that foundations are
designed to house the extreme severity of changing climate and temperatures, reducing the
susceptibility of systems to climate harm.

2.10.3 Health and safety Risk Management

Health and safety are of the maximum importance in foundation creation. Common
hazards consist of landslides, electrocution and chemical publicity. Landslides commonly arise
when excavations aren't properly backed up. This risk can be mitigated by way of using bracing
systems and shoring strategies to ensure the stableness of excavation partitions throughout
excavation. Geotechnical engineers have to additionally investigate soil conditions, in particular
in gentle or low-density soils, to save you such landslides.
Another critical chance is electric surprise, that could arise if people come into touch with
uncovered strength strains and gadget all through excavation. Keeping all equipment properly
grounded, following electrical protection techniques, and ensuring that employees are equipped
with protective equipment such as rubber gloves and insulated boots can reduce this chance
Dust publicity is another fitness chance. During excavation and earthworks, particulate count
number can motive chronic respiratory problems for workers. Using right dirt manage
techniques, along with sprinklers and dust filters, enables to lessen dust. Workers ought to
additionally put on shielding face mask to reduce inhalation of dangerous dusts.
Additionally, fall risks are a subject, specifically in deep basis work wherein workers can
fall into trenches. The use of protection harnesses, helmets, and protection nets can protect
people from critical damage or dying. Proper schooling in safe practices and emergency
processes is critical to lessen injuries.

2.10.4Professionalism and Ethics

Professionalism and ethics are foundational to the credibility and fulfillment of any
engineering assignment. Engineers are entrusted with the obligation of making sure that their
designs meet all regulatory requirements and uphold safety requirements. Their paintings
directly influence the safety of the shape and its occupants, so it's miles vital that they carry out
their duties with accuracy and diligence.
Honesty and transparency are crucial components of expert ethics. Engineers should
constantly report accurate statistics and make choices based totally on genuine statistics. This
is mainly vital whilst managing assignment budgets and timelines, as compromising fine to
reduce prices will have disastrous consequences. Engineers should avoid any practices that
might result in unethical situations, including accepting bribes or changing records for private
advantage.
Another moral precept is accountability. Engineers’ ought to take complete obligation for the
safety and nice of their designs and make certain that initiatives are completed consistent with
protection standards. By adhering to ethical practices, engineers ensure that their choices make
contributions to the overall safety, sustainability, and properly-being of the public.
Furthermore, engineers should hold impartiality. Ethical conduct in basis engineering
includes ensuring that selections are made based on merit and protection, in preference to
private or monetary pursuits. Respecting the paintings of affiliates and acknowledging their
information fosters a cooperative paintings environment that encourages innovation and
outstanding outcomes

2.10.5 Diversity and Inclusion

Promoting diversity and inclusion (D&I) in the foundation construction industry is critical
for both the growth of the profession and the development of innovative solutions. The more
diverse a workforce, the more it mirrors the varied needs and perspectives of society.
Increased diversity within engineering teams fosters creativity, which can lead to better problem-
solving and more effective design solutions. Diverse teams bring different perspectives, which
can lead to unique approaches and the identification of potential challenges that a
homogeneous team might overlook.
It is also crucial to actively recruit and retain individuals from underrepresented groups,
including women, people of color, and individuals with disabilities. This helps ensure a fair and
equitable work environment where everyone has equal access to career development
opportunities.
Inclusion also goes beyond recruitment; it’s about creating a workplace culture that values the
contributions of all team members. This means offering equal opportunities for training, career
advancement, and professional growth, regardless of background.
Additionally, fostering an inclusive environment where everyone feels comfortable
sharing their ideas and feedback encourages better decision-making and promotes a more
respectful workplace. By making diversity and inclusion central to their business strategy,
construction firms can attract top talent, improve employee morale, and contribute to more
sustainable and ethical practices across the industry. he is not the time of the world is the time
to the earth of the time is not the shine is the worlds
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The study involves the design and analysis of three types of foundations: shallow
foundations (square and strip footings), mat foundations, and pile foundations, based on actual
soil data. For shallow foundations, Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory and the General Bearing
Capacity Equation will be applied to determine both bearing capacity and settlement. For mat
foundations, the General Bearing Capacity Equation will be used to calculate settlement and
bearing capacity. Lastly, the design and settlement of pile foundations will be evaluated.
3.1 Contact Pressure or Load Per Unit Area (q)
q =Q/BL (3.1)
q = contact pressure or load per unit area
Q = column load
B = width of foundation
L= length of foundation
3.2 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory for Strip Foundation
qu = c’Nc + qNq +1/2 γ BNγ (3.2)

qu = ultimate bearing capacity

c’ = cohesion of soil
γ = unit weight of soil
q = effective stress at foundation bottom
B = width of foundation
Nc, Nq, Nγ = bearing capacity factors

3.3 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory for Square Foundation

qu = 1.3c’Nc + qNq + 0.4γ BNγ (3.3)

qu = ultimate bearing capacity

c’ = cohesion of soil
γ = unit weight of soil
q = effective stress at foundation bottom
B = width of foundation
Nc, Nq, Nγ = bearing capacity factors
3.4 Factor of Safety
qall = qu /FS (3.4)
qall = allowable bearing capacity
qu = ultimate bearing capacity
FS = factor of safety

3.5 General Bearing Capacity Equation

qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + ½ γ BN γ F γ s F γ d F γ i ( 3.5)

qu = ultimate bearing capacity

c’ = cohesion of soil
γ = unit weight of soil
q = effective stress at foundation bottom
B = width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N γ = bearing capacity factors

Fcs, Fqs, F γ s = shape factors

Fcd, Fqd, F γ d = depth factors

Fci, Fqi, F γ i = load inclination factors

3.6 Effects of a Rigid Layer on the Settlements of Surface Foundations

Is = F1 + (1− 2μs/1− μs) F2 (3.6)
Is = influence factor for the corner of a rectangular flexible surface foundation
μs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil
3.7 Effect of Embedment

Se =(qoB/Es)(1 - μs2) Is If (3.7)

Se = elastic settlement of soil

Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B
μs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil
q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q
Es =ΣEs(i)∆z / z̅ (3.8)
Es(i) = soil modulus of elasticity within a depth of ∆z
z̅ = H or 5B, whichever is smaller
3.8 Pile Foundation
Qu = Q p + Q s (3.9)
Qp = load carrying capacity of the pile point
Qs = frictional resistance (skin friction) derived from the soil–pile interface
3.8.1 Calculation of Qp
For granular soil and sand,
qp = 0.4paN60( L/D) ≤ 4paN60 (3.10)
N60 = the average value of the standard penetration number near the pile point (about 10D
above
to 4D below the pile point)
pa = atmospheric pressure (≈ 100 kN/m2)
qp = ultimate point resistance
For cohesive soil and saturated clays under undrained conditions (ø=0), the net ultimate load
can
be given as
Qp ≈ Nc* cu Ap = 9 cu Ap (3.11)
cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile
3.8.2 Calculation of Qs
For granular soil and sand,
fav = 0.02pa (N̅ )
60 (3.12)
Qs = pL fav (3.13)

fav = average unit frictional resistance

N̅ 60 = average value of standard penetration resistance
pa = atmospheric pressure (≈ 100 kN/m2)
For cohesive soil and clay,
Qs = Σfp∆L = Σα cup∆L (3.14)
cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile

3.9 Settlement of Pile Foundation with Vesic’s Method

se = se(1) + se(2) + se(3) (3.15)
se = total elastic settlement of the pile head
se(1) = elastic shortening of the pile
se(2) = settlement of the pile due to the working load (Qwp) at the pile point
se(3) = settlement of the pile due to the working load (Qws) along the pile shaft
se(1) =(Qwp +ξQws) L /ApEp (3.16)

Qwp = working load at the pile point

Qws = working load along the pile shaft
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pile point
L = pile length
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
ξ = a constant in the range of 0.50–0.67, depending on the skin friction distribution
se(2) =(qwpD/Es) (1-μs2) Iwp (3.17)
D = width or diameter of pile
qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
Iwp = influence factor ≈ 0.85
μs = Poisson’s ratio of soil
se(3) = (Qws/pL) D/Es (1-μs2) Iws
p = perimeter of the pile
L = embedded length of pile
Iws = influence factor

Iws = 2 + 0.35
√ L
D
(3.19)
Iws = influence factor
L = embedded length of pile
D = width or diameter of pile

CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DATA, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Subsoil Stratification

Subsoil Stratification

BH No. Layer Depth (m) Subsoil SPT Range Average Description

Type SPT value

Top soil 0-1.5 - - - -

1 1.5-3 ML/CL 2 2 Firm

BH-01
2 3-10.5 CL 3,2,1,1 1.75 Soft

3 10.5-15 ML-SL 9,8,7, 8 Stiff to firm

4 15-22.79 SM/CL/ML 62,46,92,76,96 74.4 Very Dense

Ground Water table

BH No. Ground Water table Termination Depth Remark

(m) (BGL) (m)

BH-01 5.59 22.79 Max: 8.45 m

Min: 3.31m

Loose/ Soft Soil Layer at the Project Site

BH No. Layer Depth Thickness Subsoil SPT Average Description

(m) Type Range SPT
value
 BH-01 2 3-10.5 7.5 CL 3,2,1,1 1.75 Soft soft

4.2 Soil Design Parameter

Soil Design Parameter

BH No. Layer Depth Moisture Unit Weight C Ø Specific

(m) Content () Gravity
(%)
Top soil 0-1.5 25 81.32 2.9 2’51” 2.67

1 1.5-3 33.9 77.91 2.68

BH-01
2 3-10.5 45.47 71.1 2.67

3 10.5-15 25.05 84.388 2.66

4 15-22.79 30.75 81.08 2.65

4.3 Result
4.3.1 Isolated Spread (1m x 1m)
B = 1m x 1m
Df = 2 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 2.9*6.8948=20 kN/m2
Ø = 2 °51’= 2.85°
γ = 71.1 x0.1571=11.16kN/m3
γ sat = 103.93x0.1571=16.32kN/m3
γ ’ = γ sat - γ w = 16.32– 9.81 =6.51 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 5.59– 2 = 3.59 m

γ = γ ’ + 𝑑/𝐵 (γ - γ ' )
= 6.51 +3.59(11.16-6.51 )=23.203 kN/m3
q = γ ×Df = 11.16x 2 = 22.32kN/m

Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory

qu = 1.3c’Nc + qNq + 0.4  BN Nc = 9.81

=1.3x20x17.69+22.32x7.44+0.4x11.16x1x3.64=642.24 kN/m2
qall = qu/FS
= 214.08 kN/m2
Settlement of Isolated Spread (1m x 1m)

Se = 𝑞𝑜𝐵

𝐸𝑠 (1 - μs2) Is If
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B
μs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3
q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q
q0= qu - q = 642.24 –22.3 =619.94 kN/m2
L = B = 1 m, H = z = 5B =5 m
Df/B = 2 , μs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =1/1 = 1
n’ = H/B = 5/1 = 5
From Table 4, F1= 0.437 , and From Table 5, F2 = 0.031

Is = F1 + (1− 2μ𝑠/1− μ𝑠 ) F2
=0.4547

z(m) Δz (m) N60 Es (k N/m2)

0-1.5 1.5 0 0

1.5-3 1.5 2 2000

3-10.5 7.5 1.75 1750

Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = to about
z= 5B.Es= =3225
Pa = 100 k N/m2, α =10
q0 B
Se = ( )(1-µs2) Is If
Es

=0.043m=43.74mm

4.3.1 Isolated Spread (2m x 2m)

B = 2m x 2m
Df = 2 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 2.9*6.8948=20 kN/m2
Ø = 2 °51’= 2.85°
γ = 71.1 x0.1571=11.16kN/m3
γ sat = 103.93x0.1571=16.32kN/m3
γ ’ = γ sat - γ w = 16.32– 9.81 =6.51 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 5.59– 2 = 3.59 m

γ = γ ’ + 𝑑/𝐵 (γ - γ ' )
=6.51 +3.59/2(11.16-6.51)=14.85 kN/m3
q = γ ×Df = 11.16x 2 = 22.32kN/m

Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory

qu = 1.3c’Nc + qNq + 0.4  BN

=1.3x20x17.69+22.32x7.44+0.4x11.16x2x3.64=657.71 kN/m2
qall = qu/FS
 =219.239 kN/m2
Settlement of Isolated Spread (1m x 1m)

Se = 𝑞𝑜𝐵

𝐸𝑠 (1 - μs2) Is If
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B
μs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3
q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q
q0= qu - q = 657.71 –22.3 =635.41 kN/m2
L = B = 2 m, H = z = 5B =10 m
Df/B = 1 , μs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =1/2 = 1
n’ = H/B =10 /2 = 5
From Table 4, F1= 0.437, and From Table 5, F2 = 0.031

Is = F1 + (1− 2μ𝑠/1− μ𝑠 ) F2
= 0.4547

z(m) Δz (m) N60 Es (k N/m2)

0-1.5 1.5 0 0

1.5-3 1.5 2 2000

3-10.5 7.5 1.75 1750

Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = to about
z= 5B.Es=3225
Pa = 100 k N/m2, α =10
q0 B
Se = ( )(1-µs2) Is If
Es

=0.0448m=44.8mm

4.3.2 Pile Foundation (Clay)

Data 1: The area of the foundation is 0.35 m x 0.35 m
Pile size = 0.35 m x 0.35 m
Area of Pile, Ap = 0.1125 m2
Assume Pile Length =10.5 m
Pa = 100 kN/m2
C= 2.9lb/in2 = 20 kN/m2
Qp = 9CuAp = 9x20x0.1125=20.25 kN
Qs = α Cu PL

Qu= Qp +Qs
P = 4B=0.14

Depth (m) L (m) Cu (kN/m2) c α α Cu PL (kN)

Pa
0-1.5 1.5 20 0.5 0.68 2.856

1.5-3 1.5 20 0.5 0.68 2.856

3-10.5 7.5 20 0.5 0.68 14.28

Qs = 19.992

Qu= Qp +Qs =40.242 kN

Qu
Qall = =10.06
FS
Settlement of Pile Foundation,
Iwp = 0.85, μ = 0.3, ξ = 0.62

Es = 25000 kN/m2

Ep = 213 000 000 kN/m2

Qp
Q℘ = =20.25/4=5.062
FS

Qs
Qws = =19.992/4=4.998
FS
 Q℘
qwp = =5.062/0.1125=44.9955
Ap

( Qwp+ξQws ) L
Se (1) = =0.000036m
ApEp

qwpD
Se (2) = (1-µs2)Iwp =0.000487m
Es

Iws = 2+0.35
√ L =3.917
D

Qws D
Se (3) =( )( )(1-µs2) Iws= 1.6966m
pL Es

Se = Se (1) + Se (2) + Se (3) =1.697123m =1.69711mm

Data 2: The area of the foundation is 0.45 m x 0.45 m

Pile size = 0.45 m x 0.45m

Area of Pile, Ap = 0.2025 m2
Assume Pile Length =10.5 m
Pa = 100 kN/m2
C= 2.9lb/in2 = 20 kN/m2
Qp = 9CuAp = 9x20x0.2025=36.45 kN
Qs = α Cu PL

Qu= Qp +Qs
P = 4B=0.14

Depth (m) L (m) Cu (kN/m2) c α α Cu PL (kN)

Pa
0-1.5 1.5 20 0.5 0.68 2.856

1.5-3 1.5 20 0.5 0.68 2.856

3-10.5 7.5 20 0.5 0.68 14.28

 Qs = 19.992

Qu= Qp +Qs =56.442kN

Qu
Qall = =14.11
FS
Settlement of Pile Foundation,
Iwp = 0.85, μ = 0.3, ξ = 0.62

Es = 25000 kN/m2

Ep = 213000000 kN/m2

Qp
Q℘ = =36.45 /4=9.112
FS

Qs
Qws = =19.992/4=4.998
FS

Q℘
qwp = =59.112/0.1125=80.9955
Ap

( Qwp+ξQws ) L
Se (1) = =0.000053m
ApEp

qwpD
Se (2) = (1-µs2)Iwp =0.008771m
Es

Iws = 2+0.35
√ L =3.917
D

Qws D
Se (3) =( )( )(1-µs2) Iws= 0.000441m
pL Es

Se = Se (1) + Se (2) + Se (3) =0.009265m =9.265mm

4.3.3 Geotechnical design of Mat foundations

Df = 2m and B= 10m10m
FS = 3
B = 1m x 1m
Df = 2 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 2.9*6.8948=20 kN/m2
Ø = 2 °51’= 2.85°
γ = 71.1 x0.1571=11.16kN/m3
γ sat = 103.93x0.1571=16.32kN/m3
γ ’ = γ sat - γ w = 16.32– 9.81 =6.51 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 5.59– 2 = 3.59 m

γ = γ ’ + 𝑑/𝐵 (γ - γ ' )
= 6.51 +3.59/10 x(11.16-6.51 )=8.179 kN/m3
q = γ ×Df = 11.16x 2 = 22.32kN/m

Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory

qu = 1.3c’Nc + qNq + 0.4  BN

=1.3x20x17.69+22.32x7.44+0.4x11.16x10x3.64=786.704kN/m2
Settlement of Isolated Spread (10m x 10m)

Se = 𝑞𝑜𝐵

𝐸𝑠 (1 - μs2) Is If
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B
μs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3
q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q
q0= qu - q = 786.704 –22.3 =764.404 kN/m2
L = B = 10 m, H = z = 5B =50 m
Df/B = 0.4 , μs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =10/10 = 1
n’ = H/B = 50/10 = 5
From Table 4, F1= 0.437 , and From Table 5, F2 = 0.031

Is = F1 + (1− 2μ𝑠/1− μ𝑠 ) F2
=0.0857

z(m) Δz (m) N60 Es (k N/m2)

0-1.5 1.5 0 0

1.5-3 1.5 2 2000

3-10.5 7.5 1.75 1750

Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = to about
z= 5B.Es= =3225
Pa = 100 k N/m2, α =10

q0 B
Se = ( )(1-µs2) Is If
Es

=0.05267m=52.67mm

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Foundations play a critical role in civil infrastructure, acting as the key components that
transfer loads from the superstructure to the underlying soil. A stable and reliable foundation
ensures the long-term durability and safety of a building. Hence, it is essential to conduct
thorough soil analysis, design, and construction processes to determine the most appropriate
foundation type. Foundation engineers must assess soil conditions, evaluate different
foundation designs in terms of settlement, bearing capacity, and structural integrity, and then
choose the most suitable foundation based on both technical and economic considerations.

For the borehole data from BH-1 in this project, the soil conditions were found to be
favorable, consisting primarily of dense and stiff sand, which provides excellent bearing capacity
for all considered foundation types. The only exception was the 0.3m diameter pile foundation,
which proved unsuitable due to its inability to meet the design load. Given that pile foundations
are typically more expensive and are used in soft soils that require deep excavation, their use
was deemed unnecessary for the strong soil conditions found in this case.

For buildings with low to moderate loads, isolated footings and strip footings are both
cost-effective options. Specifically, the 1m x 1m isolated footing was found to be the most
economical solution for buildings with low design loads. However, it is important to carefully
assess potential settlements for both isolated and strip foundations to ensure their suitability and
long-term performance. For buildings with higher design loads, mat foundations are
recommended, as they offer minimal differential settlement and provide uniform support across
the structure.

REFERENCES

Eslami, A. et al. (2019) Piezocone penetration and Cone Test application in Foundation
Engineering: CPT and CPTU. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Das, B.M. and Sivakugan, N. (2019) Principles of Foundation Engineering. 9th edn. Boston, MA:
Cengage Learning.
Das, B.M. and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 8th edn. Stamford:
Cengage Learning.
Young, R. (2012) Soil properties and behaviour. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Mishra, G. (2020) Types of foundation and their uses in building construction, The Constructor.
Available at: https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses/9237/
(Accessed:
21 December 2023).
Constro Facilitator (2021) Different types of foundation used in building and structures, Constro
Facilitator. Available at: https://constrofacilitator.com/different-types-of-foundation-used-in-
building-and-structures/ (Accessed: 21 December 2023).

APPENDIX
TABLE-1 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity AND TABLE-2 Bearing Capacity Factor
TABLE-3 Shape, Depth, and inclination factor
Figure 2 Variation of If