Chapter 2

2.1 Drive Systems

The drive system, it supplies the power for the actuation of various linkages and joints of a robot
and enabling the robot to move.

Electric drive:
Most of the industrial robots use electric drive system, in the form of either DC stepper motor
drive (open loop control), or, DC servo motor drive (closed loop control).

Advantages: This drive system gives better positioning accuracy and repeatability, and is
suitable to keep cleaner environment around.

But it gives lower movement compare to the hydraulic robots and the electric drive system
is good for small and medium size robots only.

Hydraulic drive:
Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators. Hydraulic drive robots are preferred at
higher speeds and at substantial loads

Disadvantage: it occupies large space area and there is a danger of oil leak to the shop floor.

Pneumatic drive:
Used for high speed and/or high-load-carrying capabilities. A pneumatic drive is clean and fast
but it is difficult to control because air is a compressible fluid. The pneumatic drive system is
preferred for smaller robots and simple material transfer applications.

2.2 Robot Control Programming

Lead-Through Programming
The human operator physically grabs the end-effector and shows the robot exactly what motions
to make for a task, while the computer memorizes the motions (memorizing the joint positions,
lengths and/or angles, to be played back during task execution).

Teach Programming
Move robot to required task positions via teach pendant; computer memorizes these
configurations and plays them back in robot motion sequence. The teach pendant is a controller
box that allows the human operator to position the robot by manipulating the buttons on the box.
This type of control is adequate for simple, non-intelligent tasks.

Off-Line Programming
Off-line programming is the use of computer software with realistic graphics to plan and
program motions without the use of robot hardware (such as IGRIP).
2.3 Robot Sensors

Robots under computer control interact with a variety of sensors, which are small electronic or
electro-mechanical components that allow the robot to react to its environment. Some
common sensors are described below.

Vision Sensors
A vision system has a computer-controlled camera that allows the robot to see its environment
and adjust its motion accordingly. Used commonly in electronics assembly to place expensive
circuit chips accurately through holes in the circuit boards. Note that the camera is actually
under computer control and the computer sends the signals to the robot based upon what it sees.

Voice Sensors
Voice systems allow the control of the robots using voice commands. This is useful in training
robots when the trainer has to manipulate other objects.

Tactile Sensors
Tactile sensors provide the robot with the ability to touch and feel. These sensors are used for
measuring applications and interacting gently with the environment.

Force/Pressure Sensors
Force/pressure sensors provide the robot with a sense of the force being applied on the arm and
the direction of the force. These sensors are used to help the robot auto-correct for
misalignments, or to sense the distribution of loads on irregular geometry. Can also measure
torques, or moments, which are forces acting through a distance. Can be used in conjunction with
haptic interfaces to allow the human operator to feel what the robot is exerting on the
environment during teleoperation tasks.

Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors allow the robots to detect the presence of objects that are very close to the
arm before the arm actually contacts the objects. These sensors are used to provide the robot
with a method of collision avoidance.

Limit Switches
Limit switches may be installed at end-of-motion areas in the workspace to automatically stop
the robot or reverse its direction when a move out-of-bounds is attempted; again, used to
avoid collisions.
2.4 Control Systems

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output by
varying the input. The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Fig 1.1 Control System

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control systems
based on the feedback path.

Open loop system

Fig 1.2 Open Loop System

An input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling signal. This
signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the plant produces
an output, which is controlled.

The output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is independent of the desired
output.

Closed Loop System

Fig 1.3 Closed Loop System

The output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is dependent on the desired output. The
error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and the
feedback signal. Instead of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
The controller then produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. The output of the
control system is thus adjusted automatically till we get the desired response.

Control System Mathematical Models

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems. The
following mathematical models are mostly used.

Differential equation model

Transfer function model
State space model
Differential Equation Model
Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model.

 Apply basic laws to the given control system.

 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).
Example 1
Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit consists of
resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in series. The input
voltage applied to this circuit is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage vo
Solution

The equation for this circuit is:

current passing through capacitor:

Replacing with the above equation gives:

Dividing through by LC:

Transfer Function Model

The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial
conditions are zero.

If x(t) and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s). Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the ratio
of Y(s) and X(s).

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown below:

Example 2

Previously, we got the differential equation of an electrical system as:

Applying Laplace transform on both sides:

Where,
vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi
vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The transfer
function model of this system is shown below.

Example 3
Consider the following spring-mass-damper system:

Where,
m: mass in kg
y: position in m
u: control input in N
Find the transfer function and draw the transfer function model.

Solution

FBD diagram:

2.4.1 Types of Controllers

Controllers are used to improve the performance of control systems. Basic controllers
include proportional, derivative and integral controllers.

Proportional Controller

The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal.

Applying Laplace transform on both the sides:

Hence, the transfer function of the proportional controller is Kp

Where,
U(s) is the Laplace transform of the actuating signal u(t)

E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)

KP is the proportional gain

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
proportional controller is shown in the following figure.
The proportional controller is used to change the transient response as per the requirement.

Derivative Controller
The derivative controller produces an output, which is derivative of the error signal.

Applying Laplace transform on both the sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the derivative controller is KDs.

Where, KD is the derivative gain.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The derivative controller is used to make the unstable control system into a stable one.

Integral Controller
The integral controller produces an output, which is integral of the error signal.

Applying Laplace transform on both the sides:

The transfer function of the integral controller is KI /s. Where, KI is the integral gain.
The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error.

Combination of basic controllers.

Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller

The proportional derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of the
outputs of proportional and derivative controllers.

Applying Laplace transform on both the sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is KP+KDs. The block
diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the proportional
derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional derivative controller is used to improve the stability of control system without
affecting the steady state error.
Proportional Integral (PI) Controller
The proportional integral controller produces an output, which is the combination of outputs of
the proportional and integral controllers.

Applying Laplace transform on both the sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of proportional integral controller is KP+KI/s.

The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with the
proportional integral controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional integral controller is used to decrease the steady state error without affecting
the stability of the control system.

Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller

The proportional integral derivative controller produces an output, which is the combination of
the outputs of proportional, integral and derivative controllers.

Applying Laplace transform on both the sides:

Therefore, the transfer function of the proportional integral derivative controller is KP+KI/s
+KDs. The block diagram of the unity negative feedback closed loop control system along with
the proportional integral derivative controller is shown in the following figure.

The proportional integral derivative controller is used to improve the stability of the control
system and to decrease steady state error.