Physics-II

Lecture 2

Gauss’s Law
Bakranova Dina Igorevna
PhD, Assistant professor
 LECTURE 2
Electric Flux
Gauss’s Law
Application of Gauss’s Law to Various
Charge Distributions
Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
ELECTRIC FLUX
Consider an electric field that is
uniform in both magnitude and
direction as shown in Figure. The
field lines penetrate a rectangular
surface of area whose plane is
oriented perpendicular to the field.

From the SI units of E and A, we see that E has units of newton-

meters squared per coulomb (N*m2/C) Electric flux is proportional
to the number of electric field lines penetrating some surface.
ELECTRIC FLUX
The area A is the product of the length
and the width of the surface: A=l*w. We
can see that the widths of the surfaces
are related by w =w*cosθ. The area A is
given by A =l*w = l*w*cosθ and we see
that the two areas are related by A
=A*cosθ. Because the flux through A
equals the flux through A , the flux
through A is:
ELECTRIC FLUX
We can see that the flux through a surface
of fixed area A has a maximum value EA
when the surface is perpendicular to
the field (when the normal to the surface
is parallel to the field, that is, when θ=0º);
the flux is zero when the surface is
parallel to the field (when the normal to
the surface is perpendicular to the field,
that is, when θ=90º).
The electric flux through this element is:
ELECTRIC FLUX
The general definition of electric flux is:

∆Ai is a vector, which magnitude represents

the area of the i-th element of the surface
and direction is defined to be perpendicular
to the surface element.
The variation in the electric field over one
element of surface can be neglected if the
element is sufficiently small.
ELECTRIC FLUXElectric flux (ΦE) measures how much an electric field
(E) passes through a surface. For a closed surface,
small area elements ΔA are perpendicular and point
outward.
1.If field lines exit (θ<90º), the flux is positive;
2. if they enter (θ>90º), the flux is negative;
3. if they graze the surface (θ=90º), the flux is zero.
The net flux through the surface is proportional to the
number of lines leaving the surface, where the net
number means the number of lines leaving the
surface minus the number of lines entering the
surface.
Example. Flux Through a Cube
Consider a uniform electric field E oriented in the x
direction in empty space. A cube of edge length l is
placed in the field, oriented as shown in Figure. Find
the net electric flux through the surface of the cube.
Solution. Conceptualize Examine Figure carefully.
Notice that the electric field lines pass through two
faces perpendicularly and are parallel to four other
faces of the cube.
Categorize We evaluate the flux from its definition, so we categorize this
example as a substitution problem. The flux through four of the faces
(3,4 and the unnumbered faces) is zero because E is parallel to the four
faces and therefore perpendicular to dA on these faces.
Example. Flux
Through a Cube
GAUSS’ LAW
we find that the net flux through the gaussian surface is:

where we have moved E outside of the integral

because, by symmetry, E is constant over the
surface. The value of E is given by
Furthermore, because the surface is spherical,
Hence, the net flux through the
gaussian surface is

We also know that and can write this equation in the form:
GAUSS’ LAW
The net flux of electric field through any
enclosed surface are equal to the net charge
inside that surface divided by permittivity of
free space.

Here E·dA is a scalar

product of electric field and
differential of area vectors.
 GAUSS’ LAW
• According to the Gauss’ theorem
electric flux through any surface
S1, S2, S3 is the same.

• Electric flux from a charge located

outside a surface equals zero. The
number of lines entering the surface
equals the number leaving the surface
and the net number equals zero.
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO
VARIOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
• The examples demonstrate ways of choosing the
gaussian surface over which the surface integral
can be simplified and the electric field determined.
In choosing the surface, always take advantage of
the symmetry of the charge distribution so that E
can be removed from the integral.
 APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW TO
VARIOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
The goal in this type of calculation is to determine a surface for
which each portion of the surface satisfies one or more of the
following conditions:
1. The value of the electric field can be argued by symmetry to
be constant over the portion of the surface.
2. The dot product can be expressed as a simple algebraic
product EdA because E and dA are parallel.
3. The dot product is zero because E and dA are perpendicular.
4. The electric field is zero over the portion of the surface.
Example. A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge Distribution
Find the electric field a distance r from a line
of positive charge of infinite length and
constant charge per unit length λ
Solution. Conceptualize The line of charge
is infinitely long. Therefore, the field is the
same at all points equidistant from the line,
regardless of the vertical position of the
point in Figure a. We expect the field to become weaker as we move farther away
from the line of charge.
Categorize Because the charge is distributed uniformly along the line, the
charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry and we can apply Gauss’s law to find
the electric field.
Analyze The symmetry of the charge distribution requires that E be perpendicular
to the line charge and directed outward as shown in Figure b
Example. A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge Distribution
To reflect the symmetry of the charge
distribution, let’s choose a cylindrical
gaussian surface of radius r and length ,
that is coaxial with the line charge. For the
curved part of this surface, E is constant in
magnitude and perpendicular to the surface
at each point, satisfying conditions (1) and
(2). Furthermore, the flux through the ends
of the gaussian cylinder is zero because E is parallel to these surfaces. That
is the first application we have seen of condition (3).
We must take the surface integral in Gauss’s law over the entire gaussian
surface. Because EdA is zero for the flat ends of the cylinder, however, we
restrict our attention to only the curved surface of the cylinder.
Example. A Cylindrically Symmetric Charge Distribution

Finalize This result shows that the electric field due to a cylindrically
symmetric charge distribution varies as 1/r, whereas the field external
to a spherically symmetric charge distribution varies as 1/r2. Equation
can also be derived by direct integration over the charge distribution.
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
A good electrical conductor
contains charges (electrons)
that are not bound to any atom
and therefore are free to move
about within the material.
When there is no net motion of A conducting slab in an external

charge within a conductor, the electric field E. The charges induced

on the two surfaces of the slab
produce an electric field that opposes
conductor is in electrostatic the external field, giving a resultant
field of zero inside the slab.
equilibrium.
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the
following properties:
1.The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
2.If the conductor is isolated and carries a charge, the charge
resides on its surface.
3.The electric field at a point outside a charged conductor is
perpendicular to the surface of the conductor and has a
magnitude ϭ/ϵ0, where ϭ is the surface charge density.
4.On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge
density is greatest at locations where the radius of curvature
of the surface is smallest.
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
1. Inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium,
the electric field is zero. If it weren’t, free electrons
would move, preventing equilibrium. Electrons adjust
their positions on the conductor’s surface until the
internal field cancels the external field. This process
happens almost instantly, in about10-16 s, which for
most purposes can be considered instantaneous.
If the conductor is hollow, the electric field inside
the conductor is also zero, whether we consider
points in the conductor or in the cavity within the
conductor.
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
2. Gauss’s law confirms that in
electrostatic equilibrium, any net charge
on a conductor resides on its surface.
Inside the conductor, the electric field is
zero, so the net flux through a Gaussian
surface just inside the conductor is also
zero. From Gauss’s law, this means the net
charge within the Gaussian surface is zero.
Thus, any excess charge must be on the A conductor of arbitrary shape.
conductor’s surface, though Gauss’s law The broken line represents a
gaussian surface that can be just
does not specify how it is distributed. inside the conductor’s surface.
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
3. To verify the third property, we consider the
perpendicularity of the electric field to the conductor’s
surface. If the field had a parallel component, free
electrons would move along the surface, disrupting
equilibrium. Thus, the electric field must be
perpendicular to the surface. Using Gauss’s law, we
draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface with one face
outside the conductor and one inside. Inside the
conductor, E=0, so there is no flux through the inner
face. For the curved part of the surface, the field is A gaussian surface in the shape
parallel to it, resulting in zero flux. Therefore, the of a small cylinder is used to
calculate the electric field
net flux is due only to the outer face, where the immediately outside a charged
conductor.
field is perpendicular. Gauss’s law then relates this
flux to the electric field just outside the conductor
 UNITS IN SI

Charge Q C (Coulomb)
Electric field E N/C=V/m
Electric flux ФЕ N*m2/C
 MAIN TERMS
Electric Flux
Electric field
Electric field intensity
Electric field lines
Charge density
Gauss’s law
Electrostatic Equilibrium
MAIN TERMS
 CONTROL QUESTIONS
1.What is electric flux from a charge located outside a surface?
2.What is the formula for electric flux through a surface, and what
does each term represent?
3.If the electric field is uniform and perpendicular to a flat surface,
how is the electric flux through the surface calculated?
4.State Gauss’s law in mathematical form and explain its significance.
5.How does the net electric flux through a closed surface relate to
the total charge enclosed within the surface?
6.How is Gauss’s law applied to calculate the electric field due to a
uniformly charged sphere?
7.What is the electric field inside a spherical shell of charge?
8.Why is the electric field inside a conductor zero in electrostatic
equilibrium?