ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all those who have contributed
to the successful completion of my summer training on "semiconductors" at SSPL, DRDO,
Delhi. This experience has been invaluable in enhancing my knowledge and skills in the field
of semiconductors.

I am particularly thankful to my mentor, DR. Sudhir’s, for his unwavering guidance and support
throughout the duration of my training. His expertise, patience, and dedication played a pivotal
role in helping me grasp complex concepts and tackle challenging projects. Mr. Sudhir’s
mentorship not only enriched my technical skills but also provided me with valuable insights
into the practical aspects of the industry.

I wish to thank my respected faculty and my lab mates for their support.

Last but not the least I thank the almighty for enlightening me with his blessings.

SHUBHAM SINGH RAGHAV

 INDEX

CHAPTER NUMBER TOPIC

1. Semiconductors and Basics

2. Bipolar Transistor Junction (BJT)

3. Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

4. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect

Transistor (MOSFET)

5. High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT)

6. Two-Port network and Parameters

7. Material Used
 CHAPTER-Semiconductors and Basics

What is semiconductor?
• A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a
conductor and an insulator. It means that semiconductors can conduct electricity under
certain conditions but not as freely as conductors like metals, nor are they as resistant to
the flow of electricity as insulators like rubber or glass.
• Semiconductors are crucial components in modern electronics. They form the basis of
various electronic devices, including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits (ICs).
These devices are fundamental building blocks for countless electronic systems, from
simple circuits in household appliances to complex computing systems.
• Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor material due to its abundance and
excellent semiconductor properties. Other semiconductor materials include germanium,
gallium arsenide, and silicon carbide, each with its own unique properties suitable for
different applications.

What is Transistor?
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It consists of three layers of semiconductor material, where the flow of
current or voltage between two of the layers can be controlled by applying a small voltage or
current to the third layer.
The three layers of a transistor are typically named emitter, base, and collector:
• Emitter: The emitter is the layer from which majority charge carriers (either electrons
or holes, depending on the type of transistor) are emitted into the base region.
• Base: The base is a thin region separating the emitter and collector. Its primary
function is to control the flow of charge carriers from the emitter to the collector.
• Collector: The collector collects majority charge carriers that cross the base region
and carries them away from the transistor.

Transistors come in two main types: bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field-effect
transistors (FETs).
 • BJTs use both electron and hole charge carriers in their operation and can be either
NPN or PNP depending on the doping of the layers.
• FETs rely on the modulation of the conductivity of a semiconductor channel by the
application of an electric field. They can be either MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-
Semiconductor FETs) or JFETs (Junction FETs).
Transistors are fundamental components in electronic circuits, serving roles such as
amplification, switching, signal modulation, and voltage regulation. They are essential
building blocks in various electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, televisions,
and radios. The miniaturization of transistors has been a driving force behind the
advancement of technology, enabling the development of increasingly compact and powerful
electronic devices.
 CHAPTER-Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Introduction:
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) are semiconductor devices used in a wide range of
electronic circuits for amplification, switching, and other applications. They are constructed
with three doped semiconductor regions: the emitter, base, and collector.

Structure:
BJTs come in two main types: NPN and PNP. In an NPN transistor, the emitter is made of N-
type material, while the base and collector are made of P-type material. Conversely, in a PNP
transistor, the emitter is P-type, and the base and collector are N-type.

Operation:
BJTs operate by controlling the flow of charge carriers (electrons or holes) between the
emitter and collector regions via the base region. The base current controls the collector
current in a BJT, making it a current-controlled device.

Modes of Operation:
BJTs operate in three main modes: cutoff, active, and saturation.
• Cutoff: No collector current flows when the transistor is in cutoff mode.
• Active: In active mode, the transistor operates as an amplifier, and the collector current
is proportional to the base current.
 • Saturation: In saturation mode, the transistor allows maximum collector current to
flow, acting as a closed switch.

Characteristics:
BJTs have various characteristics, including:
• Current Gain (β): Ratio of collector current to base current (for common-emitter
configuration).
• Forward Current Transfer Ratio (α): Ratio of collector current to emitter current (for
common-base configuration)
• Cut-off Frequency (ft): Maximum frequency at which the transistor can operate as an
amplifier.

Applications:
• Amplifiers: BJT-based amplifiers are widely used in audio and RF applications.
• Switches: BJTs are used as switches in digital logic circuits and power control
applications.
• Oscillators: BJT-based oscillators generate periodic signals in various electronic
systems.

Conclusion:
Bipolar Junction Transistors are fundamental components in electronics, offering versatile
functionality in amplification, switching, and signal processing. Understanding their
characteristics and behaviour is crucial for designing and analysing electronic circuits across
a wide range of applications.
 CHAPTER- Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

Introduction:
Field-Effect Transistors (FETs) are semiconductor devices widely used in electronics for
amplification, switching, and voltage regulation. FETs operate based on the modulation of the
conductivity of a channel by an electric field.

Structure:
FETs consist of three terminals: source, gate, and drain. The basic structure includes a
semiconductor channel, which connects the source and drain terminals, and a gate electrode
that controls the flow of current through the channel. There are two main types of FETs:
Junction FETs (JFETs) and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs).
Operation:
The operation of FETs relies on the control of the channel conductivity through the
application of an external voltage to the gate terminal. In JFETs, the gate-source voltage
controls the width of the channel, while in MOSFETs, the gate voltage modulates the surface
charge density in the channel region.

Modes of Operation:
FETs operate in three main modes: cutoff, saturation, and triode (or linear) region:
• Cutoff: No current flows between the source and drain terminals when the transistor is
in cutoff mode.
• Saturation: In saturation mode, the transistor allows maximum current to flow between
the source and drain terminals, acting as a closed switch.
• Triode (Linear) Region: In this region, the transistor operates as an amplifier, and the
drain current is proportional to the gate-source voltage.

Characteristics:
FETs have various characteristics, including:
• Transconductance (gm): The change in drain current with respect to the change in
gate-source voltage.
• Drain-Source Resistance (rds.): The resistance between the drain and source terminals
when the transistor is in saturation mode.
• Gate Threshold Voltage (Vth): The minimum voltage required to turn on the transistor
and establish a conducting channel between the source and drain terminals.

Applications:
• Amplifiers: FET-based amplifiers are used in audio, RF, and instrumentation
applications.
• Switches: FETs act as high-speed switches in digital circuits and power control systems.
• Voltage Regulators: FETs are used in voltage regulation circuits for stable power supply
output.

Conclusion:
Field-Effect Transistors are essential components in modern electronics, offering high input
impedance, low noise, and fast switching speeds. Understanding their characteristics and
operation is crucial for designing and analysing electronic circuits across various
applications.
 CHAPTER-Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
(MOSFET)

Introduction:
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) are widely used
semiconductor devices for amplification, switching, and other electronic applications. They
are known for their high input impedance, low power consumption, and fast switching speed.

Structure:
MOSFETs consist of three terminals: source, gate, and drain. The basic structure includes a
semiconductor channel, typically made of silicon, between the source and drain terminals. An
insulating layer of silicon dioxide (oxide) separates the gate terminal from the channel, and a
metal gate electrode controls the flow of current through the channel.
Operation:
MOSFET operation relies on the modulation of the conductivity of the channel by an electric
field generated by the gate voltage. When a voltage is applied to the gate terminal, it creates
an electric field that controls the flow of charge carriers (electrons or holes) between the
source and drain terminals through the channel.

Modes of Operation:
MOSFETs operate in three main modes: cutoff, saturation, and triode (or linear) region.
• Cutoff: No current flows between the source and drain terminals when the transistor is
in cutoff mode.
• Saturation: In saturation mode, the transistor allows maximum current to flow between
the source and drain terminals, acting as a closed switch.
• Triode (Linear) Region: In this region, the transistor operates as an amplifier, and the
drain current is proportional to the gate-source voltage.

Characteristics:
MOSFETs have various characteristics, including:
• -Threshold Voltage (Vth): The minimum voltage required to turn on the transistor and
establish a conducting channel between the source and drain terminals.
• Transconductance (gm): The change in drain current with respect to the change in
gate-source voltage.
• Drain-Source Resistance (rds): The resistance between the drain and source terminals
when the transistor is in saturation mode.

Applications:
• MOSFETs are widely used in digital integrated circuits (ICs) as switches and
amplifiers.
• They are also used in power electronics for applications such as voltage regulation,
motor control, and power conversion.
• MOSFETs find applications in radio frequency (RF) circuits, high-frequency
amplifiers, and microwave systems.

Conclusion:
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) are essential components
in modern electronics, offering high performance, reliability, and versatility. Understanding
their characteristics and operation is crucial for designing and analysing electronic circuits
across various applications.
 CHAPTER- High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT)

Introduction:
A High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT), also known as a High Electron Mobility Field-
Effect Transistor (HEMT or HFET), is a specialized type of field-effect transistor (FET)
designed for high-frequency and high-power applications, particularly in microwave and
radio frequency (RF) circuits. HEMTs are based on the principle of heterojunctions, where
different semiconductor materials with varying bandgaps are combined to achieve specific
device characteristics.

Structure:
HEMTs typically consist of a heterojunction between two semiconductor materials, often
gallium arsenide (GaAs) or indium phosphide (InP) for the channel, and aluminium gallium
arsenide (AlGaAs) or indium gallium arsenide (In GaAs) for the barrier layer. The
heterojunction creates a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) with high carrier mobility at
the interface between the materials.

Operation:
The operation of HEMTs is similar to that of other FETs, where the flow of current between
the source and drain terminals is controlled by the voltage applied to the gate terminal.
However, in HEMTs, the 2DEG formed at the heterojunction has significantly higher electron
mobility compared to traditional FETs, allowing for faster switching speeds and higher
frequency operation.
Characteristics:
• High Electron Mobility: The key characteristic of HEMTs is the high electron mobility
of the 2DEG at the heterojunction interface, which enables high-speed operation and
low noise performance.
• Low Noise Figure: HEMTs exhibit low noise figures, making them suitable for low-
noise amplifier (LNA) applications in RF and microwave systems.
• High Frequency Operation: Due to their high electron mobility and low parasitic
capacitance, HEMTs can operate at frequencies well into the microwave range, making
them ideal for high-frequency applications.
• High Power Density: HEMTs can handle high power densities, making them suitable
for power amplifier applications in wireless communication systems.

Applications:
HEMTs find applications in various high-frequency and high-power electronic circuits,
including:
• Wireless Communication Systems: HEMTs are used in power amplifiers, low-noise
amplifiers, and frequency mixers for applications such as cellular base stations, satellite
communication systems, and radar systems.
• Microwave and Millimetre-Wave Systems: HEMTs are employed in microwave
oscillators, amplifiers, and frequency multipliers for applications in radar systems,
microwave links, and satellite communication.
• Optoelectronic Devices: HEMTs are used in optoelectronic devices such as high-speed
photodetectors and optical modulators for fibre-optic communication systems.

Conclusion:
High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs) are advanced semiconductor devices designed
for high-frequency, high-power, and low-noise applications. With their high electron mobility
and other favourable characteristics, HEMTs play a crucial role in various wireless
communication, microwave, and optoelectronic systems, enabling advancements in
technology and performance in these fields.
CHAPTER-Two-Port network and Parameters

Two-Port network:
A two-port network is a common abstraction used in electronic circuit analysis. It represents a
circuit or device with two input terminals and two output terminals. Examples include
amplifiers, filters, transmission lines, and more.

Impedance(Z):
Impedance is a measure of the opposition that a circuit offers to the flow of alternating
current (AC). It incorporates resistance, inductance, and capacitance, and it is represented by
the symbol (Z). Impedance is expressed in ohms (Omega). Impedance quantifies the overall
resistance to the flow of AC current in an electrical circuit.

Mathematically:
Impedance(Z) is defined as the ratio of complex current (V) to complex voltage (I) in a
circuit:
[ Z =V/I]

Where:
• (Z) = Impedance (in Ohms)
• (I) = Complex current (in Amperes)
• (V) = Complex voltage (in Volts)
Impedance in Circuit Analysis:
Z parameter has the relation with V&I as per
[V]=[Z][I]

Z11= It is port 1 Impedance

Z12=forward transfer Impedance
Z21=reverse transfer Impedance
Z22=It is port 2 Impedance
Admittance(Y):
Admittance (Y) is a measure used in electrical engineering and circuit analysis to quantify
how easily a circuit or device allows the flow of electric current. It is the reciprocal of
impedance (Z), which measures the opposition to the flow of current. Admittance is
represented by the symbol (Y) and is measured in Siemens (S).

Mathematically:
Admittance (Y) is defined as the ratio of complex current (I) to complex voltage (V) in a
circuit:
[ Y =I/V]

Where:
• (Y) = Admittance (in Siemens)
• (I) = Complex current (in Amperes)
• (V) = Complex voltage (in Volts)

Admittance in Circuit Analysis:

Y parameter has the relation with V&I as per
[I]=[Y][V]
Y11= It is port 1 admittance
Y12=forward transfer admittance
Y21=reverse transfer admittance
Y22=It is port 2 admittance

ABCD Parameters:
The "ABCD parameters," also known as the "chain" parameters or "Transmission"
parameters, are a set of four linear circuit parameters used to analyse two-port networks in
electronic circuits. These parameters describe the relationship between the voltages and
currents at the input and output ports of the network.

Admittance in Circuit Analysis:

A= open circuit reverse voltage gain
B= short circuit reverse impedance.
C= open circuit reverse transfer admittance

D=short circuit reverse current gain

S-Parameter:
S-parameters, also known as scattering parameters or T-parameters (in transmission line
theory), are a set of parameters used to describe the behaviour of linear electrical networks,
especially at high frequencies. They are widely used in microwave engineering, RF (radio
frequency) engineering, and signal integrity analysis. S-parameters characterize how a linear
electrical network, such as an amplifier, filter, or transmission line, interacts with signals at its
input and output ports. They describe the relationship between the incident and reflected
waves at each port of the network.

S-Parameter in Circuit Analysis:

At micro frequency it is not possible to have open circuit or short circuit.
 CHAPTER-MATERIAL USED
➢ SILICON CARBIDE:
Silicon carbide (Sic) is a compound semiconductor material with unique properties that
make it highly advantageous for certain semiconductor applications, particularly those
involving high power, high frequency, and high temperature. Here, we explore the properties,
applications, and limitations of SiC specifically within the semiconductor industry.

• Properties:

1. Wide Band Gap: SiC has a band gap of approximately 2.3 to 3.3 eV, depending on the
polytype (e.g., 4H-SiC or 6H-SiC). A wider band gap allows SiC devices to operate at
higher voltages, temperatures, and frequencies than silicon devices.
2. High Breakdown Electric Field: This allows for the creation of devices that can
handle higher voltages without breaking down, improving efficiency and reducing the
size of power electronics.
3. Thermal Conductivity: High thermal conductivity helps dissipate heat efficiently,
enabling devices to operate at higher power densities and temperatures.
4. High Electron Saturation Velocity: SiC has an electron saturation velocity of 2×10⁷
cm/s. This property supports high-frequency operation, making SiC ideal for RF and
microwave applications.
5. Chemical Stability: This stability ensures reliability and longevity in harsh
environments.

• Applications:

1. SiC is used in power MOSFETs, Schottky diodes, JFETs. SiC devices offer lower
switching losses, higher efficiency, and reduced cooling requirements compared to
silicon devices. They are used in power converters, inverters, and motor drives.
2. High-Temperature Electronics: These devices can operate in environments exceeding
300 °C, making them suitable for aerospace, automotive, and industrial applications.
3. RF and Microwave Devices: SiC is used in RF amplifiers, MMICs (Monolithic
Microwave Integrated Circuits), and radar systems. SiC's high electron saturation
velocity and thermal conductivity enhance performance in high-frequency
applications.
4. Electric Vehicles (EVs):SiC power electronics improve energy efficiency, extend
driving range, and reduce the size and weight of power systems in EVs.

• Limitations:

1. Cost: SiC wafers and devices are more expensive to produce than silicon
equivalents. The high-cost limits widespread adoption, particularly in cost-sensitive
applications.
 2. Manufacturing Complexity: Producing high-quality, defect-free SiC wafers are
challenging and requires sophisticated equipment and processes. Defects in SiC
crystals can affect device performance and yield, making manufacturing less
efficient.
3. Material Brittleness: SiC is more brittle than silicon, which can lead to difficulties
in handling and processing. This brittleness necessitates careful manufacturing
processes to avoid cracking and damage.
4. Device Design: The wide band gap of SiC requires higher voltages for electron-hole
pair generation. Designing circuits and systems that leverage SiC's properties while
managing its high operating voltages can be complex.

➢ Gallium Arsenide (GaAs):

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a compound semiconductor with distinct advantages over
silicon in certain applications, particularly those requiring high-speed performance and
efficient optoelectronic properties.

• Properties:
1. High Electron Mobility (8500 cm²/V·s): Allows for faster electron transport and
higher-speed electronic devices.
2. Direct Band Gap: 1.43 eV at room temperature. Efficient light emission, making GaAs
ideal for optoelectronic applications such as LEDs and laser diodes.
3. High Saturation Velocity: 2 × 10⁷ cm/s.Supports high-frequency and high-speed
applications.
4. Thermal Stability: Can operate effectively at higher temperatures compared to silicon.
5. Radiation Resistance: Better performance in radiation-rich environments, suitable for
space applications.

• Applications:
1. High-Frequency and High-Speed Electronics: GaAs-based field-effect transistors
(FETs) and heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) are used in high-frequency
applications such as mobile phones, satellite communication systems, and radar
systems. GaAs offers superior electron mobility, enabling faster switching speeds and
higher operating frequencies compared to silicon-based devices.
2. Optoelectronics: GaAs-based LEDs and laser diodes are used in various applications
including high-efficiency lighting, optical communication systems, and optical storage
devices (e.g., CD/DVD players).GaAs exhibits a direct bandgap, making it highly
efficient for light emission and absorption, leading to brighter and more energy-
efficient optoelectronic devices.
3. Solar Cells: GaAs-based solar cells are employed in space applications, such as
satellites and spacecraft, due to their high efficiency and radiation resistance. GaAs
solar cells offer higher conversion efficiency and better performance in harsh space
environments compared to silicon-based solar cells.
 4. Integrated Circuits (ICs): GaAs ICs provide higher operational speeds and lower
power consumption compared to silicon-based ICs, making them suitable for high-
performance electronic systems.

• Limitations:

1. Cost: GaAs is more expensive to produce than silicon. Higher costs limit its use to
applications where its superior properties justify the expense.
2. Manufacturing Complexity: GaAs wafers are more brittle and harder to handle.
Increased manufacturing complexity and lower yields compared to silicon.
3. Environmental and Health Concerns: Arsenic is toxic, posing environmental and health
risks during manufacturing and disposal.
4. Material Availability: GaAs is less abundant than silicon. Limited supply can affect
production and costs.
5. Thermal Conductivity: GaAs has lower thermal conductivity (0.55 W/cm·K) compared
to silicon. Less efficient heat dissipation in high-power applications, requiring
additional cooling solutions.

➢ Gallium Nitride (GaN):

Gallium nitride (GaN) is a wide band gap semiconductor material that has garnered
significant attention for its exceptional electronic and optoelectronic properties. These
characteristics make GaN highly suitable for a variety of high-power and high-frequency
applications.

• Properties:

1. Wide Band Gap: gallium nitride has bandgap energy=3.4 eV. Allows GaN devices
to operate at higher voltages, temperatures, and frequencies than conventional
semiconductor materials like silicon.
2. High Electron Mobility:2000 cm²/V·s (for 2D electron gas in GaN HEMTs)
Enables faster electronic switching and higher frequency operation, making GaN
suitable for RF and microwave applications.
3. High Breakdown Electric: 3.3 MV/cm. GaN can handle higher voltages, which is
beneficial for high-power devices.
4. Thermal Conductivity: 1.3 W/cm·K: Good thermal conductivity helps in efficient
heat dissipation, supporting high-power density operation.
 5. Chemical and Thermal Stability: GaN is chemically inert and can operate at high
temperatures without degrading, enhancing device reliability.

• Applications:

1. Power Electronics: GaN transistors (HEMTs, MOSFETs), diodes.

2. RF and Microwave Applications: Telecommunications (5G base stations, satellite
communications). Military and Aerospace (Radar systems, electronic warfare)
Broadcasting (High-frequency transmitters and receivers).
3. Optoelectronics: LEDs, laser diodes, UV detectors. High-brightness LEDs for
general, automotive, and industrial lighting. For screens, projectors, and signage.
Medical and Industrial UV LEDs for sterilization and curing processes.
4. Sensors: GaN-based sensors for pressure, temperature, and chemical detection.
Sensors for harsh environments, including high-temperature and high-radiation
areas. Sensors for engine management and safety systems.

• Limitations:

1. Cost: GaN devices are more expensive to produce than silicon devices. Higher
costs limit widespread adoption, particularly in cost-sensitive markets.
2. Substrate Challenges: GaN devices often require expensive substrates such as
silicon carbide (SiC) or sapphire. This increases the overall production cost and
complexity.
3. Manufacturing Complexity: the manufacturing process is more complex and less
mature than silicon, leading to lower yields and higher costs.
4. Thermal Management: Despite good thermal conductivity, managing heat in
high-power GaN devices can be challenging due to the high-power densities
involved. Requires advanced cooling solutions, which can add to the system's
complexity and cost.
5. Reliability and Lifetime: Gan devices can be susceptible to certain types of
degradation over time, especially under high-stress conditions.

➢ Conclusion :
comparison of gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), and silicon carbide (SiC)
across various aspects:
1. Band Gap:
▪ GaAs: Indirect bandgap of approximately 1.43 eV at room temperature.
▪ GaN: Direct bandgap of approximately 3.4 eV.
▪ SiC: Wide bandgap ranging from 2.3 to 3.3 eV depending on the polytype
2. Electron Mobility:
▪ GaAs: High electron mobility of around 8500 cm²/V·s.
▪ GaN: Moderate to high electron mobility, typically around 1000 to 2000
cm²/V·s.
▪ SiC High electron mobility, typically greater than 1000 cm²/V·s.
3. Thermal Conductivity:
▪ GaAs: Moderate thermal conductivity.
▪ GaN: Moderate thermal conductivity, typically around 1.3 W/cm·K.
▪ SiC: High thermal conductivity, typically around 3.7 W/cm·K.