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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

Definitions of Magnetic quantities:

Magnetic Flux: The magnetic lines of force used to represent the force around the magnet are
called lines of flux. The symbol used to represent the flux is  and is expressed in Weber. 1weber
= 108 magnetic line.

Magnetic fields: The region around a magnet where the magnetic effect is experienced.
Magnetic Flux density: It is the magnetic flux per unit area, area being normal to the flux. The
symbol used to denote flux density is B and its unit is Wb/m2 or Tesla (T)
B =  / A Wb/m2 or T

Magnetizing force or magnetic field intensity (strength): the force exerted by the unit north
pole when placed at any point in a magnetic field (or)
It is the magneto motive force per unit length of the magnetic path. Magnetizing force is a measure
in other magnetic substances. The symbol used to represent magnetizing force is H and its unit is
A/m.
H = NI /l AT/m
where N and I are the number of turns in the coil and current through the coil respectively.

Magneto motive force: Magneto motive force is the source of establishing flux in the magnetic
circuit. If a current of I amperes is flowing through N number of turns in the coil , then
MMF = N I AT (ampere-turn)

Reluctance and Permeance: Reluctance is the opposition offered by the magnetic circuit to the
establishment of flux. The symbol used to represent reluctance is S and its unit is AT/Wb. The
reluctance is directly proportional to the length of the field path l, and is inversely proportional to
the area of cross section ’a’, of the magnetic field path
S= l /  AT / Wb
= l / 0 r AT /Wb
Where  is constant,
and is = 0 r,
0 = 4  x 10 –7; which is called the absolute permeability
r = 1 for air ; which is called relative permeability.

Permeance: is the reciprocal of reluctance; P = 1/S

Permeability: This is the ability of the medium to set up a magnetic flux density by the
magnetizing force.

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Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

First Law: Whenever the flux linked with the coil changes an emf will be induced in a coil.

Second Law: The magnitude of the induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linked with the coil.
Consider a coil of N turns, Let the flux linking the coil changes from an initial value of 1
wb to a final value of 2 wb in time t secs.
E.M.F induced = N(2 - 1) / t volts. The expression can be re-written as
e = -Nxd / dt volts. Minus sign indicates that the induced e.m.f is in such a direction that the
magnetic effect produced by it opposes the very cause producing in it.

Lenz’s Law: The direction of an induced emf is such that it sets up a current that tries to oppose
the very cause (emf) producing in it.

Mathematically it is expressed as e = -N d/dt.

Fleming’s left hand rule: this rule is used to find out the direction of the force on the conductor.
When the thumb, fore finger and the middle finger of the left hand are held perpendicular to each
other in such a way that the fore finger is in the direction of the field, the middle finger in the
direction of the current, then the thumb will point to the direction of force (unknown).

Fig1.7 Fleming’s left hand rule

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Fleming’s right hand rule: ‘when the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right hand are
held mutually held perpendicular to each other in such a way that, the thumb in the direction of
the motion of the conductor, the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field, then the middle
finger shows the direction of the induced emf (unknown).

INDUCED EMF:

Dynamically induced emf: When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field or vice versa the flux
linking the coil changes and an emf will be induced. This emf is called dynamically induced emf.

Statically induced emf: When an ac voltage is applied to a coil, an alternating current flows
through the coil, and the flux linking with the coil changes with respect to the time. Hence an emf
induced in the coil. This emf is called statically induced emf.

Self-induced emf: When a current flowing through a coil changes, the flux linking with the coil
also changes results in an emf and is called self-induced emf.
Consider a coil of N turns carrying a current of I amperes and let  be the flux linked with the coil.
The flux linking the coil changes if the current in the coil changes, hence an e.m.f will be induced
in it and is called self-induced e.m.f. Induced e.m.f is proportional to the rate of change of current.
Mathematically we can write e  di /dt or e = L di / dt.
Where L is called co-efficient of self-induction or self-inductance.
L = e / (di / dt).

Co-efficient of self induction (L): Co-efficient of self-induction of a coil is the e.m.f in volts
induced in the coil when the current changes at the rate of one ampere per second. Self-inductance,
L = e / (di/dt).
If e = 1 volt, di/dt = 1 ampere per second, then
L = 1 Henry.
Thus a coil is said to have a self-inductance of 1 Henry, if rate of change of current is 1 ampere
per second induces an e.m.f of 1 volt in the coil.
From faraday’s law
e = Nd / dt ---------- (1)
Also e = L di/dt--------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have
L di/dt = Nd / dt i.e., LI = N  or L = N  / I weber turn per ampere.
L = N  / I ---------- (3)
But, flux,  = MMF / Reluctance

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= NI /(l/0 r A)
Substituting for  in equation (3) we have
L = (NI 0 r A) / l x (N / I)
L = 0 r A N2 / l Henry.

Mutually induced emf: If the flux produced by one (A) coil is linked with the another (B) coil
and due to change in this flux produced by first coil there is induced emf in the second coil and is
called mutually induced emf. By definition e.m.f induced in coil B,
eb  rate of change of current in coil A
eb  dia / dt volts
eb = M dia /dt volts
or M = eb / (dia / dt)
Where M is called coefficient of mutual induction.

Coefficient of Mutual Induction (M)

Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance between two coils is the emf in volts
induced in the second coil when the current in the first coil changes as the rate of one ampere per
second. Unit of mutual inductance is Henry.
Mutual Inductance, M = eb / (dia / dt)
If eb = 1 volt, dia /dt = 1 A /second, M = 1Henry
Thus, the mutual inductance M between two coils is said to be one henry, when current changing
at the rate of 1 A /sec in one coil, induces an emf of 1 volt in the other coil.
Let NA and NB be the number of turns in coil A and coil B. Let IA be the current flowing
through the coil producing the total flux A. Out of total flux A, flux AB will be linked with coils
A and B. If IA changes the flux linking with the coil B (AB) also changes. Then by Faraday’s law
eb = d / dt (NB AB)
= NB dAB / dt ----------- (1)
Also eb=M dIA / dt -------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
M dIA / dt = NB dAB / dt or M = NBAB / IA Henry.

Coefficient of Coupling (K)

Consider two coils 1 and 2 of turns N1 and N2 respectively, placed close to each other.
Let I1 be the current flowing through the coil 1. It will produce a total flux 1. Out of this a
flux 12 links both the coils 1 and 2. This is called ‘mutual flux’. A flux 11 will link only coil 1.
This is called leakage flux.

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 12 = 11 + 12
Coefficient of coupling, K is the ratio of mutual flux to the total flux produced.
 Coefficient of coupling, K = 12 / 1
It is to be noted that K will be  1
K tells us how closely the coils are coupled.
Mutual inductance between 2 coils is given by
M = N2 12 / I1
but, K = 12 /1
or 12 = K1
 M = N2 K 1 / I1 -------------(1)
Similarly when a current I2 flows in coil 2 total flux produced 1
Where 21 is the flux linking coils 1 and 2
And 22 is the flux linking coil 2 only.
But 21= K2 and
mutual inductance, M = N121 /I2
= N1k2 /I2 ---------- (2)

From (1) and (2) we have M x M = (N2 K 1 / I1) (N1k2 /I2 )

M2 = K2 (N1 1 / I1)(N2 2 /I2)
= K2 L1 L2
M = K L1L2 or K = M / L1L2
WhereL1 = N1 1 / I1, L2 = N2 2 /I2

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
D.C.GENERATOR
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
D.C generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into D.C electrical energy. It works
on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f viz., whenever a conductor cuts flux, an e.m.f is
induced in the conductor. The direction of the induced e.m.f is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
SIMPLE LOOP GENERATOR
Let us consider rectangular coil ABCD with coil sides AB and CD is rotated in the magnetic
field. The ends of the two coil sides are connected to two slip rings (S1 and S 2). The two rings
rotate along with the conductors. Two brushes (B1 and B2) made contact to these two slip rings to
collect the current. When the coil starts rotating in anti-clockwise direction, conductor AB is under
the influence of North Pole and CD is under the influence of South Pole. By Fleming’s right hand
rule, the direction of the current through the load resistance is from M to N.
After the coil rotates through 1800, the conductor CD comes under the influence of North
Pole and the conductor AB under the influence of South Pole. Hence, again e.m.f’ is induced in
the coil sides. As a result, the current flows through load resistance from N to M (reversed). This
is shown in fig 5.1a
Note that, e.m.f generated in the loop is an alternating hence the current also. The
alternating current in the load can be converted into direct current by commutator fig 5.1b &c

fig 5.1a

fig 5.1b fig 5.1c

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PRACTICAL D.C.GENERATOR
Fig5.2

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The construction of D.C generator and motor are same. D.C.generator can be run as a d.c.motor
and vice versa.
A d.c.generator consists of
(i) Field system (stationary)

(ii) Armature (rotating)

(iii) Armature is having the following parts

a) Armature core b) Armature winding (c) Commutator (d) Brushes (e) Shaft and bearings
(i) Field system: The main function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within
which the armature rotates. It consists of:
(a) Yoke (or frame): Yoke forms the outermost cover for the machine. Its functions are: (i) Giving
mechanical protection to the generator and (ii) to provide path for the flux.

For small generators, yoke is made of cast iron, for large generators, it is made of silicon steel.
(b) Pole core, pole shoes and pole coils: The main poles are made of steel of high relative
permeability. The pole core is made of thin laminations to reduce eddy current loss. The
laminations are held together with the help of end plates, which are riveted together. The poles are
fixed to the yoke with bolts and nuts.
The pole shoe performs the following functions.
(i) It supports the field winding

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(ii) It spreads out the flux uniformly in the air gap and also reduces the reluctance of the magnetic
path.
The field coils (or field winding) are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c. exciting current. The
field coils are made of copper.

(ii) Armature Core: It is a cylindrical drum like structure made of thin laminations of silicon
steel. Each lamination is insulated to reduce the eddy current loss. Silicon steel is used for the core
to reduce hysteresis loss. For large machine (length>13cm) ventilating ducts are provided in the
core for cooling purpose.

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Armature winding: The outer periphery of the armature is cut into number of slots to hold
insulated conductor called armature winding. . There are two types of windings:

a) Lap winding
In lap winding, the conductors are joined in such a way that their parallel paths and poles are equal
in number. The end of each armature coil is connected to the adjacent segment on the commutator.
The number of brushes in the lap winding is equal to the number of parallel paths, and these
brushes are equally divided into negative and positive polarity. The lap winding is called multiple
or parallel winding. The sole purposes of such type of windings are,
(a) To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase i.e., for high
current output.

(b) To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases

b) Wave winding.

In wave winding, only two parallel paths are provided between the positive and negative brushes.
The finishing end of the one armature coil is connected to the starting end of the other armature
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coil commutator segment at some distance apart.

n this winding, the conductors are connected to two parallel paths irrespective of the number of
poles of the machine. The number of brushes is equal to the number of parallel paths. The wave
winding is mainly used in high voltage, low current machines.

(iv) Commutator: The function of the commutator is to convert, alternating current to direct
current .The commutator is made up of hard drawn copper segments insulated from each other by
mica sheets and mounted on the shaft.

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no
1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced
current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also
reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in
the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit
is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional

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This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The
position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the changeover of the segments a and
b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane
of the lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.

(v) Brushes: The function of brushes is to collect the direct current from the commutator segments
and supply it to the external circuit. The brushes are made of carbon. Carbon is having negative
temperature coefficient and is very soft.

(vi) Shaft and Bearings: For small generators, ball bearings are used. For large rating generators,
roller bearings are used.

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E.M.F Equation of D.C.Generator

Let  = Flux / pole in webers

Z = Total number armature conductors

= Number of slots x Number of conductors per slot

P = Number of poles

A = Number of parallel paths in the armature.

N = Rotational speed of armature in revolutions per minute (r.p.m)

E = e.m.f induced / parallel path in armature.

Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated /parallel path, i.e., E = Average e.m.f generated per conductor
= d / dt volts assume n = 1)

For one revolution of an armature in a P-pole generator.

Change in the flux d =  P webers.

Time taken to complete one revolution dt =60/N sec

Rate of change of flux d / dt =  P x N / 60 webers

By Faraday’s Law ,

E.M.F generated per conductor = d / dt =  PN / 60 volts.

Number of armature conductors per parallel path = Z / A

The generated e.m.f., Eg = e.m.f generated per conductor x Number of conductors in each parallel
path

Eg = ( PN / 60) x Z /A volts ---------- (i)

For a Simplex Wave-Wound Generator

Number of parallel paths A = 2

Equation (i) becomes

Eg =  PN / 60 x (Z /2) =  ZPN / 120 volts

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For Simplex Lap-Wound Generator:

Number of parallel paths, A = P

Equation (i) becomes Eg = ( PN / 60) x (Z /P) =  ZN / 60 volts

In general,

Eg =(  ZN / 60) x (P/A) volts ------------- (ii)

A = 2, for simplex wave winding

A = P, for simplex lap winding.

Symbolic Representation Of DC Generator

Types of DC machines

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Types of DC Generators – Separately Excited and Self Excited

The DC generator converts the electrical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC
machine is produced by the field coils carrying current. The circulating current in the field
windings produces a magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation. DC Generator is
classified according to the methods of their field excitation.
By excitation, the DC Generators are classified as Separately excited DC Generators and Self-
excited DC Generators. There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators. The self-excited DC
Generators are further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series wound DC generators and
Compound wound DC generators. The Compound Wound DC generators are further divided as
long shunt wound DC generators, and short shunt wound DC generators.
The field pole of the DC generator is stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The voltage
generated in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is converted into the
direct voltage at the brushes with the help of the commutator.

The detailed description of the various types of generators is explained below

Separately Excited DC Generator

A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energized by a separate or external DC source is

called a separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field
current with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly
proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.

The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below.

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Here,
Ia = IL where Ia is the armature current and IL is the line current.
Terminal voltage is given as

If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as

Power output is given by the equation (4) shown above.

Self-Excited DC Generator
Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the
generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils mat be connected in parallel with the
armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the
armature windings.
The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as
1. Shunt Wound Generator
2. Series Wound Generator
3. Compound Wound Generator

1. Shunt Wound Generator

In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding forming a
parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field
current Ish, flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high
resistance Rshof the order of 100 ohms.

The connection diagram of shunt wound generator is shown below.

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Shunt field current is given as

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.

The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is
considered to be a constant flux machine.
Armature current is given as

Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below.

If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal voltage becomes

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2. Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The
series field winding carries the armature current. The series field winding consists of a few turns
of wire of thick wire of larger cross-sectional area and having low resistance usually of the order
of less than 1 ohm because the armature current has a very large value.
Its convectional diagram is shown below.

Series field current is given as

Rse is known as the series field winding resistance.

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

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The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it. But it is only true before magnetic saturation after the saturation flux becomes constant
even if the current flowing through it is increased

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D.C.MOTOR
A Direct current Motor converts electrical energy (D.C) into mechanical energy. Its
construction is similar to D.C.Generator.

Working Principle:
A D.C.Motor is works on the principle that “whenever a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force “. The magnitude is given by
F = B.I.L
Where, F = Force in Newton’s
B = Flux density in Weber’s / meters 2
I = Current in amperes flowing through the conductor
L = Length of the conductor in meters
The direction of force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Fleming’s left hand rule: It states that “ when the thumb, fore finger and middle finger are held
mutually perpendicular to each other, the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field, middle
finger in the direction of the current, then the direction of thumb indicates the direction of force
experienced by the conductor “

Figur5.3.

Consider a D.C.Motor having two poles North and South represented by N and S shown in
the above figur5.3.
Consider two conductors a and b, which are placed under the influence of N- pole and S –
pole respectively. When a D.C. supply is given to the motor terminals, the current will flow through
the conductor a and b. In conductors a, positive sign indicates that the current is flowing inwards
and the negative sign in conductor indicates that the current is flowing outwards.

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By Fleming’s left hand rule, the conductor ‘a’ experiences a force in the downward
direction and the conductor ‘b’ experiences an equal force ‘F’ in the upward direction. As the two
conductors are connected together, the two equal and opposite forces ‘F’ acting on them, constitute
a couple tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. The armature contains several
number of conductors distributed uniformly in their slots. This will experience a continuous torque
in the anticlockwise direction-causing armature to rotate in the anticlockwise direction.
BACK EMF (Eb) : When the voltage V is applied to the motor current Ia will flow through the
armature and Ish will flow through the field of the motor which will set the flux causing EMF. The
EMF developed in the armature opposes the applied voltage and hence it is called the back e.m.f
(Eb).
The applied voltage V has to drive current through the armature conductors against the opposition
of the back E.M.F and hence work has to be done. It is in the form of mechanical power developed
by the armature.

The armature current = Ia = V – Eb / Ra

V = Eb + Ia Ra -------------(1)
and Eb = ZN / 60 x (P/A) volts.
Multiplying above equation by Ia we get VIa = EbIa + Ia2 Ra
Where VIa is Electrical power input to the armature, Ia2 Ra = Armature copper loss.
EbIa = Electrical equivalent of the mechanical power developed by the armature.

Significance of back emf in dc motor

(1) As the back emf opposes supply voltage V, therefore, supply voltage has to force current
through the armature against the back emf, to keep armature rotating. The electric work done in
overcoming and causing the current to flow against the back emf is converted into mechanical
energy developed in the armature.
It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a dc motor is only possible due to the production
of back emf.
Mechanical power developed in the armature = EbIa
(2) Back emf makes dc motor a self-regulating motor i.e Eb makes motor to adjust Ia automatically
as per the load torque requirement. Lets see how.
From the motor figure,

V and Ra are fixed, therefore, armature current Ia dpends on back emf, which in turn depends on
speed of the motor.

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(a) when the motor is running at no-load, small torque ( Ta=KIa ) is required by the motor to
overcome friction and windage. Therefore, a small current is drawn by the motor armature and the
back emf is almost equal to the supply voltage.
(b) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the load torque beomes greater than the armature torque and
the motor starts to slow down. As motor speed decreases, back emf decreases and therefore,
armature current starts increasing. With increasing Ia , armature torque increases and at some point
it becomes equal to the load torque. At that moment, motor stops slowing down and keeps running
at this new speed.
(c) If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque becomes more than the load
torque and the motor starts accelerating. As the motor speed increases, back emf increases and
therefore, armature current decreases. Due to this reducing armature current, armature developed
torque decreases and at some point becomes equal to the load torque. That point onwards, motor
will stop accelerating and will start rotating uniformly at this new slightly increased speed.
So, this shows how important is back emf in dc motor. Without back emf, the electromagnetic
energy conversion would not have been possible at the first place.

Power Equation of a D.C. Motor

The voltage equation of a d.c. motor is given by,
V = Eb + Ia Ra
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by Ia we get,
V Ia = Eb Ia + Ia 2 Ra
This equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor.
VIa=Net Electrical Power Measured In Watts.
Ia2Ra = Power loss due the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss.
So difference between VIa and Ia2Ra i.e. input - losses gives the output of the armature.
So Eb Ia is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature.
This is denoted as Pm.
... Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power in the armature

TORQUE EQUATION:
Torque is the turning moment about its axis. It is also equal to Force x distance.
T F
 r

figure5.4.

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Consider the armature of the D.C.Motor of radius r and Let F be the force acting tangential to its
surface as shown in figure5.4.
Therefore, Torque = Ta = F x r in Newton meter ----------------- (1)
The work done by this force F in one revolution
W = F x distance covered in revolution.
W = F x 2r watt second.
The power developed by the armature = work done in one second.
= F x r x 2 N / 60 N = No of revolutions / minutes
= (2 N / 60) x Ta watts
But power developed in the armature is = Eb Ia
Therefore EbIa = (2 N / 60) x Ta
(ZN/60)( P/A) x Ia = (2 N / 60) xTa
Therefore, Ta = (1/2)zIa x P/A Newton meter
= 0.159zIa x P/A Newton meter
Ta = 0.01613zIa x (P/A) kg meter --------------------(2)
The equation 2 is the equation for the torque developed in the armature; it includes iron loss and
mechanical loss. The actual torque or shaft torque (torque available at the shaft) or Useful torque
= Tsh = Ta – TL
Tsh = shaft torque
Ta = armature torque
TL = lost torque due to iron losses and mechanical losses
Shaft torque is given by
Output = 2NTsh/60
Therefore Tsh = output x 60 / 2N or output /(2N/60)
If output is in Horse Power, then
Tsh = output in H.P x 735.5/(2N/60) N- M

TYPES OF D.C MOTORS:

Depends upon the filed winding connected to the armature
(1) D.C.Shunt Motor
(2) D.C.Series Motor
(3) D.C Compound Motor
(i) Cumulative Compound Motor
(a) Long shunt (b) Short shunt
(ii) Differential Compound Motor
(a) Long (b) Short

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
D.C.Shunt Motor: In this type field winding is connected parallel to the armature (figure5.5)

figure5.5

Shunt current Ish = V/Rsh and

Armature current Ia = IL – Ish.

Where IL is the line current

Eb = V-IaRa – B.C.D – A.R.D

V = Eb + IaRa + B.C.D + A.R.D

B.C.D is brush contact drop(1 v/brush)

A.R.D is the armature reaction drop

D.C Series Motor(figure5.6.):

Fig 5.6

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
In this type field is connected in series with the armature .V is the applied voltage which
causes a current Ia = IL = Isc.

Eb = V-Ia (Ra + Rsc) – B.C.D – A.R.D.

APPLICATONS OF D.C.MOTORS:

(1) D.C Shunt Motor: when constant speed is required D.C shunt motors are used: eg: Lathes,
Centrifugal pumps, fans, drilling machines. etc.

(2) D.C.Series Motor: For high starting torque we prefer D.C series motor eg: Electric traction,
electric locomotive, cranes, hoists, conveyers etc.

(3) D.C.Compound Motor: when we require constant speed and high starting torque Cumulative
compound motors are preferred.eg: shears, punches, coal cutting machine, elevators, conveyers,
printing presses etc. Differential compound motors have no practical applications (unstable).

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
DC Machines
Problems: 1) A 6 pole lap wound d.c. Generator has 51 slots, each slot has 18 conductors.
The useful flux per pole is 35 mwb. Find the generated emf in the armature, if it is driven at
a speed of 750 rpm.
Given: p = 6 ;
P = A (lap wound), Number of slots = 51, Conductors/slot = 1, Total No. of conductors = 51*
18,
 = 35mwb; N = 750 rpm,
emf generated =( zN/60A) vol = (35x10-3)x(51x18)x750x6
60x6
=401.6 volts.

2) An 8 pole d.c. generator has 650 armature conductors. The flux perr pole is 20 mwb .
Find the value of emf generated when the armature is wave wound and is rotating at a speed
of 1200 rpm. What must be speed at which the armature is to be driven to generate the same
emf, if the armature is lap wound?
Given: p =8 ;
A = 2(wave wound)
No. of conductors = 650
 = 20 mwb; N = 1200 rpm,
emf generated =( zN/60A) volts
= (20x10-3)x(650)x1200x8
60x2
=1040 volts.
To find the speed of armature, when it is lap wound,
N = Egx60A/zp
N = (1040)x60x8
(20x10-3)x(650)x8
N = 4800rpm.

3. A shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 V and the resistance of the shunt field and
armature are 50 Ω and 0.03 Ω respectively. Calculate the generated e.m.f?

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4. A four pole generator having wave-wound armature winding has 51 slots, each slot
containing 20 conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the machine when driven at
1500 rpm assuming the flux per pole to be 7.0 mWb

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5. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24 conductors.
The flux per pole is 10 mWb. At what speed must the armature rotate to give an induced
emf of 0.24 kV. What will be the voltage developed, if the winding is lap connected and the
armature rotates at the same speed?

Given data
P=4
No.of slots = 51
No.of conductors/slot = 20
Eg= 0.24 Kv = 240 V
Φ = 10 mW= 10/1000 Web
Find N &Eg at same N?
Solution
Total no. of conductors, Z = 51x20 = 1224
Wave winding, A=2
From EMF equation,
N= Eg60A / ΦZP = (240x60x2)/(10/1000x1224x4) = 612.75 rpm

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
Lap winding, A=P=4
Eg = PΦZN/60A = (4x10/1000x1224x612.75)/(60x4) = 0.125 kV

6) A 4 pole 250v d.c. shunt motor has a back emf of 240.8v and takes a current of 20A.
Calculate the power developed. Take the resistance of the field winding as 250 ohms.

Solution: p =4

V= 250v

Eb = 240.8v

IL = 20A

Rsh = 250ohms

Power developed = EbxIa

Ia = IL – Ish and

Ish = V/Rsh

Ish = 250/250 =1A

Ia = 20 – 1 = 19A.

Power developed =240.8 x 19 = 4572.8w.

7) Find the useful flux per pole of a 250 V, 6 pole shunt motor having a two circuit connected
winding with 220 conductors. At normal working temperature, the overall armature
resistance including brushes is 0.2 . The armature current is 13.3 A at the no-load speed
of 908 rpm.

Solution :

Given V = 250 V
No. of poles, P = 6
Armature Resistance, Ra = 0.2 
No. of conductors, Z = 220
N = 908 rpm

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This is a wave winding ; hence the number of parallel paths, A = 2
Now, Eb = V - Ia Ra
= 250 – (13.3 X 0.2)
= 247.34 volts

Also Eb =  ZN P

60 A

Or 247.34 =  X 220 X 908 6

X
60 2

 Useful Flux per pole,  = 2 X 247.34 X 60

220 X 908 X 6

= 0.0247 Wb

8) Determine the total torque developed in a 250V, 4-pole d.c. shunt motor with lap
winding, accommodated in 60 slots, each containing 20 conductors. The armature current
is 50 A and the flux per pole is 23 mWb.

Solution :

Armature Torque, Ta = 0.159  Z Ia X P

A N-m

Flux per pole,  = 23mWb = 23 X 10-3 Wb.

Total number of conductors,

Z = No. of conductors in one slot X No. of slots

i.e., Z = 20 X 60 = 1200
No. of poles, P = 4

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For lap winding, A = P = 4

Armature current Ia = 50 A

Substituting the above values in eqn (i),

4
Ta = 0.159 X (23 X 10-3) X 1200 X 50 X N-m
4
= 219.5 N-m

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
TYPES OF D.C MOTORS:
Depends upon the filed winding connected to the armature
(1) D.C.Shunt Motor
(2) D.C.Series Motor
(3) D.C Compound Motor
(i) Cumulative Compound Motor
(a) Long shunt (b) Short shunt
(ii) Differential Compound Motor
(a) Long (b) Short

D.C.Shunt Motor: In this type field winding is connected parallel to the armature (figure5.5)

figure5.5

Shunt current Ish = V/Rsh and

Armature current Ia = IL – Ish.

Where IL is the line current

Eb = V-IaRa – B.C.D – A.R.D

V = Eb + IaRa + B.C.D + A.R.D

B.C.D is brush contact drop(1 v/brush)

A.R.D is the armature reaction drop

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

D.C Series Motor(figure5.6.):

Fig 5.6

In this type field is connected in series with the armature .V is the applied voltage which
causes a current Ia = IL = Isc.

Eb = V-Ia (Ra + Rsc) – B.C.D – A.R.D.

APPLICATONS OF D.C.MOTORS:

(1) D.C Shunt Motor: when constant speed is required D.C shunt motors are used: eg: Lathes,
Centrifugal pumps, fans, drilling machines. etc.

(2) D.C.Series Motor: For high starting torque we prefer D.C series motor eg: Electric traction,
electric locomotive, cranes, hoists, conveyers etc.

(3) D.C.Compound Motor: when we require constant speed and high starting torque Cumulative
compound motors are preferred.eg: shears, punches, coal cutting machine, elevators, conveyers,
printing presses etc. Differential compound motors have no practical applications (unstable).

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
LOSSES IN DC MACHINE

The losses that occur in a DC Machine is divided into five basic categories. The various losses
are Electrical or Copper losses (I2R losses), Core losses or Iron losses, Brush losses, Mechanical
losses, Stray load losses. These losses are explained below in detail.

Electrical or Copper Losses in dc machine

These losses are also known as Winding losses as the copper loss occurs because of the resistance
of the windings. The ohmic loss is produced by the current flowing in the windings. The windings
that are present in addition to the armature windings are the field windings, interpoles and
compensating windings.
Armature copper losses = Ia2Ra where Ia is armature current, and Ra is the armature resistance.
These losses are about 30 percent of the total full load losses.
In shunt machine, the Copper loss in the shunt field is I2shRsh, where Ish is the current in the
shunt field, and Rsh is the resistance of the shunt field windings. The shunt regulating resistance
is included in Rsh.

In a series machine, the copper loss in the series windings is I2seRse, where, Ise is the current
through the series field windings, and Rse is the resistance of the series field windings.
In a Compound machine, both the shunt and the series field losses occur. These losses are almost
20 percent of the full load losses.
Copper losses in the interpole windings are written as Ia2Ri where Ri is the resistance of the
interpole windings.

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Copper loss in the compensating windings if any is Ia2Rc where Rc is the resistance of
compensating windings.
Magnetic Losses or Core Losses or Iron Losses in dc machine
The core losses are the hysteresis and eddy current losses. These losses are considered almost
constant as the machines are usually operated at constant flux density and constant speed. These
losses are about 20 percent of the full load losses.
Brush Losses in dc machine
Brush losses are the losses taking place between the commutator and the carbon brushes. It is the
power loss at the brush contact point. The brush drop depends upon the brush contact voltage drop
and the armature current Ia. It is given by the equation shown below.
The voltage drop occurring over a large range of armature currents, across a set of brushes is
approximately constant If the value of brush voltage drop is not given than it is usually assumed
to be about 2 volts. Thus, the brush drop loss is taken as 2Ia.
Mechanical Losses in dc machine
The losses that take place because of the mechanical effects of the machines are known as
mechanical losses. Mechanical losses are divided into bearing friction loss and windage loss. The
losses occurring in the moving parts of the machine and the air present in the machine is known
as Windage losses. These losses are very small.
Stray Losses in dc machine
These losses are the miscellaneous type of losses. The following factors are considered in stray
load losses.

rents in the coil, undergoing commutation.

These losses are very difficult to determine. Therefore, it is necessary to assign the reasonable
value of the stray loss. For most machines, stray losses are taken by convention to be one percent
of the full load output power.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

5 Department of ECE, PESU

 Unit IV : Electric Machines 2020

DC Machine - Numerical on Losses & Efficiency

Question:
A 10KW, 250V DC Shunt Motor with an armature resistance of 0.8Ω and a field
resistance of 275Ω takes 3.91A when running light at rated voltage and rated
speed. Find
i) Constant losses
ii) Efficiency as a Generator when delivering an output of 10KW
iii) Efficiency as a Motor when drawing an input of 10KW

Solution:
Given V = 250V, Ra = 0.8Ω and Rf = 275Ω
‘Running Light’ means No Load condition.
No Load current, IL0 = 3.91A
Input Power under NL (No Load) = V*IL0 = 250*3.91 = 977.5W
i) Constant Losses = (Input Power under NL) – (Armature copper loss on
NL)
𝑉
Armature current on NL, Ia0 = IL0 – If = IL0 – = 3.91 – (250/275) = 3A
𝑅𝑓
Armature copper loss on NL = Ia2*Ra = 7.2W
Hence, Constant Losses = 977.5 – 7.2 = 970.3W

ii) As a Generator
Pout = 10KW = V*IL
Hence, IL = 40A
If = 0.91A
Ia = IL + If = 40.91A
Armature copper loss = Ia2*Ra = 1.338KW
Total Losses = Armature copper loss + Constant Losses = 2.308KW
Pin = Pout + Total Losses = 12.308KW

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𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ηGenerator = = 81.25%
𝑃𝑖𝑛

iii) As a Motor
Pin = 10KW = V*IL
Hence, IL = 40A
If = 0.91A
Ia = IL - If = 39.09A
Armature copper loss = Ia2*Ra = 1.222KW
Total Losses = Armature copper loss + Constant Losses = 2.192KW
Pout = Pin - Total Losses = 7.808KW
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ηMotor = = 78.08%
𝑃𝑖𝑛

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
THREE PHASE A.C.GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)
An alternator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. If a conductor is placed
in a moving magnetic field an e.m.f is induced in the conductor by faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Alternator (A.C generator) operates on the basic principle of electromagnetic induction ie., when
a conductor moves across a magnetic field or vice versa an e.m.f is induced in the conductor
(Dynamically induced emf). The stator is having number of slots at its inner periphery.each slot
houses conductors. The rotor is like flywheel to which alternate N and S poles fixed on outer rim.
The magnetic poles are excited by D.C. supply with a source of 125v or 250v. The exciting current
is obtained from small D.C.Generator;whi ch is mounted on the shaft of the synchronous machine.
When the rotor is rotated by means of any prime mover the stator conductors are cut by magnetic
field, hence an e.m.f is induced in the stator conductor. The frequency of the induced e.m.f is given
by f = PN / 120 Hz. Where P is the number of poles and N is the speed in rpm.
ADVANTAGES OF STATIONARY ARMATURE
1. It is simpler to insulate a stationary armature winding
2. It is easier to brace armature winding against any deformation
3. Only two slip rings are required for D.C. supply for the rotor circuit.
4. Higher speed of the rotating field is possible.
5. it is easy to take power out from the stationary armature
CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATOR
The main parts of an Alternator is a) Stator, b) Rotor
Stator: It is stationary part of an alternator and it is built up of sheet steel of thin laminations having
slots on its inner periphery.(shown in fig 7.1). A three phase star connected winding is placed in
the slots. The neutral of the winding is grounded

fig 7.1 stator

Rotor: Rotors are of two types namely
i) Salient pole type or projected pole type ii) Smooth cylindrical or non-salient pole type
Salient pole type: In this rotor is like a flywheel and number of alternate North and South poles
are bolted to it as shown in figure7.2. Projected poles are made of thick steel laminations riveted
or bolted together and are fixed to the rotor. The pole faces are so shaped that the radial air gap
length increases from pole center to the pole tip to have better waveform. The field coils are

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
placed on the pole and are connected in series these are characterized by large number of poles,
low speed, large diameter, small axial length .

figure7.2.

figure7.3
ii) Smooth cylindrical or non-salient pole type: The rotor consists of a smooth solid forged steel
cylinder having a number of slots at its outer periphery for accommodating field coils (conductor)
as shown in figure7.3 These are characterized by small diameter, large axial length, high speed

Frequency of generated e.m.f .

Consider an alternator having ‘P’ poles and rotates with ‘N’ rpm. Let ‘f’ be the frequency of the
generated e.m.f . If a conductor pass through a pair of poles a complete cycle of e.m.f will be
induced.
Therefore, in one revolution (P/2) pair of poles sweep past every armature conductor hence (P/2)
e.m.f cycles in one revolution. In one second there are N/60 revolutions of rotor. Therefore, number
of cycles of the induced e.m.f /sec = number of cycles/revolution x No. of revolutions/sec
(P/2) x (N/60) = PN/120
i.e., f = PN/120 Hz.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction motors are the most extensively used in industry of all the A.C. motors. As the name
itself indicates principle involved here is mutual induction. The emf, currents in the rotor are setup
entirely by the effect of ” Electromagnetic induction, hence it is known as Induction Motor.
Advantages:
It is very simple, robust, rugged and reliable.
It is cheap, easy to maintain, low maintenance cost
Less losses, power factor is reasonably good, simple to start (self-starting) high efficiency.
Disadvantages:
Speed control is difficult. speed cannot be varied without sacrificing the efficiency; its speed
decreases with an increase in load.
Low starting torque compared to D.C. series Motor.
APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION MOTORS

Squirrel cage induction motor

Squirrel cage induction motors are preferred in most of the industrial applications such as in
i) Lathes
ii) Drilling machines
iii) Agricultural and industrial pumps
iv) Industrial drives.
Slip ring induction motors

Slip ring induction motors have high starting torque, smooth acceleration under heavy loads,
adjustable speed and good running characteristics.
They are used in
i) Lifts
ii) Cranes
iii) Conveyors.

CONSTRUCTION:

Induction motor consists of two main parts.

(a) Stator: It is an outer stationary hollow cylindrical structure made up
of laminated sheet steel. The inner periphery of which is slotted to
carry three-phase winding called stator winding. Stator is wound for a
definite number of poles, depends upon the speed requirement.
Greater the number, lesser the speed and vice versa

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fig8.1stator

(b) Rotor: There are two types of rotor

fig 8.2a fig 8.2b

SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR
It consists of a slotted laminated core of sheet steel. The slots are twisted (Skewing) to reduce
harmonics. Each slot carries single conductor of a thick copper . These bars are short circuited on
either side to the rings called endring ( 90% of induction motors are this type )
Slip ring rotor (Phase wound): It is made of thin laminated core of sheet steel. Its outer periphery
is cut into number of slots. A three-phase winding is placed in the rotor slots, having the same
number of poles as that of windings are brought out, and connected to three slip rings mounted on
the rotor shaft. On each slip ring brush is rested. The three brushes are further connected to three-
phase star, connected external rheostats that will increase the starting torque. When rotor speed
reaches to 60% of its rated speed the external resistance are completely disconnected from the
rotor circuit

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Concept of Rotating Magnetic Field:

fig 8.3a

fig 8.3b

Consider a three-phase induction motor, assuming delta-connected stator windings be

supplied from a three phase a.c. supply as shown in figure 8.3a.
When 3-phase supply is given to stator, alternating currents flows through the stator
windings. Each current establishes its own magnetic flux. The resultant flux, due to the currents in
the three phase windings is shown in figure. Let the maximum value of flux due to any one of the
phase be m . The resultant flux  T , at any instant, is given by the vector sum of the individual
fluxes,  R ,  Y, and B due to the currents in the three phases.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
We shall consider values of T at four instants at intervals of 600 electrical, marked 0, 1, 2 and 3
in figure 8.4.
(a) At  = 0
This corresponds to figure 8.4a. Here, R = 0, Y = -3/2  m ,
B = 3/2  m.
T = 2 x 3/2  m cos 600 /2 = 3 x 3/2  m = 1.5  m

fig 8.4 (a)

(b) At  = 600, corresponding to figure8.4b. Here,  R = 3/2  m ,  Y = -3/2  m ,
B = 0
 T = 2 x 3/2  m cos 300 = 1.5  m
We can observed that the resultant flux is again 1.5  m, and it has rotated clockwise through an
angle of 600

fig 8.4 (b)

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(c) At  = 1200 figure 8.4c
Here,  R = 3/2  m,
Y= 0
 B = -3/2  m
We can again prove that  T = 1.5 m

fig 8.4 (c)

Thus, the resultant has the same value, and has further rotated clockwise through an angle of 600
Similarly at  = 1800 (figure8.4d) can be proved that the resultant flux is equal to1.5 m and rotates
around the stator at synchronous speed.

fig 8.4 (d)

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
When the three phase winding of stator is connected to three-phase supply, then the three current
in the stator winding produces a rotating magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed (Ns). This
rotating field passes through air gap and sweeps past the rotor conductor. Due to relative velocity
between rotating stator field and rotor conductor an e.m.f is induced in the rotor conductors.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
Current starts flowing in the rotor conductors. By Lenz’s law to reduce the emf, rotor starts rotating
in the same direction as that of the field (because emf induced depends upon the relative velocity
between field and conductor. Slip in Induction Motor: The difference between the speeds of
stator field (synchronous speed) and rotor is called slip and is expressed in %ge of synchronous
speed.

Percentage Slip
%S = ((Ns – N) / Ns) x 100
Frequency of Rotor current:
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is the same as the supply frequency
(slip=1). When the Induction Motor (rotor) is rotating, the frequency of the current induced in the
rotor conductors, emf induced is proportional to the relative speed or slip speed. If f 1 is the
frequency of the rotor current, then

Ns – N = 120 f 1 / P ----(i)
But, Ns = 120f/P ----(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii), we get
(Ns – N)/Ns =f1/f = s.
f1 = sf.

fig 8.5

Text Book:
“Electrical and Electronic Technology” E. Hughes (Revised by J. Hiley, K. Brown & I.M
Smith), 9th Edition, Pearson Education, 2005.
Reference Books:
1. “Basic Electrical Engineering”, K Uma Rao (2011), Pearson Education
2. “Basic Electrical Engineering”, D. C. Kulshreshta (2009), 1st Edition, Tata- McGraw-Hill.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
3. “Engineering Circuit Analysis”, William Hayt Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly & Steven M. Durbin, 8th
Edition, McGraw-Hill
4. A textbook of Electrical Technology volume I Basic Electrical engineering by BL Theraja
AK Theraja

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
1) A 3-phase, 4 pole, 400V, 50Hz induction motor runs with a speed of 1440 r.p.m.
Calculate its slip.

Solution:
Synchronous speed, Ns = 120f / P
= 120 x 50 / 4 = 1500 r.p.m

Rotor speed, N = Ns (1 – s)
1440 = 1500 (1 – s)
Slip ‘s’ = 0.04 or 4%

2) An 8 pole alternator runs at 750 r.p.m and supplies power to a 6-pole induction motor,
which runs at 970 r.p.m. What is the slip of the induction motor?
Solution:

Alternator:
Frequency of supply, f =PN /120
f = 8x750/120 =50Hz
Induction motor:
Synchronous speed, Ns = 120f / P
= 120 x 50 /6 = 1000 r.p.m

Rotor speed, N = Ns (1 – s)
970 = 1000 (1 – s)
Slip ‘s’ = 0.03 or 3%

3) A 6-pole alternator running at 1200 rpm supplies a 10-pole 3-phase induction motor. If
the frequency of the rotor induced emf is 3 Hz, find the speed of the rotor.
Solution:
Alternator
P=6
N = 1200
Alternator Frequency = f = 1200x6/120 = 60Hz
Induction motor
P = 10
Frequency of rotor emf = 3Hz
Ns = 120x60/10 = 720rp
We have
f1 = sf
s = f1/ f =3/60 =0.05
Speed of motor N = Ns (1-s)
= 720(1-0.05) = 684rpm.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
4) A 12 pole, 3 phase alternator is coupled to an engine running at 500 rpm. It supplies an
Induction Motor which has a full load speed of 1440 rpm. Find the percentage slop and the
number of poles of the motor.

Solution: NA = synchronous speed of the alternator

PNA 12 X 500
F =------- = --------------- = 50 Hz (from alternator data)
120 120

When the supply frequency is 50 Hz, the synchronous speed can be 750 rpm, 1500 rpm,
3000rpm etc., since the actual speed is 1440 rpm and the slip is always less than 5% the
synchronous speed of the Induction motor is 1500 rpm.

NS – N 1500 - 1440
s = --------- = ----------------- = 0.04 OR 4%
NS 1500

120f 120 x 50
NS = ------------ = -------------- = 1500
P P
P=4

5) A 6 pole induction motor is supplied by a 10 pole alternator, which is driven at 600 rpm.
If the induction motor is running at 970 rpm, determine its percentage slip.

P NA 10 X 600
From alternator date: f =------- = --------------- = 50 Hz
120 120
Synchronous speed of the induction motor

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
120 f 120  50
NS    1000rpm
P 6
From I.M. data:
N N 1000  970
% slip  S  100   3%
NS 1000

6) A 12 pole, 3 phase alternator is driven by a 440V, 3 phase, 6 pole Induction Motor

running at a slip of 3%. Find frequency of the EMF generated by the alternator

120 f 120  50
For induction motor: N S    1000rpm
P 6

N  1  s N S  1  0.031000  970rpm

As the alternator is driven by the Induction motor, the alternator runs at 970 r.p.m.

PN 12  970
For alternator: f    97Hz
120 120

7) A three phase 4 pole, 440 V, 50Hz induction motor runs with a slip of 4%. Find the rotor
speed and frequency of the rotor current.

120 f 120  50
NS    1500rpm
P 4
N N 1500  N
Solution: S  S i.e.0.04  , N  1440rpm
NS 1500
f r  sf  0.04  50  2 Hz

8) A 3 phase, 50Hz 6 pole induction motor has a full load percentage slip of 3%.
Find(i) Synchronous speed and (ii) Actual Speed

120 f 120  50
NS    1000rpm
P 6
Solution:
N N 100  N
S S i.e.0.03   N  970rpm
NS 1000
9) A 3 phase induction motor has 6 poles and runs at 960 RPM on full load. It is supplied
from an alternator having 4 poles and running at 1500 RPM. Calculate the full load slip
and the frequency of the rotor currents of the induction motor.

Solution:

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
PN 4  1500
f    50Hz ( from alternatordata)
120 120
forInduction motor
120 f 120  50
NS    1000rpm
P 6
N  N 1000  960
S S   0.04 or 4%
NS 1000
fr  sf  0.04  50  2 Hz
10) The frequency of the e.m.f in the stator of a 4-pole induction motor is 50 Hz and that of
1
1 Hz
the rotor is 2 . What is the slip and at what speed is the motor running?

Solution:
Given P = 4
f = 50Hz
f r  1.5 Hz

 To calculate slip (s)

f r  sf
1.5  S  50
1 .5
We have s 
50
s  0.03
s  3%

ii) To calculate the speed of the motor (N)

We have
120 f
Ns 
P
120  50
Ns   1500rpm
4
We also have
N  N s 1  s 
N  15001  0.03
N  1455rpm

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a static device, used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another without
change in frequency and power. This transformation of electrical energy usually involves with the
change in voltage level from higher to lower or vice versa.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The working principle of transformer is based on mutual electromagnetic induction. The two
inductive coils of a transformer are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path
of low reluctance.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
When one coil is connected to the ac supply (primary) the current flows through primary winding
and an alternating flux will setup in the core, most of this flux is linked with the second coil due
to which an emf will be induced in the secondary coil . If the secondary coil is completed a current
will flow in it, thus the electrical energy from primary to secondary will be transferred. The
secondary voltage depends upon the ratio of secondary turns. The flux m is always constant
irrespective of load current. Neglecting drops V1 = E1.
Therefore input = V1 I1 = E1 I1
Output = E2 I2
But E2 I2 = E1 I1
Therefore E2 / E1 = I1 / I2 = K
Where ‘K’ is called as voltage transformation ratio.
Case.1 When K1 the output voltage will be more than input voltage i.e., E2  E1 and transformer
is called as step up transformer.
Case.2 When K 1 the output voltage will be less than input voltage i.e., E 1 E2 and transformer
is called as step down transformer .ex: all distribution transformers

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

There are two types of transformers depends on the magnetic circuit.

CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER:

In this type, the coil (conductor) surrounds a considerable part of the magnetic circuit. The primary
and secondary coils are wrapped around the core sides. The primary and secondary coils for each
leg are assembled together to form a single unit, after which assembly is dipped in an insulating
varnish and baked. The core is made of thin laminations of silicon steel (Magnetic material), which
are cut in different shapes like I, L, E etc.

fig 6.2

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

In this type transformer the core surrounds a considerable portion of the windings and the
two windings are wound on the central limb of the core.. The thickness of laminations is usually
0.6mmfor 50 Hz frequency. Laminations are used to reduce the eddy currents.

Fig 6.3

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

fig 6.4

Let N1 = Number of turns on the primary side.

N 2 = Number of turns on the secondary side
 m = Maximum flux in the core in Weber’s.
f = Frequency of the supply in Hertz’s
The flux increases from zero to maximum in 1/4th of the cycle shown in fig 6.4. So the average
rate of change of flux
d m/dt =  m / ( 1 / 4f ) = 4f  m webers.
But d m/dt = Average EMF induced / turn
For AC RMS value should be taken.
Form factor = RMS value
Average value
 RMS value = 1.1 x Average value.
 RMS value of EMF induced/ turn = 4f m x 1.11 = 4.44 f  m
 EMF in primary winding,
E1 = 4.44 f  m x number of primary turns.= 4.44 f  m N1 volts.
Similarly, E2 = 4.44 f  m N2
For ideal transformer, V1 = E1, V2 = E2,
V1 I1 = V2 I2 or V2 / V1 = I1 / I2 = K
Where K is transformation ratio.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
Transformer on DC supply:
As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work not DC supply. If
the rated DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up
in the core of the transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced emf generation, as for
the linkage of flux with the secondary winding there must be an alternating flux required and not
a constant flux.
According to Ohm’s Law

The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high. So this current
is much higher than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of
heat produced will be greater and therefore, eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more. Because of
this, the insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged.
Turn Ratio:
It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step up transformer

If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step down transformer

Transformation Ratio:
The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage. It
is denoted by K.

As (E2 ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1)

Ideal Transformer:
Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal transformer.
It is an imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no leakage flux.
The ideal transformer has the following important characteristic.
1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means less
magnetising current requires for magnetising their core.
3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in the core
of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.
4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from hysteresis
and eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal transformer,
there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.

Since El ∞ N2 and E1 ∞ N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to V2

Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation shown below

The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

Behaviour of Ideal Transformer:

Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The voltage source V1is applied across
the primary winding of the transformer. Their secondary winding is kept open. The N1 and N2 are
the numbers of turns of their primary and secondary winding.
The current Im is the magnetizing current flows through the primary winding of the transformer.
The magnetizing current produces the flux φm in the core of the transformer. As the permeability
of the core is infinite, the flux of the core link with both the primary and secondary winding of the
transformer.

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

Fig: Ideal Trasfomer

The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E1 because of self-induction. The direction
of the induced emf is inversely proportional to the applied voltage V1. The emf E2 induces in the
secondary winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.\
Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer:
The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure below. As the coil of the primary
transformer is purely inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag 90º by the
input voltage V1. The E1 and E2 are the emf induced in the primary and secondary winding of the
transformer. The direction of the induces emf inversely proportional to the applied voltage

Point to Remember
The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output energy. The power loss in the ideal
transformer becomes zero

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
1) A 25 KVA, single-phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40 turns on the
secondary winding. The primary is connected to 3000V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (i) Primary
and Secondary currents on full-load (ii) The secondary e.m.f (iii) The maximum flux in the
core.
Solution:
Given rating = 25 kVA

Primary applied voltage V1 = 3000 Volts

Number of primary turns, N1 = 500

Number of secondary turns, N2 = 40

i) Full load primary current I1 = kVA rating x 1000 / Rated primary voltage, V1

I1 = 25 x 1000 / 3000 = 8.33 A

Turns ratio, K = N2 / N1 = 40 / 500 = 0.08

We have, I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 [Current ratio = 1 / K]

I2 = I1 = {N2 / N1 }

Full load secondary current, I2 = 8.33 {1/0.08} = 104.125 A

ii) Now, E2 / E1 = N2 / N1

Secondary induced e.m.f E2 = E1 {N2 / N1}

or E2 = 3000 x 0.08 = 240 Volts

iii) The e.m.f equation of a transformer is E1 = 4.44 f N1 m

Substituting the values, we get

3000 = 4.44 x 50 x 500 x m

Flux in the core m = 3000 / 4.44 x 50 x 500 = 0.027 Wb

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines
2) A 40 KVA single phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the
secondary windings. The primary is connected to 3000v, 50 Hz a.c. supply.Determine
i) secondary voltage on open circuit
ii) Current flowing through the two windings on full load.
iii) Maximum value of flux.
Solution:
We know that

(V2 / V1) = (N2 / N1)

(V2/3000) = (100/500)

V2 =600v

ii) V2I2 = 40,000V

I2= 66.7A

iii) we know that

E1 = V1 = 4.44 f N1 m

3000 = 4.44x50x500xm

m = 0.027wb

3) A 1-phase transformer has 400 primary and 1000 secondary turns. The net cross sectional

area of the core is 60 cm2. If the primary is connected to a 50 Hz supply at 500 V,determine

(a) the peak value of the flux density in the core and (b) the voltage induced in the secondary

winding :

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Unit-4: Electrical Machines

4) A single phase 50 Hz core type transformer has core of cross section area 400 sq cms. The
permissible maximum flux density is 1 Wb /m2. Calculate the number of turns per limb on
the high and low voltage sides for a 3000 /220V ratio.

3 Department of ECE, PESU