Teaching & Learning Techniques Assignment

By- Samidha Pattanaik

A1506919189
B.A. (H) Applied Psychology
Semester- 5 Section- C

1. What do you understand by Psycho-educational Assessment? Describe

briefly what is intelligence, memory, creativity, personality, motivation,
aptitude and interest.

A psycho-educational assessment involves examining how an individual is developing in regards

to the psychological processes that underlie learning (e.g., language processing, phonological
processing, fine-motor/graphomotor processing, executive functioning, visual-spatial processing,
processing speed, and working memory); their acquisition of academic skills in reading, writing
and math; and their social/emotional and behavioural functioning (e.g., attention and
concentration, depression, anxiety). It is administered by a psychologist or psychometrist and
combined with clinical interviews, observations, and historical records to help understand how
your child learns, and identify if and how they’re struggling. These assessments are completed
with children, adolescents, and adults to help identify underlying disabilities (e.g., Learning
Disabilities, ADHD, associated disorders) which may be impacting their academic/work, social,
and/or overall psychological well-being. The assessment varies based on a child’s age.

The results can help the psychologist understand the child’s potential (i.e., if they are gifted or
have a learning disability) and provide strategies to support them. During these assessments,
other concerns are also evaluated, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or anxiety, and
recommendations for your child are based on a combination of standardized test results and the
evaluation of psychosocial and/or mental health issues.

Students who have different types of educational difficulties can be referred, such as:
 Significant drop in academic performance
 Failure in exams
 Poor reading, writing and spelling skills
 Difficulty understanding basic concepts in Math
 Inability to cope with learning in an unfamiliar medium of instruction (e.g. English),
which is different from the child’s home language (e.g. Konkani, Hindi, etc.)
 Poor memory
 Difficulty completing tasks in time
  Difficulty expressing oneself while speaking
These students range in age from 6 to 16 years (Std. I to Std. X) and are usually referred by the
school.

I will now briefly describe a few important psychological concepts below-

I. INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract
reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to
learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the
environment effectively.
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “the mental abilities necessary
for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context”.

British psychologist Charles Spearman believed intelligence consisted of one general

factor, called g, which could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman
focused on the commonalities among various intellectual abilities and de-emphasized
what made each unique. Long before modern psychology developed, however, ancient
philosophers, such as Aristotle, held a similar view (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004).

Others psychologists believe that instead of a single factor, intelligence is a collection of

distinct abilities. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that
divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid
intelligence (Cattell, 1963). Crystallized intelligence is characterized as acquired
knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall
information, you are using crystallized intelligence. You use crystallized intelligence all
the time in your coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered the information
covered in the course. Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to see complex
relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto
an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid
intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your
daily life, whereas crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward
problems (Cattell, 1963).

Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the triarchic
theory of intelligence because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg,
1988): practical, creative, and analytical intelligence.
Practical intelligence, as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street
smarts.” Being practical means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by
applying knowledge based on your experiences. This type of intelligence appears to be
separate from traditional understanding of IQ; individuals who score high in practical
intelligence may or may not have comparable scores in creative and analytical
intelligence (Sternberg, 1988).
Analytical intelligence is closely aligned with academic problem solving and
computations. Sternberg says that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to
analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast. When reading a classic novel for
literature class, for example, it is usually necessary to compare the motives of the main
characters of the book or analyze the historical context of the story.
Creative intelligence is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or
situation. Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected
problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story. Imagine for
a moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends and realize that you’ve
forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to
successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative
intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences Theory was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard

psychologist and former student of Erik Erikson. Gardner’s theory, which has been
refined for more than 30 years, is a more recent development among theories of
intelligence. In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences.
Among these eight intelligences, a person typically excels in some and falters in others
(Gardner, 1983). The following table describes each type of intelligence.
II. MEMORY
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve
information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and
retrieval. Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information
we have learned or experienced. As we all know, however, this is not a flawless process.
Sometimes we forget or misremember things. Sometimes things are not properly encoded
in memory in the first place. The study of human memory has been a subject of science
and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest
within cognitive psychology.

While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of
memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially
proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three
separate stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory.

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information
from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer
than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We
attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information
to pass into the next stage: short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently
aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as
 the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates information in short-
term memory. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to
this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. Most of the
information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.
The term "short-term memory" is often used interchangeably with "working memory,"
which refers to the processes that are used to temporarily store, organize, and manipulate
information.

Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian
psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. This
information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to
be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other
memories are much more difficult to access.

III. CREATIVITY
Most definitions suggest that creativity is the tendency to solve problems or create
new things in novel ways.

Two of the primary components of creativity include:

 Originality: The idea should be something new that is not simply an extension of
something else that already exists.
 Functionality: The idea needs to actually work or possess some degree of
usefulness.

In his book Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention,
psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi suggested that creativity can often be seen in a
few different situations.
 People who seem stimulating, interesting, and have a variety of unusual thoughts.
 People who perceive the world with a fresh perspective, have insightful ideas and
make important personal discoveries. These individuals make creative discoveries
that are generally known only to them.
 People who make great creative achievements that become known to the entire
world. Inventors and artists such as Thomas Edison and Pablo Picasso would fall
into this category.

Experts also tend to distinguish between different types of creativity. The “four c” model
of creativity suggests that there are four different types:
i. “Mini-c” creativity involves personally meaningful ideas and insights that are
known only to the self.
 ii. “Little-c” creativity involves mostly everyday thinking and problem-solving.
This type of creativity helps people solve everyday problems they face and adapt
to changing environments.
iii. “Pro-C” creativity takes place among professionals who are skilled and creative
in their respective fields. These individuals are creative in their vocation or
profession but do not achieve eminence for their works.
iv. “Big-C” creativity involves creating works and ideas that are considered great in
a particular field. This type of creativity leads to eminence and acclaim and often
leads to world-changing creations such as medical innovations, technological
advances, and artistic achievements.

IV. PERSONALITY
An individual’s personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their
behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. It drives individuals to consistently think,
feel, and behave in specific ways; in essence, it is what makes each individual unique.
Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values,
and attitudes.
Personality psychology is the study of human personality and how it varies among
individuals and populations. Personality has been studied for over 2000 years, beginning
with Hippocrates in 370 BCE and spanning through modern theories such as the
psychodynamic perspective and trait theory.

The major theories of personality include the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning (or
behaviorist), humanistic, biological, trait (or dispositional), and cultural perspectives.

 Psychodynamic theory, originating with Sigmund Freud, posits that human

behavior is the result of the interaction among various components of the mind
(the id, ego, and superego) and that personality develops according to a series of
psychosexual developmental stages.
 Neo-Freudian theorists, such as Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney, expanded on
Freud’s theories but focused more on the social environment and on the effects of
culture on personality.
 Learning theories, such as behaviorism, regard an individuals’ actions as
ultimately being responses to external stimuli. Social learning theory believes that
personality and behavior are determined by an individual’s cognition about the
world around them.
 Humanistic theory argues that an individual’s subjective free will is the most
important determinant of behavior. Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers believed that people strive to become self-actualized—
the “best version” of themselves.
 Biological approaches focus on the role of genetics and the brain in shaping
personality. Related to this, evolutionary theories explore how variation in
individual personalities variance may be rooted in natural selection.
  Trait theorists believe personality can be conceptualized as a set of common
traits, or characteristic ways of behaving, that every individual exhibits to some
degree. In this view, such personality traits are different from person to person but
within an individual are stable over time and place.

With any of these theories, it is important to keep in mind that the culture in which we
live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes our personalities.
Western ideas about personality are not necessarily applicable to other cultures, and there
is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures.

V. MOTIVATION
Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. It is an urge
to behave or act in a way that will satisfy certain conditions, such as wishes, desires, or
goals. Older theories of motivation stated that rational thought and reason were the
guiding factors in human motivation; however, psychologists now believe that motivation
may be rooted in basic impulses to optimize well-being, minimize physical pain, and
maximize pleasure.

Motivations are commonly separated into drives and motives. Drives are primarily
biological, like thirst, hunger, sleepiness, and the need to reproduce—all of which lead us
to seek out and take part in certain activities. Drives are believed to originate within a
person and may not require external stimuli to encourage behavior. Motives, on the other
hand, are primarily driven by social and psychological mechanisms, such as work,
family, and relationships. They include factors like praise and approval. Both drives and
motives can be manipulated by stimulation and deprivation. Motivation can be stimulated
by uncomfortable or aversive conditions or events (shocks, loud noise, or excessive heat
or cold can motivate us to seek better conditions) or by attractions to positive or
pleasurable conditions or events (such as food or sex). We also become motivated when
we’re deprived of something that we want or need, like adequate nutrition or social
contact.

Motivation can be intrinsic (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic (arising from
external factors).

Intrinsically-motivated behaviors are generated by the sense of personal satisfaction

that they bring. They are driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself that comes
from the individual, not society. For example, if you are in college because you enjoy
learning and want to make yourself a more well-rounded individual, you are intrinsically
motivated. Intrinsic motivation is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical
development; those individuals who are intrinsically motivated are likely to perform
better and improve their skills at a given task.
 Extrinsically-motivated behaviors, in contrast, are performed in order to receive
something from others. They do not come from within the individual, but from society—
other people. For example, employees might do their work because they want the
company to pay them, not because they love the work. Many athletes are driven by the
goal of winning, beating the competition, and receiving praise from fans; they are not
driven by the intrinsic satisfaction they get from playing the sport. Similarly, if you are in
college because you want to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or
to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.

VI. APTITUDE
An aptitude is not the same thing as ability or interest, as it is more specific, measuring
only certain aspects of functioning within a limited range. A person with a verbal ability
cannot have aptitude for all the different tasks or vocations connected with verbal ability.
The delimitation of the area is a result of the influence of the environment and personal
cultivation for a period of time. Aptitude is only in part inborn or native.

The most appropriate explanation of aptitude is given by Bingham, which is included in

Warren’s Dictionary of psychology. He defines aptitude as- “A condition or set of
characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to acquire with
training some (usually specified) knowledge, skill or set of responses, such as ability to
speak a language, to produce music …”

Bingham further states that aptitude is a measure of probabilities of success of an

individual with training is certain type of situations such as playing violin. So aptitude is
something more than the ability. It is ability plus suitability of performance. A person
may be a good scholar, because he possesses high verbal ability, but not necessarily a
good teacher.

Teaching aptitude depends upon not only high scholastic ability, high interest in teaching,
but also some personality traits which are wanted in a teacher. Every person with high
measure of scientific ability cannot prove to be a good doctor unless he possesses some
further traits like perseverance, sociability, love of humanity, dexterity of fingers to
perform an operation etc.

Aptitude is a result of both heredity and environment. The primary mental ability which
is a major factor herein is hereditary. The readiness to acquire knowledge or skill, and the
satisfaction in the activity is cultivated on the effect on environment.

Some of the chief characteristics of an aptitude are the following.

 It is of a specific nature, as it is not common to all the situations where a
particular ability is used.
 As it cannot be further analysed into simpler abilities, it is unitary.
  It remains, more or less constant.
 It implies facility of learning or readiness to acquire a particular job.

VII. INTEREST
An interest is a subjective attitude motivating a person to perform a certain task. It affords
pleasure and satisfaction. It results in curiosity towards the object of interest, enthusiasm
to be attached to the object, strength of will to face difficulties while engaged in the task
of one’s interest, a definite change in behaviour in the presence of the object
characterised by attention and concentration. Various definitions of interest. Guidance
exports make a further explanation of interest from the guidance point of view.

Jones states, “Interest is a feeling of likening associated with a reaction, either actual
or imagined to a specific thing or situation.”

Bingham defines: “Interest is a tendency to become absorbed in an experience and to

continue it, while an aversion is a tendency to turn away from it to something else.”

Jones mentions two distinct types of interests- extrinsic and intrinsic. The former are
pleasurable emotions connected with a purpose or goal of an activity. It may involve
fame, name, money, victory or such external motives of conduct. But the latter are
connected with the activity itself, being basic and real attraction without any external
motive, This intrinsic interest is continuous and permanent, even if the immediate goal is
reached. The extrinsic interest, dies as soon as the goal is reached.

Super and some other guidance experts have classified interests into:
(i) Expressed interest,
In the expressed interest the person expresses his personal likings through such
sentences as ‘I love sports’. Although, it is the first source of knowing the interest
of a person yet much reliance cannot be based on it, as such expressions like
permanency and are prone to vary from time to time depending upon the maturity
of the person.

(ii) Manifest interest,

Manifest interest is the interest that is not expressed but observed by others while
the person is engaged and absorbed in an activity. Newton forgot his meals while
engaged in scientific experiments.
(iii) Measured interest.
The measured interest is the estimate and account of a person’s interest as
revealed by some psychological tests or interest inventories.

While knowing the interests of a person we can rely more on the manifest interest and the
measured interest rather than the expressed interest. But it is not always practicable to
 know the manifest interest for want of frequent situations arrange able wherein the
observer can observe the manifestation. Hence measured interest is the usual source.

2. Why is counselling and career guidance important in today’s life? State

your answer with a supportive theory. Explain in detail what is Play
Therapy and in which areas of assessment it can be used?

Career Counselling is a process that focuses on helping one understand one’s own self, as well as
work trends, so that one can take an informed decision about career and education. Career
Counselling helps manage a diverse range of problems such as low concentration levels to poor
time management, trust issues with family to non-agreement between parents and children on
which career to choose.
All of us require career guidance at some point in our life. It helps us get insights about
ourselves, our career and what we can do to improve it. Here are a few ways in which career
counselling helps us:

Helps Pick The Right Career

Career Counsellors are experts at assessing your aptitude, personality, interests, and other aspects
of you. They use this evaluation to suggest the best career options from all the available and
relevant options.

Helps Provide Expert Resources

Career Counselling provides access to the resources and knowledge that a career expert
possesses. This knowledge of Careers, their scope and the paths to pursue them are most
important from the point of view of a parent and child, since most of the times, parents or
guardians do not have that kind of knowledge.

Helps Gain Confidence And Insight

Career Counselling helps a counselee understand the hurdles in his/her career path. This
knowledge helps to develop the confidence to overcome these hurdles. It is the duty of a good
counsellor to provide such insight and confidence to the counselee.

Helps Change Unwanted Behavior Patterns

Students and professionals have habits that are hard to break, such as procrastinating, not
keeping updated on latest developments in their chosen career paths, neglecting emotional and
mental health, not trying to self-motivate, etc. A Career Counsellor helps break such behavioral
patterns that lead to unproductive activities, both at home and in school/college/work.

Helps Remove Career-Related Frustration

Choosing a career can be a demanding task for both parents and children. A lack of any source of
venting out emotions and thoughts may add to the existing frustration. Career Counselling
provides a platform where such frustrations can be reduced, and focus is re-directed to selecting
the best career options.

Provides A Role-Model
Career Counselling helps students connect to experts who have enough life experiences to share.
They are role models who have accomplished much, and helped people in their life. This is why
Career Counselling can serve as an inspiration to those who require it.

Helps Bring Stability In Thought

Career Counsellors can help you remain calm when it comes to taking a career decision.
Counselling helps bring about focus, and maintain that focus throughout in our activities.
Through proper scheduling and planning, they try and make your life more organized.

Various other skills that can be learned via career counselling-

1. Through different career counselling sessions students can develop a problem-solving
attitude which can be helpful in resolving their career queries.
2. According to various reports it is said that a student can learn a lot more through
Communication skills therefore the student can enhance his communication skills.
3. Student can research on himself with the help of a counselor to explore new opportunities
according to the latest trends.
4. Career counsellor always helps the concerned student about having patience and also help
them to learn about listening skills.

Supporting Theory
The Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA), developed by Rene Dawis and Lloyd
Lofquist, provides a way of conceptualizing the fit between an individual and a job or
organization. It was initially influenced by research into the job placement problems of the
physically disabled, which was the focus of a consultancy undertaken at the University of
Minnesota as part of the Work Adjustment Project commenced in 1957. Much of the early
research leading to MTWA was published with the Minnesota Studies in Vocational
Rehabilitation. In developing the MTWA, the authors drew heavily on the strong measurement
tradition at Minnesota. This emphasis resulted in a theory that provides a set of clearly testable
hypotheses, which has stimulated many decades of research and associated development of
instruments and measures.
MTWA consists of both a structural model and a process model. Much of the research has
focused on the components of the structural model, thereby failing to capture the underlying
influence of learning theories on the development of the model and, more important, missing the
richness of the dynamic aspects of the theory that deal with how both individuals and
environments change. However, the dynamic component of MTWA has increasing relevance
because of the way in which the theory accommodates the current focus on adaptation and
change in the work environment.

Structural Model
The MTWA describes both people and work environments in terms of the demands they impose
on or ways they can reinforce each other and in what each can offer, or supply, the other.
Commensurate measurement of the individual and environment along two broad dimensions
captures the extent of the match between demands and supply.

Knowledge, Skill, and Abilities (KSAs)

TWA requires a detailed understanding of the environmental requirements in terms of the
Knowledge, Skill, and Abilities (KSAs) (perceptual, cognitive, social, and physical), education,
and experiences that are necessary for optimal functioning. The measurement of these
requirements derives from the job analysis literature. A principle of symmetry embedded in
MTWA requires that the individual be assessed on the same KSA dimensions as those used to
describe the environment. Commensurate measurement provides information not only on what
the individual has to offer but also on how well his or her supplies match the work requirements.
This emphasis on stable individual differences is unique among career development theories, and
although it implies certain limitations, it does not deny the influence of the situation or the
potential for change. Further evidence of symmetry can be seen in the focus on the demands the
environment places on the individual, and vice versa.

Needs, Values, and Interests

The importance of assessing an individual’s needs, values, interests, and preferences illustrates
MTWA’s link to fundamental learning principles. The concept of individuals seeking
environments that will reinforce their values or the potential of an occupational reinforcer to
reinforce behavior was heavily influenced by the early learning theory traditions of Edward
Tolman and B. F. Skinner. Originally, measurement of needs and values occurred through the
Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ), which included 20 need dimensions thought to be
common to the majority of working people. These 20 needs were summarized into the five work
values of achievement, autonomy, status, safety and comfort, and altruism, which, according to
MTWA, are higher-order needs. Similarly, the environment is assessed in terms of the
opportunities it has to offer individuals as motivational incentives, that is, its capacity to fulfill an
individual’s identified needs, values, and interests. Work adjustment is the outcome of a match,
or correspondence, between requirements and supplies from both the individual and the work
environment on the two dimensions described above. Three major criteria are viewed as
indicators of work adjustment: satisfaction, satisfactoriness (i.e., satisfactory performance), and
tenure.

Satisfaction
Satisfaction is the outcome from the match between the individual’s vocational interests,
motivational needs, and values and the extent to which the organization is able to provide
appropriate rewards and reinforcement of these. The authors of MTWA argued that satisfaction
was more than an overall component and therefore incorporated satisfaction with specific aspects
of one’s job such as supervision, coworkers, working conditions, hours of work, pay, and types
of work. Importantly, they also highlighted the more intrinsic aspects of work, including
satisfaction arising from the fulfillment of aspirations, expectations, and needs.

Satisfactoriness
Unlike other theories of career development that focus solely on the individual’s perspective,
MTWA also incorporated the employer perspective through the inclusion of satisfactoriness
(satisfactory performance). Resulting from the correspondence between the environment’s need
for specific KSAs and the individual’s capacity to supply these, satisfactoriness covers
efficiency, productivity, the ability to get along with a supervisor and coworkers, and a
willingness to follow company policies. The early measure of this construct, The Minnesota
Satisfactoriness Scales (MSS), asks the employer to rate how well the individual is performing
compared with others in his or her work group on dimensions parallel to current
conceptualizations of task performance (quantity and quality of work); contextual performance
(e.g., accepts direction from supervisor, works as a member of a team); and adaptive
performance (e.g., adapts to changes in procedures or methods, adjusts to different interpersonal
approaches). The MSS also has sections that address what is currently called “counterproductive
behavior” (e.g., comes late for work, becomes upset and unhappy, and requires disciplinary
action). Furthermore, MTWA proposes that the extent to which correspondence between person
and environment results in satisfactoriness is moderated by (that is, dependent on) the level of an
individual’s satisfaction. Specifically, the prediction of satisfactory performance from the match
between an individual’s KSAs and those required by an organization is stronger for satisfied
employees than for unsatisfied employees. Likewise, satisfactoriness moderates the extent to
which satisfaction is predicted from a match between an individual’s needs and the reinforcers
provided by the environment.

Tenure
Tenure, that is the length of time an individual and environment interact, is a function of both
satisfaction and satisfactoriness. While MTWA originally operationalized tenure as a period of
time before voluntary or involuntary removal from the workplace, more recently, the concept of
withdrawal behavior has been used to include voluntary turnover as well as absenteeism,
lateness, and other behaviors that indicate a reduced affective commitment to work.

Process Model
The dynamic component of MTWA was developed to explain the process by which either the
person or the environment adjusts or adapts to minimize deterioration in fit. Based on control or
systems theory, it is proposed that a lack of correspondence acts as a trigger for a behavioral
response aimed at reducing the tension that is created by the associated dissatisfaction. The
extent to which this behavior is initiated depends on the so-called response style of either the
person or the environment. Response style is classified in four dimensions: celerity, or speed of
response; pace, or strength of response; rhythm, or pattern of response; and endurance, or length
of sustaining the response. The actual behaviors that reduce the level of mismatch can be enacted
by either the person or the environment. There are four kinds of behaviors or adjustment styles
that describe this process of maintaining or improving correspondence: activeness, reactiveness,
flexibility, and perseverance. Taken from the perspective of the person, activeness is when the
individual attempts to reduce the mismatch by acting to change the environment to better suit
himself or herself. An example of activeness on the part of the person would be negotiating job
changes or a salary increase. Conversely, reactiveness occurs when the individual changes or
modifies himself or herself to better suit the environment. Examples of reactive behavior include
learning new skills, adapting interpersonal relating, and cross-cultural adaptability. Flexibility is
tolerating a mismatch, such as being able to cope with higher-than-desired levels of stress and
ambiguity in the workplace. Finally, perseverance describes the degree to which an individual
will enact adjustment behaviors before giving up. In the same way that individuals act in these
four adjustment styles, so do environments. For example, an organization can provide feedback
and training to actively change its employees’ KSAs and reactively changes itself by instituting
work redesign initiatives.

Play therapy is a form of counseling or psychotherapy that uses play to assess, prevent, or
treat psychosocial challenges. Although play therapy can be used with adults, it’s most
commonly used with children. From the outside, play therapy looks like it's just about having fun
with toys. However, research shows play therapy is effective in treating a variety of mental
health issues and behavior disorders.
Children lack the cognitive and verbal skills to talk about some issues. Grief, for example, can be
very complex and a child may have trouble putting their thoughts and feelings into words. Play
can be a hands-on way for children to work on issues that are distressing to them. They can act
out scenes, address specific problems, or create characters who share their emotions. Children
often act out their feelings with toys. A child who has lost a loved one may use puppets to
portray a sad character who misses a friend. Or, a child who has witnessed domestic violence
may use a dollhouse to depict a child hiding under the bed because the adults are fighting.
Depending on the type of play therapy that is being employed, the therapist may intervene at
various points in the play to help resolve an issue. Or, the play therapist may observe the child as
the child is helping a character work through their feelings. Play therapy can help children:
 Become more responsible for their behaviors
 Cultivate empathy and respect
 Develop self-efficacy so they can feel more assured about their abilities
 Identify and express emotions in a healthy way
 Improve their interpersonal skills
 Learn new social skills
 Practice better problem-solving skills

Play therapy is often used to help children process stressful life events such as relocation,
hospitalization, physical and sexual abuse, domestic violence, and natural disasters. It can also be
used to treat mental illness or behavioral problems. Here are some of the most common issues
addressed in play therapy:
 ADHD
 Aggression
 Anger management
 Anxiety disorders
 Autism spectrum disorder
 Depression
 Divorce
 Grief and loss
 Physical and learning disabilities
 School-related problems
 Social issues
 Trauma and crisis

Many play therapists have a dedicated play therapy room that is filled with items that help with
the therapeutic process. Some common play therapy toys include:
  Action figures
 Animal figurines
 Art supplies
 Blocks
 Dollhouse with dolls
 Kitchen with pretend food
 Musical toys
 Play handcuffs
 Puppets
 Sand tray with figurines
 Therapeutic games like the "Talking, Feeling, and Doing" board game or the "Stop,
Relax, and Think" board game
 Toy cars

Non-Directive Approach
Play therapy comes in two basic forms: non-directive (or child-centered) and directive. In child-
centered play therapy, children are given toys and creative tools and they’re allowed to choose
how to spend their time. They aren’t given any direction or guidance about what they should do
or how they should solve their problems. The non-directive approach is a type of psychodynamic
therapy. The basic premise is that when allowed to do so, children will find solutions to their
problems. The entire session is usually unstructured. The therapist may observe the child quietly
or may comment on what the child is doing. The therapist may become involved in the play if
invited to do so by the child. But, ultimately, the choice is left to the child.

Directive Approach
In some situations, play therapists may use directive strategies. A play therapist also may use
cognitive behavioral play therapy or solution focused play therapy to help guide the child during
their session. Each session may have a specific topic or goal to be addressed. A child may be
told, “Today we’re going to play with puppets. This will be your puppet,” or the therapist may
choose a specific game for them to play. The therapist also may get involved in the play to direct
the story. For example, if a child is using puppets to depict a child being bullied, the therapist
may intervene to help the puppet find ways to stand up to the bully or find help.

In addition to the basic approaches, there are also several different types of play therapy. Here
are some of the most common types:
i. Filial therapy: The parents get involved and the therapist teaches the parent how to
interact with the child through play. The goal is to close a communication gap between
the child and parent.
 ii. Sand tray therapy: The child can create a scene in a small box filled with sand using
miniature toys, such as people and animals. The scene created acts as a reflection of the
child's own life and allows a chance to resolve conflict, remove obstacles, and gain self-
acceptance.
iii. Bibliotherapy: The therapist and the child may read books together to explore specific
concepts or skills.
iv. Imaginary play: A child may be given toys that spark the imagination such as clothing to
play dress-up, a dollhouse, puppets, or action figures. It may be directive or non-
directive.
v. Cognitive behavioral play therapy: The therapist may use play to help a child learn how
to think and behave differently. A doll may be given advice about how to change their
thinking or the therapist may ask the child to give a stuffed animal advice on how they
can cope with a stressful situation.