Gram

mar
 SENTENCE-LEVEL GRAMMAR

PHRASES

What is a Phrase?

- A phrase is any collection of related words that, unlike a

sentence, has no combination of subject-predicate. The words
in a phrase function together so that the phrase itself acts as a
single part of speech. Phrases can never stand alone as sentences.

For example : He is playing with his toy.

A phrase can be written as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition

in a sentence. The function of a phrase is based entirely on its structure.

Noun Phrase

- It functions like a noun in a sentence with all its other determiners

that modify the noun. The noun is the headword of the sentence
and others are put after or before the noun.

- A noun phrase consists of a noun as the headword and other words

(usually modifiers and determiners) that come after or before the
noun. The complete phrase serves as a noun in a sente

Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers

Examples.

- She is wearing a beautiful saree. (as noun/object)

- She brought herself a watch. (as noun/object)
- The house with cobwebs is abandoned. (as noun/subject)
- A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)

A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

For example : The girl with green eyes bought a cute cat.

Adjective Phrase

- An adjective phrase is a group of words along with its modifiers,

that functions as an adjective in a sentence. .An adjective phrase
works as an adjective to transform (or tell about) a noun or a
pronoun in a sentence.

Examples.

- He is wearing a strong flowery perfume. (modifies

perfume)
- Cinderella looked gorgeous in her white gown. (modifies
cinderella)
- He gave me a glass full of wine. (modifies glass)
- A boy from Australia won the race. (modifies boy)

Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also serve as adjectives so

we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as an
adjective. In the above sentence

Prepositional Phrase
 - These phrases are the most commonly used phrases. These will be
found everywhere, in a sentence, clause, and even phrases. The
preposition phrase always begins with a preposition and noun and
pronoun are its objects. Such as, in the room, from the shop to the
library, etc.

The object of a preposition can possess its own modifiers, which also are
part of the prepositional phrase.

For example :

- The women in suffocating attire looked tired and annoyed.

- He sat by the rushing river to write his poem.
- Let me go to the room.

The Participial Phrase

- This phrase begins with a past or present participle followed by its

modifiers and determiners.
- They can be also used as adjectives.
- Feeling the fresh air, Jim realized that he had reached the valley.

In the preceding sentence, the present participle “feeling” inducts the

participial phrase, which includes the participle’s object (air) and its
modifiers (the fresh). This participial phrase pretends as an adjective
changing the subject of the sentence (Jim).

The enemies, trapped by the soldiers, threw down their guns.

Here, the past participle “trapped” starts the participle phrase “trapped
by the soldiers” The entire phrase serves as an adjective transforming
the subject of the sentence (soldiers). Notice the phrase-within-a-phrase
here. “By the soldiers” is a prepositional phrase modifying the participle
trapped.

Phrases can act as modifiers in other phrases.

The Gerund Phrase

- Gerund phrase might look like a participle phrase as they too

begin with the -ing form of the verb along with its object and
modifiers. But, the gerund phrase always serves as a noun in a
sentence and not as an adjective.
- Like other nouns, a gerund phrase can act as the subject of a
sentence, the object of a verb or preposition, or complementary of a
linking verb.

In the following example, the gerund phrase “Riding the Spanish bull”
acts as a noun and is the subject of the verb “terrified.”

- Riding the Spanish bulls, terrified Hugh.

The Infinitive Phrase

- An infinitive phrase has an infinitive (for example, to sleep, to have

walked, to consider, to throw) along with its objects and modifiers.
Infinitive phrases usually serve as nouns, though they can also be
used as adjectives and adverbs.

In this sentence, “To dance freely” is an infinitive phrase acting as a

noun. It is the subject of this sentence.

- To dance freely was his only wish.

Here, “take severe action” is an infinitive phrase serving as a noun. It is

the direct object of the predicate “didn’t want.”

- The teachers didn’t want to take severe action.

Next, the infinitive phrase “to spend foolishly” acts as an adjective
modifying the noun money.

- He had plenty of time and money to spend foolishly.

THE 4 TYPES OF SENTENCE

1. Declarative
2. Interrogative
3. Imperative
4. Exclamative.

- Declarative Sentences: Used to make statements or relay

information.
- Imperative Sentences: Used to make a command or a direct
instruction.
- Interrogative Sentences: Used to ask a question.
- Exclamatory Sentences: Used to express a strong emotion.

The 4 Types of Sentence Structure

1. Simple
2. Compound
3. Complex
4. Compound-Complex
Each sentence is defined by the use of independent and dependent
clauses, conjunctions, and subordinators.

- Simple Sentences: A simple sentence is an independent clause

with no conjunction or dependent clause.

- Compound Sentences: A compound sentence is two independent

clauses joined by a conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so).

- Complex Sentences: A complex sentence contains one

independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The clauses
in a complex sentence are combined with conjunctions and
subordinators, terms that help the dependent clauses relate to the
independent clause. Subordinators can refer to the subject (who,
which), the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements
(because, if) of the independent clause.

- Compound-Complex Sentences: A compound-complex sentence

contains multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause. These sentences will contain both conjunctions and
subordinators.

Direct Object

- In a sentence, the direct object is the noun or noun phrase that's

receiving the action of the verb. The basic construction works like
this: Subject + Verb + Who or What.

Indirect Object

- An indirect object is an object that is used with a transitive verb to

indicate who benefits from an action or gets something as a result.
For example, in 'She gave him her address. ', 'him' is the indirect
object. Compare direct object.
 - An object that represents the person or thing that receives what is
being given or done. The word "me" in "you gave me the book" is an
indirect object.

Reported Speech
Here is the structure that we use to "report" what another person has
said.

Parenthetical Expression
Words added to a sentence without changing its meaning or grammar.

Grammatical Category
Including number, case, gender, tense, aspect etc.

CLAUSES | INDEPENDENT & DEPENDENT

An Independent Clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete

thought.

A Dependent Clause contains a subject and a verb,

but no complete thought.

VOICES | PASSIVE & ACTIVE

 - Refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a subject performs
the action or is the receiver of the action. When the subject
performs the Action it is active voice and when the subject
receives the action it is passive voice.

Examples

Active He loves me.

Passive - I am loved by him.

In the above example of active voice, the subject is “he”, “loves” is the
verb and “me” is the object. In the example of the passive voice
sentence, “I” is the subject, “am loved” is the verb and “him’ is the
object.

What’s the difference between active and passive voice?

Active voice

When the subject of a sentence performs the verb’s action, we say that
the sentence is in the active voice. Sentences in the active voice have a
strong, direct, and clear tone. Here are some short and straightforward
examples of active voice.

Active voice examples

- Monkeys adore bananas.

- The cashier counted the money.
- The dog chased the squirrel.

All three sentences have a basic active voice construction: subject, verb,
and object. The subject monkey performs the action described by adore.
The subject the cashier performs the action described by counted. The
subject the dog performs the action described by chased. The subjects
are doing, doing, doing—they take action in their sentences. The active
voice reminds us of the popular Nike slogan, “Just Do It.”

Passive voice

A sentence is in the passive voice, on the other hand, when the subject is
acted on by the verb. The passive voice is always constructed with a
conjugated form of to be plus the verb’s past participle. Doing this
usually generates a preposition as well. That sounds much more
complicated than it is—passive voice is actually quite easy to detect. For
these examples of passive voice, we will transform the three active
sentences above to illustrate the difference.

Passive voice examples

- Bananas are adored by monkeys.

- The money was counted by the cashier.
- The squirrel was chased by the dog.

Let’s take a closer look at the first pair of sentences, “Monkeys adore
bananas” and “Bananas are adored by monkeys.” The active sentence
consists of monkeys (subject) + adore (verb) + bananas (object). The
passive sentence consists of bananas (object) + are adored (a form of to
be plus the past participle adored) + by (preposition)
+ monkeys (subject). Making the sentence passive flipped the structure
and necessitated the preposition by. In fact, all three of the transformed
sentences above required the addition of by.

When to use active and passive voice?

Using the active voice conveys a strong, clear tone and the passive voice
is subtler and weaker. Here’s some good advice: don’t use the passive
voice just because you think it sounds a bit fancier than the active voice.
That said, there are times the passive voice is useful and called for. Take
“The squirrel was chased by the dog,” for example. That sentence
construction would be helpful if the squirrel were the focus of your
writing and not the dog.

A good rule of thumb is to try to put the majority of your sentences in the
active voice, unless you truly can’t write your sentence in any other way.

ow to change a sentence in passive voice to active voice

Here is an example of a business communication that could be

strengthened by abandoning the passive voice.

An error has occurred with your account, but every attempt was
made to remedy it.

That sentence is not incorrect, but it does sound a bit stiff and dishonest.
It sounds less trustworthy than it could—almost evasive. Who wants to
do business with a company that avoids taking full responsibility by
slipping into formal passive voice territory? Face the responsibility head
on instead. Own it.

We made an error with your account, but we have made every

attempt to remedy it.

To make that sentence active rather than passive, I identified the

subject: we. It was “our company” that was responsible.

If there are any questions, I can be reached at the number below.

Here’s a tip: What to remember: to change a sentence from passive voice

into active voice, identify the subject.
The structure of this sentence is weak because it doesn’t identify the
subjects in either clause. Let’s unveil them. Who might have questions to
ask? The person being addressed: you. Who will be doing the reaching
(by calling the number below)? It is still the communication’s recipient.

If you have any questions, call me at the number below.

PUNC
TUA
TION
PUNCTUATION!

PERIOD, QUESTION MARK, AND EXCLAMATION POINT.

Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as
sentence endings. They are the period, question mark, and
exclamation point.

- The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences,

statements thought to be complete and after many abbreviations.
As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.
After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on
Dec. 6, 2008.

- Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed

at the end of a sentence.
When did Jane leave for the market?

- The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants to express

a sudden outcry or add emphasis.
Within dialogue: "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.
To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me
furious!

COMMA, SEMICOLON, AND COLON

The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused because they all can
indicate a pause in a series.

- The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within

the structure of a sentence. Additionally, it is used in numbers,
dates, and letter writing after the salutation and closing.
Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.
Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the
movies, and then we went
out to lunch.
 Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi
wanted the black, green, and
blue dress.
- The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It
shows a closer relationship between the clauses than a period
would show.
John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.

- A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word
introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.
He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy,
sociology, and
economics.

The second is between independent clauses when the second explains

the first, similar to a semicolon:

I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.

The third use of a colon is for emphasis:

There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.

A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business

correspondence and references.

DASH AND THE HYPHEN

Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and hyphen. These
marks are often confused with each other due to their appearance but
they are very different.

- A dash is used to separate words into statements.

There are two common types of dashes: en dash and em dash.

 o En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a
symbol (–) that is used in writing or printing to indicate a
range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-1945
or Princeton-New York trains.

o Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be

used in place of a comma, parenthesis, or colon to enhance
readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence.
For example, She gave him her answer — No!

Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just
be consistent.

- A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a

compound term and is not separated by spaces.
For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.

BRACKETS, BRACES, AND PARENTHESES

- Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain

words that are a further explanation or are considered a group.

o Brackets are the squared off notations ([ ]) used for

technical explanations or to
clarify meaning. If you remove the information in the
brackets, the sentence will
still make sense.

Ex. He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.

o Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or

listed items to show that they are considered as a unit. They
are not commonplace in most writing but can be seen in
 computer programming to show what should be contained
within the same lines.

They can also be used in mathematical expressions. For

example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.

o Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain

further thoughts or qualifying remarks. However, parentheses
can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in
most cases.

Ex. John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister)
both have red hair.

APOSTROPHE, QUOTATION MARKS AND ELLIPSIS

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are

the apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. Unlike previously
mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in any
form.

o An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter

or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of
lowercase letters. Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several

times. She wasn't the only one who knew the answer.

Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.

Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to
mind their p's and q's.

It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers

and editors enlarge the scope of the use of apostrophes, and prefer their
use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and capitalized letters (Q&A's), even
though they are not necessary.

o Quotations marks (" ") are a pair of punctuation marks used

primarily to mark the beginning and end of a passage
attributed to another and repeated word for word. They are
also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or
dubious status of a word.

"Don't go outside," she said.

o Single quotation marks (' ') are used most frequently for
quotes within quotes.

Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the playground,

and he said to me 'Bill
started the fight,' and I believed him."

The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (.

. . ) although it is occasionally demonstrated with three
asterisks (***).

The ellipsis is used in writing or printing to indicate an

omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are
frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to
another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere
with the meaning. Students writing research papers or
newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ
ellipsis to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.