IMRAD FORMAT

1. Title Page
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Method and Design
5. Results and Discussion
6. Conclusion and Recommendation
7. References/Appendices

Title Page
a. Title of the Research
b. Full name of the researchers/authors
c. The subject for which the research is presented
d. The college and department of the institution to which the research is presented.
e. The month and year in which the research is submitted

Abstract*
• Nature and Scope of the Paper
• Objective or Purpose
• Research Method
• Results/Findings
• Conclusion

*The Title Page and Abstract are to be completed by the end of the term.

INTRODUCTION

• Trends and Issues

• Research Objectives
• Contribution of the Paper
• Review of Related Literature
• Theoretical Framework
• Conceptual Framework
• Statement of the Problem
• Research Paradigm

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Trends and Issues

• Discuss what is currently happening in the field (societal movements, new
developments, current changes, trends, etc.)

• Explain the rationale why the topic is being researched on

• Identify the research gap

Objectives of the Paper

• Discuss what the researchers plan to do to resolve the issue/s or purpose/s of
the study

Contribution of the paper

• Discuss what will happen once the issues are addressed
• Identify the persons to whom the results of the paper will be relevant

Theoretical Framework
• Provides a strong underpinning or substantive explanation of the main or
central question of the study
• Explain the statement of the theory
• Contextualize the use of theory in the study

Review of Related Literature

• Discuss the synoptic and argumentative part of the study

Conceptual Framework
• Indicate, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied,
the key factors, constructs, or variables and hypotheses.

Statement of the Problem

A research problem statement is a clear, concise, and specific statement that
describes the issue or problem that the research project addresses. It should be
written in a way that is easily understandable to both experts and non-experts in
the field.

Formulation of the statement of the problem in research?

Answer: A statement of a problem is a brief, clear, and precise explanation of an
issue that the researcher wants to study. It includes a vision, issue statement, and
proposed method to solve the problem. The 5 'W's - Who, What, Where, When and
Why - can be used to define a problem statement.

Hypothesis
Hypothesis: an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but
has not yet been proved. In other words, it's a statement that provides an
explanation for why or how something works, based on facts (or some reasonable
assumptions), but that has not yet been specifically tested.

Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing. The null
hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables,
while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or
relationship.

Types of Hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis (H₀): Suggests that there is no significant relationship or effect
between the variables being studied.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Hₐ): Proposes that there is a significant relationship or

effect between the variables. It is the opposite of the null hypothesis.
Hypothesis in Research:
Research Problem: Does consuming caffeine affect sleep quality?

Null Hypothesis (H₀): Caffeine consumption has no effect on sleep quality.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Caffeine consumption decreases sleep quality.
Research Paradigm

 The research paradigm is the framework into which the theories and
practices of your discipline fit to create the research plan. This foundation
guides all areas of your research plan, including the aim of the study,
research question, instruments or measurements used, and analysis
methods.

 There are four different research paradigms available-positivism, realism,

critical theory, and interpretivism. Knowledge of the various research
paradigms will reduce research method bias and allow for better research
instruments.

1. Positivism is a paradigm that relies on measurement and reason, that

knowledge is revealed from a neutral and measurable (quantifiable)
observation of activity, action or reaction. Positivism states that if something
is not measurable in this way it cannot be known for certain.

Typical positivist primary research methods include laboratory experiments,

social surveys, structured questionnaires, and polls.

2. Realist researchers seek to explain the underlying “cause” or mechanisms

that generate observed phenomenon. The realist understanding of how the
world is ontology includes the notion of a hidden or “real” domain where
mechanisms generate forces that result in the phenomena which we observe.

The Realist paradigm focuses on states in their relations with one another.
The theory is situational in that it seeks to explain outcomes and actions of
states in terms of the environment; in particular, realists like to look to
shifting power capabilities to explain international conflict and war.

3. Critical theory is concerned with the critical meanings of experiences as

they relate to gender, race, class and other kinds of social oppression.
Researchers following critical theory methods assume that social reality is
historically created and that it is produced and reproduced by people

An example might be a study analyzing the impact of gender or racial

discrimination on access to and the quality of education. This approach aims
not only to understand educational realities but also to promote social change
and empower marginalized groups through research.

4. Interpretive approaches rely on questioning and observation in order to

discover or generate a rich and deep understanding of the phenomenon
 being investigated. This is closely associated with qualitative methods of data
collection.

The definition of interpretivism is a sociological method of research in which

an action or event is analyzed based on the beliefs, norms, and values of the
culture of the society in which it takes place. It is a qualitative method used
to analyze data related to human actions in sociology.

Research Paradigm: Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Research paradigms are overarching frameworks or philosophies that guide the
design and conduct of research. Two major research paradigms are qualitative
research and quantitative research.

They differ in their approaches to data collection, and analysis, and the types of
questions they seek to answer.

Qualitative Research Paradigm:

Nature of Data: Qualitative research primarily deals with non-numeric data, such
as words, images, or observations. It focuses on understanding the meaning and
context of human experiences.
Data Collection: Qualitative researchers often use methods like interviews, focus
groups, participant observation, and content analysis to collect data.
Analysis: Qualitative data is analyzed through techniques such as thematic analysis,
content analysis, or grounded theory. Researchers aim to identify patterns, themes,
and nuances in the data.
Aim: Qualitative research seeks to gain a deep understanding of social phenomena,
human behavior, and the subjective experiences of individuals. It is exploratory and
often generates rich, descriptive narratives.

Quantitative Research Paradigm:

Nature of Data: Quantitative research deals with numeric data, such as numbers,
statistics, and measurements. It aims to quantify relationships and make
generalizations.
Data Collection: Quantitative researchers use methods like surveys, experiments,
and structured observations to collect data. The data is typically collected from
large samples.
Analysis: Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical techniques, such as
correlation, regression, and hypothesis testing. Researchers aim to identify patterns,
trends, and relationships that can be generalized to a larger population.
Aim: Quantitative research seeks to measure and quantify phenomena, test
hypotheses, and make predictions. It is often used to answer specific research
questions and establish causal relationships.

Chapter 2: METHODS AND DESIGNS

Design
Study Site
Data Measures
 Data Collection Procedure and
Ethical Considerations
Data Analysis

Design
• State the design
• Discuss briefly what the design is all about
• Discuss why the design is the most appropriate to use

Design refers to the overall strategy or blueprint that outlines how a study will be
conducted. It specifies the methods and procedures for collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data to answer the research question or test hypotheses. The research
design ensures that the study is well-structured, efficient, and capable of producing
valid and reliable results.

Types of Research Design

Research designs can be broadly categorized into three types:

 Exploratory Research Design:

Purpose: To explore a topic or phenomenon that is not well understood.
Characteristics: Flexible, unstructured, and focuses on generating insights or
identifying patterns.

 Descriptive Research Design:

Purpose: To describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
Characteristics: Structured, uses quantitative or qualitative methods to provide
detailed information.

 Experimental (Causal) Research Design:

Purpose: To test cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
Characteristics: Involves manipulating independent variables to observe their effect
on dependent variables.

Subject
• Identify the respondents/subject of the study and how they are chosen
• Determine the inclusion/exclusion criteria in the selection of respondents

the subject refers to the individual, group, object, or phenomenon that is being
studied or observed. Subjects are the focus of the research, and the data collected
from or about them helps answer the research question or test hypotheses.

Data Measures
• State the origin, purpose, features, validation, translation and system of
administration

Data measures in research refer to the techniques, scales, or metrics used to

collect, quantify, and interpret data during a study. These measures ensure that the
collected data is reliable, valid, and suitable for analysis, allowing researchers to
draw meaningful conclusions.
Types of Data Measures
Data measures can be categorized based on the type of data and the scale of
measurement:

1. Scales of Measurement
The scales determine how data is categorized, ranked, or quantified.

 Nominal Scale:
Categorizes data into distinct groups with no inherent order.

 Ordinal Scale:
Categorizes data into ordered ranks, but the intervals between ranks are not
uniform.

 Interval Scale:
Measures data on a scale with equal intervals but no true zero point.

 Ratio Scale:
Measures data with equal intervals and a true zero point, allowing for
meaningful comparisons.

2. Quantitative Measures
Involve numerical data that can be counted or measured.

3. Qualitative Measures
Involve non-numerical data that describe qualities or characteristics.

Data Collection Procedure and Ethical Considerations

• Indicate how permission is sought, how informed consent is secured, how
protocols are observed and how long the data gathering lasted

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables

of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated
research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

Data Collection Procedure in research refers to the systematic process of

gathering information or data relevant to the research objectives, questions, or
hypotheses. This procedure ensures that data is collected accurately, consistently,
and ethically, providing a solid foundation for analysis and conclusions.

Data Analysis
• Indicate how data sense making was carried out by identifying the statistical
tools used vis-a-vis its corresponding use

The main purpose of data analysis is to draw conclusions on specific data.

Researchers use these results to draw conclusions on their study. Data analysis is
used to make purposeful discoveries, suggest conclusions, support decision-making,
and support or debunk previous studies.
Data Analysis in Research refers to the process of systematically examining,
organizing, and interpreting collected data to identify patterns, relationships, trends,
or insights that answer research questions or test hypotheses. It is a critical step in
transforming raw data into meaningful conclusions.