21UBCAS67 - MOBILE COMPUTING

Prepared By,
Dr. S. Murugan
Assistant Professor
Dr. M.G.R Arts & Science College for Women
Villupuram

1 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
 UNIT- I
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction- Applications- A Short History of Wireless Communications- Wireless

Transmissions- Frequencies for Radio Transmissions- Signals- Antennas- Signal Propagation-
Multiplexing- Modulations- Amplitude shift keying- Frequency shift Keying – Phase Shift
Keying- Spread Spectrum.

DEFINITION: (Mobile Computing)

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices, along with
wireless communication technologies, to enable the access of information, communication,
and various applications while on the move. It involves the use of devices such as
smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable devices, allowing users to perform computing
tasks regardless of their location.
<<INTRODUCTION>>
The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and satellite
services will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of size, most
mobile computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of the
network, and, perhaps, to other mobile computers. The resulting computing environment,
which is often referred to as mobile or nomadic computing, no longer requires users to
maintain a fixed and universally known position in the network and enables almost
unrestricted mobility. Mobility and portability will create an entire new class of applications
and, possibly, new massive markets combining personal computing and consumer
electronics.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people to
access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:
Fixed and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The devices
use fixed networks for performance reasons.

Mobile and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop
from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone
network and a modem.

2 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings to
avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.

Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who can
roam between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed in this book deal
with this type of device and the networks supporting them. Today’s most successful example
for this category is GSM with more than 800 million users.

<<APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING>>

Mobile computing has a wide range of applications across various domains, impacting both
personal and professional aspects of our lives. Here are some common applications of
mobile computing:
Voice Calls and Messaging: Traditional voice calls and text messaging are fundamental
communication functions on mobile devices.
Video Calls: Mobile devices support video calls, enabling face-to-face communication over
the internet.
Internet Browsing:
Mobile devices provide internet access for web browsing, email, and online services,
allowing users to stay connected wherever they go.
Social Media:
Social networking applications enable users to connect with friends, share updates, and
participate in online communities.

3 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Entertainment:
Mobile computing offers various entertainment options, including streaming music, videos,
games, and e-books.
Navigation and Maps:
GPS-enabled mobile devices provide navigation assistance, real-time traffic updates, and
location-based services.
Health and Fitness:
Mobile apps track health and fitness metrics, monitor exercise routines, and provide
personalized health information.
Mobile Payments:
Mobile wallets and payment apps facilitate cashless transactions, allowing users to make
payments, transfer money, and conduct financial transactions.
Productivity and Business:
Mobile applications enhance productivity with features like document editing, project
management, and collaboration tools.
Business applications enable professionals to access work-related data and perform tasks
remotely.

4 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Education:
Mobile learning apps provide educational content, online courses, and interactive learning
experiences.
E-commerce:
Mobile devices support online shopping, allowing users to browse products, make
purchases, and track deliveries.
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR):
AR and VR applications on mobile devices provide immersive experiences in gaming,
education, and training.
Smart Home Control:
Mobile apps enable users to control smart home devices, such as thermostats, lights, and
security systems, remotely.

<<A SHORT HISTORY OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS>>

There are several smaller steps that take place in leading up to the development of a new
technology . Tracing the development of these earlier discoveries in brief can help us better
understand how this technology actually functions and contributes towards what could be
the next development. A brief review of the history of wireless communications covering
radio, television, radar, satellite, wireless and mobile cellular and other wireless networks
are presented in the following paragraph.

5 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Radio and Television Communications
In 1874, Marconi performed simple experiments to send signals using electromagnetic
waves at short distances of only about 100 meters. At that time scientists and experts
believed that electromagnetic waves could only be transmitted in a straight line, and the
main obstacle to radio transmission was the curvature of the earth’s surface. Finally Marconi
successfully experimented to prove that electromagnetic wave transmission was possible
between two distant points even through obstacles in between.
Radar Communication
Radar has been recognized as one of the greatest scientific developments of the first half of
the 20th century. The first practical radar system was produced in 1935 by the British
physicist Robert Watson-Watt. Radar is an active remote-sensing system that operates on
the principle of echoes. A Radar display shows a map like picture of the area being scanned.
The centre of the picture corresponds to the radar antenna and the radar echoes are shown
as bright spots on the screen.
Satellite Communication
A satellite is an object that orbits or revolves around another object. Satellites can be sent
into space through a variety of launch vehicles. Sir Isaac Newton in the 1720s was probably
the first person to conceive the idea of a satellite. In 1945, Arthur C Clarke a science fiction
envisioned a network of a communication satellite. Three satellites would be able to
transmit signals around the world by transmitting in a line-of-sight direction with other
orbiting satellites.
Cellular Communication
In 1946, American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) introduced the first American commercial
mobile radio telephone service to private customers. It consisted of a central transmitter
with one antenna which could serve a wide area.

<<WIRELESS TRANSMISSION>>
Wireless transmission refers to the communication of data between devices without the
need for physical connections or cables. It plays a crucial role in various technologies,
including radio communication, mobile networks, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and more. Here are
some key points to note about wireless transmission:

6 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Electromagnetic Waves:
Wireless transmission relies on the propagation of electromagnetic waves, such as radio
waves, microwaves, and infrared waves, through the air or a vacuum.

Frequency and Wavelength:

The frequency and wavelength of electromagnetic waves determine their characteristics.
Higher frequencies often correspond to shorter wavelengths, impacting factors like signal
range and penetration through obstacles.
Propagation and Signal Strength:
Electromagnetic waves can experience attenuation (weakening) as they travel through the
air, water, or other materials. Signal strength decreases with distance and can be influenced
by obstacles like buildings and foliage.

7 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Modulation:
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal's properties (such as amplitude,
frequency, or phase) to encode information. Demodulation at the receiving end extracts the
original information.
Wireless Communication Technologies:
Radio Communication:
Involves the transmission of signals via radio waves. Examples include AM and FM radio, as
well as two-way radio communication.
Cellular Networks: Mobile communication relies on cellular networks, such as 2G, 3G, 4G,
and 5G, to provide voice and data services to mobile devices.
Wi-Fi: Enables wireless local area networking, allowing devices to connect to the internet
and communicate with each other within a specific range.
Bluetooth: A short-range wireless communication standard for connecting devices like
smartphones, headphones, and IoT devices.

8 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Propagation Modes:
Ground Wave Propagation: Low-frequency waves that follow the Earth's curvature, suitable
for long-distance communication.

Sky Wave Propagation: High-frequency waves that can be reflected by the ionosphere,
enabling long-distance communication.

Line-of-Sight Propagation: Higher-frequency waves requiring a clear line of sight between

transmitter and receiver. Common in microwave communication.

9 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Satellite Communication:
Involves the use of artificial satellites to relay signals between ground stations. It enables
global communication and broadcasting.
Multipath Interference:
Reflection, diffraction, and scattering of signals can result in multiple paths for a signal to
reach the receiver. This multipath interference can lead to signal distortion and fading.
Security Concerns:
Wireless transmission may be susceptible to interception or unauthorized access. Encryption
and security protocols are implemented to safeguard transmitted data.
Advancements and Future Trends:
Ongoing advancements in wireless technology include the deployment of 5G networks,
which offer higher data speeds, lower latency, and support for a massive number of
connected devices.
Emerging technologies such as terahertz communication and wireless power transmission
hold promise for the future.

<<FREQUENCIES OF RADIO TRANSMISSIONS>>

Radio transmissions cover a broad range of frequencies, and different frequency bands are
allocated for various applications to avoid interference and ensure efficient use of the radio
spectrum. The radio frequency spectrum is typically divided into different bands, each with
its characteristics and applications. Here are some common frequency bands used for radio
transmissions:

10 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Very Low Frequency (VLF):
Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 30 kHz
Applications: Submarine communication, time signals, and navigation.

Low Frequency (LF):

Frequency Range: 30 kHz to 300 kHz
Applications: Long-range navigation, AM radio broadcasting.
Medium Frequency (MF):
Frequency Range: 300 kHz to 3 MHz
Applications: AM radio broadcasting, maritime communication.
High Frequency (HF):
Frequency Range: 3 MHz to 30 MHz
Applications: Shortwave broadcasting, amateur radio, aviation, maritime communication.
Very High Frequency (VHF):
Frequency Range: 30 MHz to 300 MHz
Applications: FM radio broadcasting, television broadcasting, air traffic control, marine and
land mobile communication.

11 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Ultra High Frequency (UHF):
Frequency Range: 300 MHz to 3 GHz
Applications: Television broadcasting, satellite communication, mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and
cordless phones.
Super High Frequency (SHF):
Frequency Range: 3 GHz to 30 GHz
Applications: Satellite communication, microwave ovens, certain types of radar.

Extremely High Frequency (EHF):

Frequency Range: 30 GHz to 300 GHz
Applications: Satellite communication, millimeter-wave radar, and research applications.

12 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
 <<SIGNALS>>
Signals are the physical representation of data. Users of a communication system can only
exchange data through the transmission of signals. Layer 1 of the ISO/OSI basic reference
model is responsible for the conversion of data, i.e., bits, into signals and vice versa Signal
parameters represent the values.
The most interesting types of signals for radio transmission are periodic signals, especially
sine waves as carriers.
A typical way to represent signals is the time domain (see Figure 2.2).

13 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Here the amplitude A of a signal is shown versus time (time is mostly measured in seconds s,
amplitudes can be measured in, e.g., volt V). This is also the typical representation known
from an oscilloscope. A phase shift can also be shown in this representation.
Representations in the time domain are problematic if a signal consists of many different
frequencies (as the Fourier equation indicates). In this case, a better representation of a
signal is the frequency domain (see Figure 2.3). Here the amplitude of a certain frequency
part of the signal is shown versus the frequency.
Figure 2.3 only shows one peak and the signal consists only of a single frequency part

A third way to represent signals is the phase domain shown in Figure 2.4. This
representation, also called phase state or signal constellation diagram, shows the amplitude
M of a signal and its phase φ in polar coordinates. (The length of the vector represents the
amplitude, the angle the phase shift.) The x-axis represents a phase of 0 and is also called In-
Phase (I). A phase shift of 90° or π/2 would be a point on the y-axis, called Quadrature (Q).

14 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
 <<ANTENNAS>>
As the name wireless already indicates, this communication mode involves ‘getting rid’ of
wires and transmitting signals through space without guidance. We do not need any
‘medium’ (such as an ether) for the transport of electromagnetic waves.
Somehow, we have to couple the energy from the transmitter to the out side world and, in
reverse, from the outside world to the receiver. This is exactly what antennas do. Antennas
couple electromagnetic energy to and from space to and from a wire or coaxial cable (or any
other appropriate conductor).
A theoretical reference antenna is the isotropic radiator, a point in space radiating equal
power in all directions, i.e., all points with equal power are located on a sphere with the
antenna as its center. The radiation pattern is symmetric in all directions (see Figure 2.5, a
two dimensional cross-section of the real three-dimensional pattern).

However, such an antenna does not exist in reality. Real antennas all exhibit directive effects,
i.e., the intensity of radiation is not the same in all directions from the antenna. The simplest
real antenna is a thin, center-fed dipole, also called Hertzian dipole, as shown in Figure 2.6
(right-hand side). The dipole consists of two collinear conductors of equal length, separated
by a small feeding gap.

15 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
A λ/2 dipole has a uniform or omni-directional radiation pattern in one plane and a figure
eight pattern in the other two planes as shown in Figure 2.7. This type of antenna can only
overcome environmental challenges by boosting the power level of the signal. Challenges
could be mountains, valleys, buildings etc.

If an antenna is positioned, e.g., in a valley or between buildings, an omnidirectional

radiation pattern is not very useful. In this case, directional antennas with certain fixed
preferential transmission and reception directions can be used. Figure 2.8 shows the
radiation pattern of a directional antenna with the main lobe in the direction of the x-axis. A
special example of directional antennas is constituted by satellite dishes.

Directed antennas are typically applied in cellular systems as presented in section 2.8.
Several directed antennas can be combined on a single pole to construct a sectorized
antenna. A cell can be sectorized into, for example, three or six sectors, thus enabling
frequency reuse as explained in section 2.8. Figure 2.9 shows the radiation patterns of these
sectorized antennas

16 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Two or more antennas can also be combined to improve reception by counteracting the
negative effects of multi-path propagation (see section 2.4.3).
These antennas, also called multi-element antenna arrays, allow different diversity schemes.
One such scheme is switched diversity or selection diversity, where the receiver always uses
the antenna element with the largest output. Diversity combining constitutes a combination
of the power of all signals to produce gain. The phase is first corrected (cophasing) to avoid
cancellation. As shown in Figure 2.10, different schemes are possible

A more advanced solution is provided by smart antennas which combine multiple antenna
elements (also called antenna array) with signal processing to optimize the
radiation/reception pattern in response to the signal environment. These antennas can
adapt to changes in reception power, transmission conditions and many signal propagation

<<SIGNAL PROPAGATION>>
Signal propagation refers to the transmission and distribution of signals through a medium,
such as air, space, or a physical transmission medium like a cable or fiber optic. In the
context of mobile computing and communication, signal propagation specifically refers to
the way electromagnetic signals, such as radio waves or microwaves, travel through the air
or other transmission media to reach their destination. The study of signal propagation
involves understanding how signals change in strength, quality, and characteristics as they
travel from a transmitter to a receiver.
For wireless transmission, this predictable behavior is only valid in a vacuum, i.e., without
matter between the sender and the receiver. The situation would be as follows (Figure 2.11):

17 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Transmission range: Within a certain radius of the sender transmission is possible, i.e., a
receiver receives the signals with an error rate low enough to be able to communicate and
can also act as sender.
● Detection range: Within a second radius, detection of the transmission is possible, i.e., the
transmitted power is large enough to differ from background noise. However, the error rate
is too high to establish communication.
● Interference range: Within a third even larger radius, the sender may interfere with other
transmission by adding to the background noise. A receiver will not be able to detect the
signals, but the signals may disturb other signals
Path loss of radio signals
In free space radio signals propagate as light does (independently of their frequency), i.e.,
they follow a straight line (besides gravitational effects). If such a straight line exists between
a sender and a receiver it is called line-of-sight (LOS).
Depending on the frequency, radio waves can also penetrate objects. Generally the lower
the frequency, the better the penetration. Long waves can be transmitted through the
oceans to a submarine while high frequencies can be blocked by a tree. The higher the
frequency, the more the behavior of the radio waves resemble that of light – a phenomenon
which is clear if one considers the spectrum shown in Figure 2.1.
Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviors depending on their
frequency:
● Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves with low frequencies follow the earth’s surface and can
propagate long distances. These waves are used for, e.g.,

18 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
submarine communication or AM radio.
● Sky wave (2–30 MHz): Many international broadcasts and amateur radio use these short
waves that are reflected2 at the ionosphere. This way the waves can bounce back and forth
between the ionosphere and the earth’s surface, travelling around the world.
● Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Mobile phone systems, satellite systems, cordless telephones etc.
use even higher frequencies. The emitted waves follow a (more or less) straight line of sight.
This enables direct communication with satellites (no reflection at the ionosphere) or
microwave links on the ground. However, an additional consideration for ground-based
communication is that the waves are bent by the atmosphere due to refraction Additional
signal propagation effects Mobile phones are typically used in big cities with skyscrapers, on
mountains, inside buildings, while driving through an alley etc. Hare several effects occur in
addition to the attenuation caused by the distance between sender and receiver, which are
again very much frequency dependent.
An extreme form of attenuation is blocking or shadowing of radio signals due to large
obstacles (see Figure 2.12, left side). The higher the frequency of a signal, the more it
behaves like light. Even small obstacles like a simple wall, a truck on the street, or trees in an
alley may block the signal.
Another effect is the reflection of signals as shown in the middle of Figure 2.12. If an object
is large compared to the wavelength of the signal, e.g., huge buildings, mountainsor the
surface of the earth, the signal is reflected. The reflected signal is not as strong as the
original, as objects can absorb some of the signal’s power. Reflection helps transmitting
signals as soon as no LOS exists.
This is the standard case for radio transmission in cities or mountain areas. Signals
transmitted from a sender may bounce off the walls of buildings several times before they
reach the receiver. The more often the signal is reflected, the weaker it becomes. Figure 2.12
shows the effect of refraction.

This effect occurs because the velocity of the electromagnetic waves depends on the density
of the medium through which it travels.

19 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
While shadowing and reflection are caused by objects much larger than the wavelength of
the signals (and demonstrate the typical ‘particle’ behavior of radio signals), the following
two effects exhibit the ‘wave’ character of radio signals.
If the size of an obstacle is in the order of the wavelength or less, then waves can be
scattered (see Figure 2.13)

An incoming signal is scattered into several weaker outgoing signals. In school experiments,
this is typically demonstrated with laser light and a very small opening or obstacle, but here
we have to take into consideration that the typical wavelength of radio transmission for, e.g.,
GSM or AMPS is in the order of some 10 cm. Thus, many objects in the environment can
cause these scattering effects. Another effect is diffraction of waves.
Effects like attenuation, scattering, diffraction, and refraction all happen simultaneously and
are frequency and time dependent. It is very difficult to predict the precise strength of
signals at a certain point in space
Multi-path propagation
Together with the direct transmission from a sender to a receiver, the propagation effects
mentioned in the previous section lead to one of the most severe radio channel
impairments, called multi-path propagation. Figure 2.14 shows a sender on the left and one
possible receiver on the right.

20 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Radio waves emitted by the sender can either travel along a straight line, or they may be
reflected at a large building, or scattered at smaller obstacles.

<<MULTIPLEXING>>
Multiplexing is not only a fundamental mechanism in communication systems but also in
everyday life. Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum
or no interference. One example, is highways with several lanes. Many users (car drivers) use
the same medium (the highways) with hopefully no interference (i.e., accidents). This is
possible due to the provision of several lanes (space division multiplexing) separating the
traffic. In addition, different cars use the same medium (i.e., the same lane) at different
points in time (time division multiplexing).
Space division multiplexing
For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions: space, time,
frequency, and code. In this field, the task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency,
and code to each communication channel with a minimum of interference and a maximum
of medium utilization. The term communication channel here only refers to an association of
sender(s) and receiver(s) who want to exchange data.
Figure 2.16 shows six channels ki and introduces a three dimensional coordinate system.

This system shows the dimensions of code c, time t and frequency f. For this first type of
multiplexing, space division multiplexing (SDM), the (three dimensional) space si is also
shown. Here space is represented via circles indicating the interference range

21 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
The space between the interference ranges is sometimes called guard space. Such a guard
space is needed in all four multiplexing schemes presented.
Frequency division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency
dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands as shown in Figure 2.17. Each
channel ki is now allotted its own frequency band as indicated.

Senders using a certain frequency band can use this band continuously. Again, guard spaces
are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping (also called adjacent channel interference).
This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region, where each radio station has
its own frequency.
This very simple multiplexing scheme does not need complex coordination between sender
and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to the specific sender. However, this scheme
also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast 24 hours a day, mobile
communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time
Time division multiplexing
A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM). Here a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of

22 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
time, i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at different points in time (see Figure
2.18). Again, guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to separate the different
periods when the senders use the medium. In our highway example, this would refer to the
gap between two cars. If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel
interference

Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel ki can use a
certain frequency band for a certain amount of time as shown in Figure 2.19. Now guard
spaces are needed both in the time and in the frequency dimension.

23 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
A disadvantage of this scheme is again the necessary coordination between different
senders. One has to control the sequence of frequencies and the time of changing to
another frequency. Two senders will interfere as soon as they select the same frequency at
the same time
Code division multiplexing
While SDM and FDM are well known from the early days of radio transmission and TDM is
used in connection with many applications, code division multiplexing (CDM) is a relatively
new scheme in commercial communication systems. First used in military applications due
to its inherent security features (together with spread spectrum techniques

The main advantage of CDM for wireless transmission is that it gives good protection against
interference and tapping.
Different codes have to be assigned, but code space is huge compared to the frequency
space. Assigning individual codes to each sender does not usually cause problems. The main
disadvantage of this scheme is the relatively high complexity of the receiver

24 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
 <<MODULATIONS>>

A sine wave which already indicates the three basic modulation schemes (typically, the
cosine function is used for explanation):
g(t) = At cos(2π ftt + φt)
This function has three parameters: amplitude At, frequency ft, and phase φt which may be
varied in accordance with data or another modulating signal. For digital modulation, which is
the main topic in this section, digital data (0 and 1) is translated into an analog signal In
wireless networks, however, digital transmission cannot be used. Here, the binary bit-stream
has to be translated into an analog signal first. The three basic methods for this translation
are amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
There are several reasons why this baseband signal cannot be directly transmitted in a
wireless system:
● Antennas: As shown in section 2.3, an antenna must be the order of magnitude of the
signal’s wavelength in size to be effective. For the 1 MHz signal in the example this would
result in an antenna some hundred meters high, which is obviously not very practical for
handheld devices. With 1 GHz, antennas a few centimeters in length can be used.
● Frequency division multiplexing: Using only baseband transmission, FDM could not be
applied. Analog modulation shifts the baseband signals to different carrier frequencies as
required in section 2.5.2. The higher the carrier frequency, the more bandwidth that is
available for many baseband signals.
● Medium characteristics: Path-loss, penetration of obstacles, reflection, scattering, and
diffraction – all the effects discussed in section 2.4 depend heavily on the wavelength of the
signal. Depending on the application, the right carrier frequency with the desired
characteristics has to be chosen: long waves for submarines, short waves for handheld
devices, very short waves for directed microwave transmission etc. As for digital modulation,
three different basic schemes are known for analog modulation: amplitude modulation
(AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
The first step is the digital modulation of data into the analog baseband signal according to
one of the schemes presented in the following sections. The analog modulation then shifts
the center frequency of the analog signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then
transmitted via the antenna

25 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
The receiver (see Figure 2.22) receives the analog radio signal via its antenna and
demodulates the signal into the analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier.
This would be all that is needed for an analog radio tuned in to a radio station For digital
data, another step is needed. Bits or frames have to be detected, i.e., the receiver must
synchronize with the sender. How synchronization is achieved, depends on the digital
modulation scheme. After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the signal represents
a digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the original data.

<<AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING>>

Figure 2.23 illustrates amplitude shift keying (ASK), the most simple digital modulation
scheme. The two binary values, 1 and 0, are represented by two different amplitudes. In the
example, one of the amplitudes is 0 (representing the binary 0). This simple scheme only
requires low bandwidth, but is very susceptible to interference. Effects like multi-path
propagation, noise, or path loss heavily influence the amplitude.
In a wireless environment, a constant amplitude cannot be guaranteed, so ASK is typically
not used for wireless radio transmission. However, the wired transmission scheme with the
highest performance, namely optical transmission, uses ASK. Here, a light pulse may
represent a 1, while the absence of light represents a 0. The carrier frequency in optical
systems is some hundred THz. ASK can also be applied to wireless infra red transmission,
using a directed beam or diffuse light

26 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
 <<FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING>>
A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is frequency shift keying (FSK)
(see Figure 2.24). The simplest form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK), assigns one
frequency f1 to the binary 1 and another frequency f2 to the binary 0. A very simple way to
implement FSK is to switch between two oscillators, one with the frequency f1 and the other
with f2, depending on the input.
To avoid sudden changes in phase, special frequency modulators with continuous phase
modulation, (CPM) can be used. Sudden changes in phase cause high frequencies, which is
an undesired side-effect. A simple way to implement demodulation is by using two bandpass
filters, one for f1 the other for f2. A comparator can then compare the signal levels of the
filter outputs to decide which of them is stronger. FSK needs a larger bandwidth compared
to ASK but is much less susceptible to errors.

<<PHASE SHIFT KEYING>>

27 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
Finally, phase shift keying (PSK) uses shifts in the phase of a signal to represent data. Figure
2.25 shows a phase shift of 180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same happens as the 1
follows the 0).

This simple scheme, shifting the phase by 180° each time the value of data changes, is also
called binary PSK (BPSK). A simple implementation of a BPSK modulator could multiply a
frequency f with +1 if the binary data is 1 and with –1 if the binary data is 0. To receive the
signal correctly, the receiver must synchronize in frequency and phase with the transmitter.
This can be done using a phase lock loop (PLL). Compared to FSK, PSK is more resistant to
interference, but receiver and transmitter are also more complex.

<<SPREAD SPECTRUM>>
Spread spectrum techniques involve spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit data –
which does not make sense at first sight. Spreading the bandwidth has several advantages.
The main advantage is the resistance to narrowband interference. In Figure 2.32, diagram i)
shows an idealized narrowband signal from a sender of user data (here power density dP/df
versus frequency f).
The sender now spreads the signal in step ii), i.e., converts the narrowband signal into a
broadband signal. The energy needed to transmit the signal (the area shown in the diagram)
is the same, but it is now spread over a larger frequency range. The power level of the
spread signal can be much lower than that of the original narrowband signal without losing
data.
Depending on the generation and reception of the spread signal, the power level of the user
signal can even be as low as the background noise. This makes it difficult to distinguish the
user signal from the background noise and thus hard to detect.

28 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram
During transmission, narrowband and broadband interference add to the signal in step iii).
The sum of interference and user signal is received. The receiver now knows how to
despread the signal, converting the spread user signal into a narrowband signal again, while
spreading the narrowband interference and leaving the broadband interference.
In step v) the receiver applies a bandpass filter to cut off frequencies left and right of the
narrowband signal. Finally, the receiver can reconstruct the original data because the power
level of the user signal is high enough, i.e., the signal is much stronger than the remaining
interference. The following sections show how spreading can be performed.

END OF UNIT – I

29 Dr. S. Murugan, Assistant Professor, Dr. M.G.R. Arts & Science College for Women,
Villupuram