UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr.

Saibal Manna

KOE-074 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES 3L:0T:0P 3 Credits

Unit Topics Lectures

Introduction: Various non-conventional energy resources- Introduction,
availability, classification, relative merits and demerits. Solar Cells:
I 8
Theory of solar cells. Solar cell materials, solar cell array, solar cell
power plant, limitations.

Introduction
Energy is the ability of a physical system to perform work. We use energy in our daily lives
from various sources for doing work. We use muscular energy for carrying out physical work,
electrical energy for running multiple appliances, chemical energy for cooking food, etc. For
this, we need to know the different energy sources to obtain energy in its usable form. Energy
is the most basic infrastructure input for economic growth and development of a country. This
article will familiarize you with two important sources of energy: conventional energy and non-
conventional energy.

Classification of Energy Resources (AKTU 2015-2016)

1. Based on Usability of Energy

(a) Primary Resources: These are resources embodied in nature prior to undergoing any
human made conversions or transformations. Examples of primary energy resources
are coal, crude oil, sunlight, wind, running rivers, vegetation, uranium, etc. These
resources are generally available in raw forms and are, therefore, known as raw energy
resources. Generally, this form of energy cannot be used as such. These are located,
explored, extracted, processed and are converted to a form as required by the consumer.
Thus, some energy is spent in making the resource available to a user in a usable form.
The energy yield ratio of an energy extraction process is defined as follows:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
Only resource for which the energy yield ratio is fairly high are considered worthy of
exploration.
(b) Intermediate Resources: These are obtained from primary energy by one or more
steps of transformation and are used a vehicle of energy.

(c) Secondary Resources: The form of energy which is finally supplied to a consumer for
utilization is known as secondary or usable energy, e.g., electrical energy, thermal
energy (in the form of steam or hot water), chemical energy (in the form of hydrogen
or fossil fuels), etc.

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2. Based on Traditional Use

(a) Conventional Energy resources: which are being traditionally used for many decades
and were in common use around the oil crisis of 1973, are called conventional energy
resources, e.g., fossil fuels, nuclear and hydro resources.

(b) Non-conventional Energy resources: which are considered for large-scale use after
the oil crisis of 1973, are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind,
biomass, etc.

3. Based on Long-term Availability

(a) Non-renewable Resources: which are finite and do not get replenished after
consumption are called non-renewable, e.g., fossil fuels, uranium, etc.

(b) Renewable Resources: which are renewed by nature again and again and their supply
is not effected by the rate of their consumption are called renewable, e.g., solar, wind,
biomass, ocean (thermal, tidal and wave), geothermal, hydro, etc.

4. Based on Commercial Application

(a) Commercial Energy Resource: The secondary usable energy forms such as
electricity, petrol, diesel, gas, etc., are essential for commercial activities and are
categorized as commercial energy resources. The economy into commercial depends
on its ability to convert natural raw energy into commercial energy.

(b) Non-commercial Energy: The energy derived from nature and used directly without
passing through a commercial outlet is called a non-commercial resource, e.g., wood,
animal dung cake, crop residue, etc.

5. Based on Origin

(a) Fossil fuels energy

(b) Nuclear energy
(c) Hydro energy
(d) Solar energy
(e) Wind energy
(f) Biomass energy
(g) Geothermal energy
(h) Tidal energy
(i) Ocean thermal energy
(j) Ocean wave energy

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ENERGY CHAIN
Generally, we cannot use the energy available from primary energy sources directly. For
example, we cannot drive an electric motor from uranium or coal. The energy available from a
primary energy source is known as raw energy. This energy undergoes various forms of
transformations before being utilizes finally. The sequence of energy transformations between
primary and secondary energy (usable energy) is known as energy chain or energy route.
Primary energy Electrical energy Consumer
Processing Transmission

Primary energy Secondary energy (fuel) Consumer

Processing Transported by
rail/road/ocean/pipeline

At present about 30-40% of the world’s energy supply is met through the electrical-energy
route.
Non-electric
route

Primary Final energy

energy consumption
resource

Electric route

Fig.1. Energy routes

COMMON FORMS OF ENERGY

1. Mechanical Energy: Mechanical Energy is required for movement of objects,
changing the shape of the objects, and so on. It is used in transportation, agriculture,
handling, processing, and other industrial processes.

2. Electrical Energy: Electrical Energy is considered to be the top-grade form of energy.

It is used universally as a vehicle of energy. About 30-40% energy distribution in the
world is met through electrical supply systems at present. It can be very conveniently
and efficiently converted to other forms of energy.

3. Thermal Energy: It is used to raise the temperature of an object during industrial

processes. It can also be converted to mechanical energy with the help of heat engines.
There are three grades of thermal energy:

o (a) High Grade (500-1000 ̊C and higher): Can be converted efficiently

mechanical energy.

o (b) Medium Grade (150-500 ̊C): Can be converted into mechanical energy
with difficulty.

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o (c) Low Grade (80-150 ̊C): Cannot be converted efficiently into mechanical
energy and is used mostly for heating purposes.

4. Chemical Energy: Fuels and organic matter contain chemical energy. Exothermic
chemical reactions release het energy. Also, chemical energy is directly converted into
electrical energy in fuel cells, storage batteries, etc., and into thermal energy by
combustion.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY SOURCES (AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19, 2021-22)

Fossil fuels, nuclear and hydro resources are considered as conventional sources. Their use has
the following advantages and disadvantages.

A. Advantages

1. Reliability – Conventional sources of energy such as coal, oil, and natural gas are
relatively easy to extract, transport and use, which makes them a reliable source of
energy.

2. Affordability – Conventional sources of energy are typically less expensive to produce

than renewable sources of energy.

3. Widely available – Conventional sources of energy are widely available around the
world, making them a convenient source of energy for many countries.

4. High energy density – Conventional sources of energy have a high energy density,
which means they can provide a lot of energy from a small amount of fuel.

5. High efficiency – Conventional sources of energy such as coal and natural gas can be
used in power plants to generate electricity with high efficiency.

B. Disadvantages

1. Environmental Impact – Conventional sources of energy such as coal, oil, and natural
gas are a major contributor to pollution and climate change. They release harmful
chemicals and greenhouse gases into the air, which can harm the environment and human
health.

2. Non-Renewable – Conventional sources of energy are non-renewable, which means

they will eventually run out. Once the resources are depleted, they cannot be replaced.

3. High Carbon Footprint – Conventional sources of energy have a high carbon footprint,
which means they emit large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This
contributes to climate change and global warming.

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4. Costly – Conventional sources of energy can be costly to extract and transport, and the
price of these energy sources can fluctuate dramatically.

5. Geopolitical Issues – Because conventional sources of energy are often located in

specific regions of the world, the control and distribution of these resources can lead to
geopolitical issues and conflicts.

6. Safety of nuclear plants is a controversial subject. The major problems with nuclear
energy are the following:
a) The waste material generated in nuclear plants has radioactivity quotients of
dangerous levels, it remains above the safe limit for a long period of time, and
thus is a health hazard. Its safe disposal, which is essential to prevent radioactive
pollution, is a challenging task. Also, the disposed radioactive waste is required
to be guarded for a long period (till its radioactivity level comes down to a safe
limit) lest it goes in wrong hand.
b) There is possibility of accidental leakage of radioactive material from reactor as
happened in Chernobyl, former USSR, in April 1986)
c) Uranium resource, for which the technology presently exists, has a limited
availability.
d) Sophisticated technology is required for using nuclear resources. Only few
countries possess the technology required to use nuclear energy.

Due to these serious disadvantages, Sweden has banned new nuclear plants since 1984 and
has planned to dismantle the existing plants in phased manner.

7. Hydroelectric plants are cleanest but large hydro reservoirs cause the following
problems:
a) A large land area submerges into water leading to deforestation.
b) Causes ecological disturbances such as earthquakes.
c) Affects wildlife.
d) Causes dislocation of a large population and their rehabilitation.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY SOURCES (AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19, 2021-22)

A. Advantages

1. Renewability – Non-conventional sources of energy, such as solar, wind, and hydro

power, are renewable, meaning they can be replenished naturally and will not run out.

2. Non-conventional sources of energy, such as solar, wind, and hydro power, are
renewable, meaning they can be replenished naturally and will not run out. – Non-
conventional sources of energy produce little to no carbon emissions, making them a
cleaner and more sustainable option for generating power.

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3. Cost-effective – The cost of non-conventional sources of energy such as solar and wind
power have decreased significantly in recent years, making them more cost-effective
than ever before.

4. Widely Available – Non-conventional sources of energy are widely available and can
be harnessed from almost anywhere, making them accessible to many regions and
countries.

5. Diversification – Non-conventional sources of energy provide an opportunity for

diversification of energy sources, reducing dependence on any one source of energy and
increasing overall energy security.

B. Disadvantages

1. Weather Dependency – Non-conventional sources of energy such as solar and wind

power rely heavily on the weather, which can make it difficult to generate consistent and
reliable power.

2. High Initial Investment – The initial investment required to set up non-conventional

energy systems can be quite high, which may not be feasible for some individuals or
organizations.

3. Inefficient Storage – Non-conventional energy sources such as solar and wind power
are often generated in large amounts during peak times, but storage options for this
excess energy may not be efficient or cost-effective.

4. Limited Capacity – Non-conventional sources of energy have a limited capacity when

compared to conventional sources such as coal and natural gas, which can limit their
overall potential.

5. Environmental Impact – Non-conventional energy sources can also have negative

environmental impacts, such as large-scale hydroelectric dams that can cause habitat
destruction and displace local communities.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND NON-

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

Basis of Conventional Energy Sources Non-Conventional Energy

Difference Sources
The sources of energy that have been Those energy sources whose
used all around the world for a long evolution has been done the recent
Definition time are called conventional energy years are known as non-
sources. conventional energy sources.

Conventional energy sources exist The non-conventional energy

Existence for many years. sources are relatively new sources
of energy.

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Conventional sources of energy are Non-conventional sources are

Renewability generally non-renewable sources. renewable sources of energy.
Conventional sources of energy Since non-conventional sources are
Availability available in limited quantity in renewable, hence they available in
nature. abundance in nature.
Conventional energy sources require Non-conventional energy sources
Formation many year (or long period of time) can be formed in short period of
for formation. time.
Conventional energy sources shall Non-conventional energy sources
Exhaustible exhaust one day. shall not exhaust because they are
renewable.
The common examples of The examples of non-conventional
conventional sources of energy are energy sources are sun, wind, tides,
Examples coal, petroleum, natural gas, water, biofuels, etc.
firewood, etc.
There are many safety concerns With non-conventional energy
surrounding the conventional sources sources, no such safety concerns
Safety
such as fire in coal mines, explosion associated.
concerns
on oil platforms, burst of gas
cylinders, etc.
Energy Conventional sources of energy have The energy density of non-
density high energy density. conventional energy sources is less.
Conventional sources are generally Non-conventional energy sources
Obtained from obtained from the earth crest. are present in the environment such
sun, wind, water, biomass, etc.
Most of the conventional energy Non-conventional energy sources
Environmental sources pollute the environment and are environment friendly and do
impact cause global warming. not cause pollution.

Conventional energy sources are Non-conventional are relatively

Cost expensive. less expensive.

Conventional energy sources are Non-conventional sources are used

mainly used at large scale in at small scale in domestic and
Applications commercial and industrial specific commercial and industrial
applications such in thermal power applications such as solar power for
plants, fuel in vehicles, etc. houses, offices, etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ENERGY

i. Trade-off between Energy and Environment
Environment literally means surroundings. Air, soil and water are the main constituents of
environment. Nature has originally provided them to human being in clear form. However,
with passage of time, their quality is continuously being degraded due to various manmade

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reasons. The chief among them are a number of activities involving energy generation and its
utilization. During every energy conversion process, some energy is expelled by energy
conversion system into surroundings in the form of heat. Also, some pollutants may be
produced as a by-product of this process. Both of these cause degradation of environment. To
create public awareness about environment conservation 5th June is observed as WORLD
ENVIRONMENT DAY.
ii. Ecology
Ecology deals with the relationship between living organisms (man, animal. Plants and
vegetation) and the environment. Normally, nature has self-cleaning capability and recycles its
resources through various processes, thus maintaining a state of equilibrium. However, when
human interference exceeds natural limits, the ecological balance gets disturbed.

iii. Greenhouse effect: (AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19, 2021-22)

Ø A greenhouse is an enclosure having transparent glass panes or sheets as shown in Fig. 2.

Ø It behaves differently for incoming visible (short wave) radiations and outgoing infrared
(long wave) radiations.
Ø It is transparent for incoming solar radiation, allows entry of sunlight and becomes largely
opaque for reflected infrared radiation from the earth’s surface, thus preventing the exit of
heat.
Ø Hence, it maintains a controlled warmer environment inside the growth of plants in places
where the climate is very cold.

Fig.2. Greenhouse

Ø The CO2 envelope present around the globe in the atmosphere behaves similar to a glass
pane and forms a big global greenhouse.
Ø This tends to prevent the escape of heat from the earth, which leads to global warming.
This phenomenon is known as greenhouse effect.
Ø At present (year 2008), its concentration in the atmosphere is 385 ppm (parts per million)
by volume. It is due to this effect that the earth maintains an average surface temperature
of 15 ̊C that is hospitable to life.
Ø In the absence of the layer, the earth would be a frozen planet at about -25 ̊C (the
temperature of the outer atmosphere).
Ø However, any further increase in the concentration of CO2 from the present level will upset
the temperature balance and would cause further warming of the globe, which may have
disastrous consequences.
Ø Apart from CO2, other harmful gases include methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons,
sulphur hexafluoride and water vapour.
Ø All these gases are known as greenhouse gases. The CO2 emission from developed
countries accounts for 82% of the total greenhouse gas emission of the world.

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iv. Consequences of Global Warming (AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19, 2021-22)

Global warming is caused mainly due to the emission of excessive CO2 due to burning of fossil
fuels in industry, burning of woods and also due to agricultural practices. This trend is leading
to the melting of polar snow-caps, which accounts for more than 90% of the world’s ice.
Melting of the polar snow-caps would, in turns, increase the level of oceans and would possibly
redefine ocean boundaries inundating low-lying areas and smaller islands. During the last 100
years, the earth’s temperature has increased about half a degree Celsius and sea levels have
risen 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20cm). Experts have predicted more frequent and severe heat waves,
more intense tropical cyclones, changes in rainfall patterns, melting of ice and glaciers at
mountains, thus causing floods, followed by decline of water supplies and an increased
incidence of vector-borne decreases like malaria.

The earth is already showing many signs of worldwide climate change.

• Average temperatures have climbed 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.8 degree Celsius) around
the world since 1880, much of this in recent decades, around to NASA’s Goddard Institute
for Space Studies.

• The Arctic is feeling the most severe effects. Average temperature in Alaska, western
Canada, and eastern Russia have risen at twice the global average, according to the
multinational Arctic Climate Impact Assessment report complied between 2000 and 2004.

POLLUTION
a) Indoor pollution: Indoor pollution is mainly caused due to use of conventional chulbas
in rural areas. About 500000 children and women die from diseases caused due to
indoor air pollution each year. This requires the need of improved household stoves to
reduce indoor pollution.
b) Outdoor pollution: It is mainly caused due to use of fossil fuels. Coal and oil are more
pollutant than gas.
Remedy
i. Use of fossil fuels should be slowly decreased.
ii. Clean alternative fuels such as hydrogen should be used.
iii. EV or BEV should be used in place of IC-engine based vehicles.

VARIOUS POLLUTANTS AND THEIR HARMFUL EFFECTS

I. Particulate Matter

• Reduce sunlight
• Reduces visibility
• A level above 100 µg/m3 (yearly average) results in respiratory problems.
• A level above 300 µg/m3 (yearly average) results in bronchitis.
The annual average permissible limit is 75 µg/m3

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Fig. 3. Causes and effects of pollution

II. CO2
It is not considered a toxic gas. It is essential for photosynthesis and production of essential
oxygen and organic matter in nature. But increased concentration of CO2 adversely affects the
global climate. Excess emission of CO2 in the atmosphere causes global warming due to
greenhouse effect.
During 1940, CO2 in air was less than 312ppm. During 1960, it rose to 318ppm and by 200 it
rose to about 350ppm. The increase CO2 level is mainly due to (a) large scale combustion of
fossil fuel (b) felling of trees for urbanization, agriculture and industrialization.

III. CO
CO is formed due to incomplete burning of carbon in inadequate air. It seriously impairs the
oxygen-dependent tissues in the body, particularly the brain, heart and skeletal muscles. CO
concentration of 100 ppm causes headache, 500 ppm causes collapse and 1000 ppm is fatal.
Smokers inhale CO concentration of 400 to 450 ppm.

IV. SOX
The presence of SO2 in the air is mainly due to manmade reasons involving combustion of
fuels containing sulphur. The contribution from various sources is as follows:
Power plants 70%
Industry 15%
Motor vehicles 8%
Solid waste disposal 5%
Others 2%

SO2 can further oxidise to form sulphur trioxide, which in turn forms sulphuric acid when
absorbed in water.
The annual average safe limit is 80 µg/m3

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Harmful Effects:
i. Causes respiratory decreases including asthma and the irritates eyes and respiratory track.
ii. Causes acid rain, which are harmful to agriculture, forest, vegetation soil and stones (and
thus to buildings)
iii. Causes corrosion of metals, deterioration of electrical contacts, paper, textile, building
stones, etc.

V. NOX
Oxides of nitrogen such as N2O, NO, NO2, N2O3 are commonly referred as NOX. About 80%
of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere are produced due to natural causes (biological reactions)
and about 20% due to manmade causes-mostly due to combustion process in air at high
temperature. NOX is formed by the interaction of nitrogen and oxygen at high temperature.
Manmade causes include:
Motor vehicles 7%
Industry 7%
Power plants 4%
Solid waste 2%

The annual average safe limit is 100 µg/m3

Harmful Effects:
i. Causes respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses.
ii. It deprives the body tissues of oxygen.
iii. It also forms acid in lungs and therefore is more toxic than CO.

SOURCES OF ENERGY (AKTU 2015-16)

The two major sources of energy are classified as:

• Conventional Sources
• Non-Conventional Sources

• Conventional Sources of energy

The sources of energy that are in use for long periods of time by humans and once finished
cannot be replaced quickly are called conventional sources of energy. For example, Coal,
petroleum, etc.

• Non-Conventional Sources of energy

The sources of energy that are continuously replenished in nature and are widely available.
They are called non-conventional because till now they are not used extensively in our daily

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life. These sources of energy also do not cause pollution. For example, Solar energy from the
sun, wind energy from the winds, tidal energy, Bio-gas, and so on.

CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY (AKTU 2015-16)

Conventional Sources of Energy are also known as non-renewable sources of energy and are
available in limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power. Further, it is classified under (i)
commercial and (ii) non-commercial energy.
(i) Commercial Energy Sources: Coal, electricity and petroleum are known as
commercial energy since the consumer needs to pay its price to buy them.
(a) Coal: It is a type of fossil fuel which is present beneath the surface of the Earth and was
formed by decomposed organic materials due to the high compression and temperature due to
Earth’s layers. India is the fourth-largest coal-producing country, and the deposits are primarily
found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bengal.
(b) Electricity: It is the most common and essential form of energy which we use in our daily
life. It runs many home appliances like fridges, bulbs, washing machines etc, also used in
commercial buildings and in production units. The major sources of power generation are:

• Nuclear Power
• Thermal Power
• Hydro-electric power

Ø Thermal Power: Thermal power is generated at various power stations utilizing oil and
coal. It is a vital source of electric current, and its share in the nation’s total capacity in
2004-05 was 70 percent.

Ø Hydroelectric Power: Hydroelectric power is produced by constructing dams above

flowing rivers like Damodar Valley Project and Bhakra Nangal Project. The installed
capacity of hydroelectric power was 587.4 MW in 1950-51 and went up to 19600 MW
in 2004-05.

Ø Nuclear Power: The fuel used in nuclear power plants is Uranium, which costs less than
coal. Nuclear power plants can be found in Kaiga (Karnataka), Kota (Rajasthan),
Naroura (UP) and Kalapakam(Chennai).

(c) Natural gas and oil: Oil is considered liquid gold and one of the crucial energy sources in
India and the world. Oil is primarily used in planes, automobiles, trains and ships. The total oil
production in India was 0.3 million tons in 1950-51, which increased up to 32.4 million tons
in 2000-01. It is mainly found in Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai.
(ii) Non-commercial energy sources: The energy resources which are generally
available are free to use. Examples are firewoods, cow dung, and straw. Firewoods
are obtained from the trees and plants, dung is obtained from animal wastes and
straw is obtained from the crop plants like wheat crops, rice crops etc.

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NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY (AKTU 2015-16)

The natural resources that can produce useful energy continuously for a long period of time
and are available again and again for use even after it is exhausted are known as non-
conventional sources of energy or renewable resources of energy. Some types of non-
conventional sources of energy are; sunlight, wind, water flow, and ocean.

Fig.4. Various non-conventional energy sources

(a) Solar Energy: The energy produced by the Sun is referred to as solar energy. It is formed
due to nuclear fission and fusion inside the Sun. This energy travels in the form of radiation
(electromagnetic waves). This energy is collected by some photovoltaic cell panels which
absorb the solar energy and convert it into electricity that can be used for home appliances.

Advantages of solar energy:

1. Renewable Energy Source: Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important
thing is that solar energy is a truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas
of the world and is available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of
the other sources of energy.
2. Reduces Electricity Bills: Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the
electricity your solar system has generated, your energy bills will drop.
3. Diverse Applications: Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can
generate electricity (photovoltaics) or heat (solar thermal).
4. Low Maintenance Costs: Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of
maintenance. Most reliable solar panel manufacturers offer 20-25 years’ warranty. Also, as
there are no moving parts, there is no wear and tear.
5. Technology Development: Technology in the solar power industry is constantly
advancing and improvements will intensify in the future. By opting for solar panels, you’re
not only reducing your energy costs, but you’re also making a positive impact on the
environment.

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Disadvantages of Solar Energy

1. Cost: The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. This includes paying for
solar panels, inverter, batteries, wiring, and the installation.
2. Weather-Dependent: Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy
days, the efficiency of the solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to
effectively gather solar energy.
3. Solar Energy Storage is Expensive: Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can
be stored in large batteries. These batteries, used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be
charged during the day so that the energy is used at night.
4. Uses a Lot of Space: The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you
will need, as you want to collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar PV panels require a
lot of space and some roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you
would like to have.
5. Associated with Pollution: Transportation and installation of solar systems have been
associated with the emission of greenhouse gases. There are also some toxic materials and
hazardous products used during the manufacturing process of solar photovoltaic systems,
which can indirectly affect the environment. Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes far
less than other alternative energy sources.
(b)Wind Energy: Wind energy describes the process by which wind is used to
generate electricity. As the wind increases, power output increases up to the maximum output
of the particular turbine. Wind farms prefer areas, where winds are stronger and constant. These
are generally located at high altitudes.

Fig. 5. Wind energy generation

Advantages of wind energy:

a. Like solar energy, it is also a renewable form of energy.

b. It does not cause any air pollution and global warming by releasing harmful gases.

c. It is space efficient and requires very little space on the land surface and the land between
two windmills can be used for agriculture and other different purposes.

d. Wind power has low operating cost

e. Wind power generation creates new jobs.

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Disadvantages of wind energy:

1. It is very location specific as wind mills cannot be setup in all places. It can only be installed
at places where there are strong winds
2. It is very costly to setup and difficult for repair.
3. Storms and cyclones cause great damage to windmills.

4. Wind energy causes noise and visual pollution

5. Dangerous to some wildlife.

(c) Geo-thermal Energy: Geothermal energy is the heat energy that we get from hot rocks
present in the earth’s crust. In India, only one place is Madhya Pradesh has a hotspot.

Advantages of Geo-thermal energy:

1. Environmentally Friendly: Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than
conventional fuel sources such as coal and other fossil fuels.
2. Renewable: Geothermal energy is a source of renewable energy that will last until the
Earth is destroyed by the sun in around 5 billion years.
3. Huge Potential: Worldwide energy consumption is currently around 15 terawatts, which
is far from the total potential energy available from geothermal sources. While we can’t
currently use most reservoirs there is a hope that the number of exploitable geothermal
resources will increase with ongoing research and development in the industry. It is
currently estimated that geothermal power plants could provide between 0.0035 and 2
terawatts of power.
4. Sustainable / Stable: Geothermal provides a reliable source of energy as compared to other
renewable resources such as wind and solar power. This is because the resource is always
available to be tapped into, unlike with wind or solar energy.
5. Heating and Cooling: Effective use of geothermal for electricity generation requires water
temperatures of over 150°C to drive turbines. Alternatively, the temperature difference
between the surface and a ground source can be used. Due to the ground being more
resistant to seasonal heat changes than the air, it can act as a heat sink/ source with a
geothermal heat pump just two metres below the surface.
6. Reliable: Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does not fluctuate
in the same way as other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This means we can predict
the power output from a geothermal plant with a high degree of accuracy.
7. No Fuel Required: Since geothermal energy is a naturally occurring resource there is no
fuel required, such as with fossil fuels that are a finite resource which needs mining or
otherwise extracting from the earth.
8. Rapid Evolution: There is a great deal of exploration into geothermal energy at the
moment, meaning that new technologies are being created to improve the energy process.
There are an increasing number of projects to improve and grow this area of industry. With
this rapid evolution many of the current cons of geothermal energy will be mitigated
against.

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

Disadvantages of Geo-thermal energy:

1. Location Restricted: The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is
location specific.
2. Environmental Side Effects: Although geothermal energy does not typically release
greenhouse gases, there are many of these gases stored under the Earth’s surface which are
released into the atmosphere during digging. However, these gas emissions are still far
lower than those associated with fossil fuels.
3. Earthquakes: Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due
to alterations in the Earth’s structure as a result of digging. However, since most geothermal
plants are away from population centres, the implications of these earthquakes are relatively
minor.
4. High Costs: Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging
from around $2-$7 million for a plant with a 1 megawatt capacity. However, where the
upfront costs are high, the outlay can be recouped as part of a long-term investment.
5. Sustainability: In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to
be pumped back into the underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that
geothermal energy needs to be properly managed to maintain its sustainability.
(d) Tidal Energy: Tides is the periodic movement of the ocean waters due to the gravitational
force of the moon and the sun. Tides are of two types – high tides i.e. the rise of water and low
tides i.e. the fall in the level of water. Since it is caused due to the sun and the moon’s
gravitational effect, tidal energy is called renewable energy.

Fig.6. Tidal energy generation

Advantages of Tidal Energy:

1. Renewable Source of Energy: The tides on water bodies will always appear at regular
time intervals. This is a source of energy that is going to remain and it can be used
repeatedly without any need for replenishment. We can endlessly use this source of
renewable energy to generate energy according to our needs.

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

2. Environment-friendly: The process of tidal energy production is environmentally

friendly. There is no release of harmful materials or pollution which makes it a clean form
of energy.

3. Tides are predictable: The generation of tides is natural activity depending on the position
of the sun and the moon. So tidal currents are predictable and systems can be created that
work efficiently giving the highest energy yields.

4. Generates energy at low speed: The tidal waves have a higher force than air so they can
produce energy even at a slower speed. This makes it highly effective when compared to
wind energy.

5. Durable Equipment: In contrast to solar or wind farms, tidal power plants have more
durability. The tidal barrages and other concrete structures are very robust and have a
considerably longer lifespan.

6. Saves fossil fuels: The generation of electricity from tidal energy does not require the
burning of any fossil fuels, thereby helping in the conservation of exhaustible fossil fuels
that are already being used in various applications.

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy:

a. Impact on marine life: Tidal barrages control the flow of water that may have an impact
on natural marine lives. The movement of the turbines and the force with which the water
is released can disrupt marine life. In the longer run, it also leads to silt deposition that
affects marine plants and creatures.

b. Maintenance and Corrosion: The constant contact and exposure to saline water can result
in corrosion of machinery. So the systems need to be designed using corrosion-resistant
materials that incur high costs. As tidal energy systems are costly, the aim is to make them
as reliable and trouble-free as possible. Therefore, maintenance remains a regular
requirement.

c. Locational requirements: The tidal energy systems have to be located close to land to get
the advantage of the strongest water currents. Again, there can be restrictions due to
shipping lanes that use the tidal waves. Sometimes the locations are too far from the grid
and involve a high cost to transport energy.

d. Costly Technology: Tidal energy is still under development and not utilized on a large
scale as in other forms of energy. It is still costlier than wind and solar energy and involves
high costs for installation and maintenance.

e. Depends on nature: The energy generation depends on the intensity of tides that may be
low or weak at times. The energy generation may be interrupted due to various other factors
like straight shorelines, frozen seas, and irregular flow of water.

(e) Biomass Energy: The waste and the dead remains of living animals, plants are called bio-
mass. They contain carbon compounds. The chemical energy stored in them is called bio-mass
energy. This form of energy being used by humans from the very early age. Humans burn wood

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

and cattle dung for cooking for a very long time and is continuing till this date. But this method
is not very beneficial as it releases harmful gases into the atmosphere.

A much more advanced and efficient use of biomass is the production of bio-gas from biomass.
The bio-gas is produced by the decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen. Bio-gas
contains nearly 60% methane and rest is carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulfide.

Bio-gas is produced in a large dome shaped plant also called bio-gas plant. In India, however,
these plants are called Gobar Gas plant because the main item form which the bio-gas is
produced here is cow dung (also called gobar in native language).

Advantages of Biomass Energy:

1. Biomass is always and widely available as a renewable source of energy: The organic
materials used to produce biomass are infinite, since our society consistently produces
waste such as garbage, wood and manure.
2. It is carbon neutral: As a natural part of photosynthesis, biomass fuels only release the
same amount of carbon into the atmosphere as was absorbed by plants in the course of their
life cycle.
3. It reduces the overreliance of fossil fuels: Not only is there is a limited supply of fossil
fuels, but fossil fuels come with environmental baggage, including the release of large
amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and the pollutants that result from removal,
transportation and production.
4. Is less expensive than fossil fuels: While fossil fuel production requires a heavy outlay of
capital, such as oil drills, gas pipelines and fuel collection, biomass technology is much
cheaper. Manufacturers and producers are able to generate higher profits from a lower
output.
5. Biomass production adds a revenue source for manufacturers: Producers of waste can
add value by channeling their garbage to create a more profitable use in the form biomass
energy.
6. Less garbage in landfills: By burning solid waste, the amount of garbage dumped in
landfills is reduced by 60 to 90 percent, and reduces the cost of landfill disposal and amount
of land required for landfill.

Disadvantages of Biomass Energy:

1. Biomass energy is not as efficient as fossil fuels: Some biofuels, like Ethanol, is
relatively inefficient as compared to gasoline. In fact, it has to be fortified with fossil
fuels to increase its efficiency.

2. It is not entirely clean: While biomass is carbon neutral, the use of animal and human
waste escalates the amount of methane gases, which are also damaging to the
environment. Additionally, the pollution created from burning wood and other natural
materials can be considered just as bad as that resulting from burning coal and other types
of energy resources.

3. Can lead to deforestation: Since wood is one of the most used source of biomass
energy, vast amounts of wood and other waste products have to be burned to produce the

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desired amount of power. While currently there is enough wood waste already, there is
a risk of deforestation in the future.

4. Biomass plants require a lot of space: While it’s difficult to find a plant that is in a
convenient place in an urban area, utilizing onsite hardware like the BioMax®
technology, companies can create biomass energy at a fraction of the space of a large
facility.

AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES
A. Conventional Resources

1. Fossil fuels:

Fossil fuels are so called because these are in fact the fossils of old biological life that once
existed on the surface of the earth. It is formed in several parts of the earth at varying depths,
during several million years by slow decomposition and chemical actions of buried organic
matter under favourable pressure, heat and bacterial marine environment. The fossil fuels
include coal, oil and gas.

Fossil fuels have been a major source of energy since about 1850, the start of the industrial era.
As per an estimate, if the world continues to consume fossil fuels at year 2006 rates, the
reserves of coal, oil and gas will last 200, 40 and 70 respectively. The locations and estimates
of the world’s main fossil fuel reserves are indicated in Table 1.

Table 1: world’s main fossil fuel reserves as in 2006.

2. Hydro Resources:

Among all renewables, hydro power is the most advanced and flexible source of power. It is a
well-developed and established source of electric power. The global installed generating
capacity of hydro power is about 7,78038 MW, which is accounts for about 20% of the world’s
total installed electric power generation capacity and about 3% of the world’s primary energy

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supply. Five countries make up more than half of the world’s hydro power production: China
(100,000 MW), USA (77,350 MW), Canada (71,978 MW), Brazil (71.060MW) and Russia
(45,000 MW). Norway derives 90% of its required electric power from hydro resources.

3. Nuclear Resources:

U235, U233 (isotopes of uranium) and Pu239 (plutonium) are used as nuclear fuels in nuclear
reactors (thermal reactors) and are known as fissile materials. Uranium reserves in the world
are small and recovery is expensive. Major available sources of uranium are in Australia,
Canada and Kazakhstan and to a lesser extent the USA. Nuclear power is a least-cost, low-
emission technology that can provide base-load power. As on August 2008, there are around
439 nuclear power plants in the world, operating in 31 countries and generating 371,989 MW,
which is about 16% of the world’s electricity. France produces 78% of its total electrical power
by nuclear means. In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the
electricity.

B. Non-conventional Resources

1. Solar Energy:

Solar energy can be a major source of power and can be utilized by using thermal and
photovoltaic conversion systems. The solar radiation received on the surface of the earth on a
bright sunny day at noon is approximately 1kW/m2. The earth continuously intercepts solar
power of 178 billion MW, which is about 10,000 times the world’s demand. But so far, it could
not be developed on a large scale. According to one estimation, if all buildings of the world are
covered with solar PV panels, it can fulfil electrical power requirements of the world. Solar PV
power is considered an expensive source of power. At present, the capital coat of the solar PV
system is Rs 200 per W (Rs. 20 crore/MW as against Rs 4 crore/MW for coal-fired thermal
plant).

2. Wind Energy:

The power available in the winds flowing over the earth surface is estimated to be 1.6*107
MW, which is more than the present energy requirement of the world. The installation cost of
wind power is Rs 4 crore/MW. Wind-power installation worldwide has crossed 94,100MW,
which is about 1% of the world electrical power generation capacity. It accounts for
approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal and 6% in
Germany and the Republic of Ireland. Germany is the world leader in wind power with an
installed capacity of 22,247 MW.

3. Biomass energy:

Energy resources available from animal and vegetation are called biomass energy source. The
principal biomass resources are:

-- Trees (wood, leaves and forest industry waste)

-- Cultivated plants grown for energy

--Algae and other vegetation from ocean and lakes

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--Urban waste (municipal and industrial waste)

--Rural waste (agricultural and animal waste, crop residue, etc.)

Solar energy absorbed by plants (through photosynthesis process) is estimated to be

2*1021J/year. Biomass material may be transformed by chemical or biological processes to
produce intermediate bio-fuels such as biogas plants in the world, and most of them are in
China.

4. Geothermal energy:

It is derived from huge amounts of stored thermal energy in the interior of the earth, though its
economic recovery on the surface of the earth is not feasible everywhere. At the end of 2005,
the world’s total installed electrical power-generating capacity from geothermal resources was
about 8932 MW and direct thermal use installed capacity was 28266MW. Globally, use of
geothermal power is growing annually at a rate of about 3% electrical and 7.5% thermal. The
island of Hawaii produces 25% of its electricity from geothermal resources. Likewise,
geothermal electrical energy production in EL Salvador is 23% of the country’s total installed
electrically-generation capacity.

5. Ocean Tidal energy:

It is a form of hydro power that converts energy of ocean tide into electricity or other form of
energy. It is in the developing stage. Tides are more predictable than wind and solar energy.
The first and biggest, a 240MW tidal power plant was built in 1966 in France at the mouth of
the La Rance river, near St. Malo on the Brittany coast. A 20 MW tidal plant is located at Nova
Scotia, Canada and 400 kW capacity plant is located at Kislaya Guba, near Murmansk, Russia,
on the Barents Sea.

6. Ocean Wave Energy:

It refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work.
As per an estimation, the potential for shoreline-bases wave power generation is about
50000MW. The world’s first 2250MW, a commercial wave farm is based in Portugal. Other
plans for wave farms include a 3MW plant in Orkneys, off northern Scotland and the 20 MW
wave-hub development off the north coast of Cornwall, England.

7. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion:

OTEC technology is still in its infant stages. The potential is likely to be more than that if tidal
or wave energy.

AVAILABILITY OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE IN

INDIA

• India is endowed with non-traditional energy sources such as sunlight, water, wind, and
biomass.
• Furthermore, the growing demand for energy has led to the country's reliance on fossil fuels
such as oil, coal, and gas. In this regard, the potential shortage of gases and oil has raised
concerns as a result of rising energy prices.
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• The growing demand for energy has made the country reliant on fossil fuels such as coal,
oil, and gas.
• Potential oil and gas shortages due to price increases and over-exploitation of energy,
raising concerns about the future security of energy supply.
• Furthermore, the increased use of fossil fuels causes serious environmental issues.
• As a result, there is an urgent need to use renewable energy sources such as solar energy,
wind energy, tide energy, biomass, and waste energy.
• These are referred to as non-conventional energy sources.
• It has the most extensive programs for the development of renewable energy resources.
• Non-Conventional Energy Resources are:
o Solar Energy
o Wind power
o Biogas
o Tidal Energy
o Geothermal Energy

Solar Energy

• India is a tropical country. It has enormous potential for harnessing solar energy.
Photovoltaic technology directly converts sunlight into electricity.
• Solar energy is quickly gaining popularity in rural and remote areas. Madhapur, near Bhuj,
is home to India's largest solar plant, where solar energy is used to sterilise milk cans.
• The use of solar energy is expected to reduce rural households' reliance on firewood and
dung cakes, contributing to environmental conservation and an adequate supply of manure
in agriculture.
• The capacity of the National Thermal Power Corporation Limited (NTPC) project would
be nearly double that of Rajasthan's Bhadla solar park, which is currently the country's
largest single-location solar power plant.
• NTPC hopes to have built 60 GW (gigawatts) of renewable energy capacity by 2032.
• Several solar-powered devices are available on the market and are widely used in rural
India.
• Among them are:
o Solar Cooker
o Water heater
o Dryer
o Lantern
o Pumps
o Lighting

Fig. 7. Solar Panels

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Wind power

• India is now regarded as a global "wind superpower."

• Winds are formed when air moves from warmer to colder areas, and these airflows are
captured in windmills and wind turbines to generate electricity.
• Wind energy is not a new discovery; it has been used for millennia in the form of traditional
windmills to grind maize, pump water, and sail ships.
• Wind power can now be used to generate energy on a larger scale thanks to advances in
technology.
• Tamil Nadu has the largest wind farm cluster, stretching from Nagercoil to Madurai.
• Apart from these, important wind farms can be found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Lakshadweep.
• Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well-known in the country for their effective use of wind
energy.
• According to the Indian Meteorological Department, the average annual wind velocity in
peninsular India is 6.5-8 m/s along the coastlines of Gujarat, the Western Ghats, and some
parts of central India.
• According to a CSE report: With a total installed capacity of 37.7 GW (as of March 2020),
India currently ranks fourth in the world, generating approximately 52.66 billion units in
2017-18.
• According to a recent Crisil study, wind installations could reach 45 GW by March 2022.

Biogas

• In rural areas, shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste are used to generate biogas for
domestic consumption.
• Organic matter decomposition produces gas, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
kerosene, dung cake, and charcoal.
• Municipal, cooperative, and individual biogas plants exist. In rural India, plants that use
cattle dung are known as 'Gobar gas plants.'
• These provide the farmer with two benefits: energy and improved manure quality. By far
the most efficient use of cattle dung is biogas.
• It improves manure quality while reducing tree and manure loss from the combustion of
fuel wood and cow dung cakes.
• The Indian government intended to build approximately 5,000 Compressed Biogas
(CBG) plants across the country by 2023, with the following feedstock.
• Biogas is an excellent and effective way to promote rural development in developing
countries such as India.
• The following are some of the applications for biogas: -
• Cooking, heating, lighting, and electricity generation
• Biogas slurries can produce organic manure, which can be used in place of chemical
fertilisers in agriculture.
• Sanitation issues can be addressed because toilets are directly linked to biogas plants.

Tidal Energy

• Tides in the ocean can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are constructed
across inlets.
• Water flows into the inlet during high tide and becomes trapped when the gate is closed.

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• When the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back
to the sea via a pipe that passes through a turbine that generates electricity.
• The Gulf of Kachchh in India provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
• The National Hydropower Corporation is constructing a 900 MW tidal energy power plant
here.
• According to a 2014 study conducted by the Indian government, India has a tidal power
potential of 12.5 gigatonnes spread across the coastlines of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and West
Bengal.
• However, due to the high costs associated with the installation of tidal power plants, this
plan has been put on hold until further notice.
• However, from 5 gigawatt-hours in 2009 to 45 gigawatt-hours in 2019, many European
countries increased their tidal power generation capacity.

Fig. 8. Tidal energy plant-west Bengal

Hydropower

• Hydropower is water-based energy that uses kinetic energy to generate electricity.

• Free-flowing water (from reservoirs and dams) spins a turbine, which generates electricity
in a manner similar to wind energy.
• India has the most hydropower reserves, which can meet a demand of approximately 85
GW.
• According to an International Hydropower Association report, India will have a total
installed capacity of 50 Gigawatts by 2020, surpassing Japan to become the world's fifth-
largest hydropower producer.
• India's northern and northeastern regions have enormous hydropower potential.
• With 47 GW of untapped hydropower potential, Arunachal Pradesh has the most, followed
by Uttarakhand with 12 GW.
• Certain remote and hilly areas in India are difficult to electrify, and power transmission is
expensive.
• Small hydropower (SHP) plants with station capacities of up to 25 megawatts (MW) are
advantageous for these locations because they run on small turbines and do not necessitate
the construction of a dam on a river.
• The Indian government prioritizes SHP over large hydropower plants because the former
is more environmentally friendly.
• Small hydropower plants are further classified as micro hydro (up to 100 kW), mini-hydro
(101-2000 kW), and SHP produces a total of 4688 MW of power by June 2020.
• However, hydropower plants are losing favor as solar plants become more affordable.

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Geothermal Energy

• Geothermal energy is the heat and electricity generated by using heat from the Earth's
interior.
• Geothermal energy exists because the Earth's temperature increases with depth. High
temperatures are found at shallow depths where the geothermal gradient is steep.
• In such areas, groundwater absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It's so hot that
when it reaches the earth's surface, it condenses into steam. This steam powers turbines and
generates electricity.
• In India, there are hundreds of hot springs that could be used to generate electricity.
• In India, two pilot projects to harness geothermal energy have been established.
• The first is in the Parvati Valley near Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, and the second is in
the Puga Valley in Ladakh.
• Italy, the United States, New Zealand, Japan, Mexico, the Philippines, and Indonesia are
currently among the countries that use geothermal energy for electricity generation and
other thermal applications.
• The Geological Survey of India (GSI) conducted various studies and identified 350
geothermal energy locations in the country, with a potential capacity of approximately
10,000 MW.

Hydrogen Energy

• Hydrogen energy is one of the cleanest because it produces no carbon-based

emissions.
• Today, the technology for producing hydrogen from fossil fuels is in use.
• In India, however, hydrogen fuel cell technology is still in its infancy.
• When electricity passes between electrodes immersed in a conducting aqueous solution
in fuel cell technology, electrolysis of water (H2O) produces hydrogen.
• Hydrogen fuel cells are designed to be modular and transportable.
• They share the same electrochemical foundations as regular batteries, employing
electrolyte and membrane materials.
• Hydrogen fuel has a higher energy density than other fuels, so it produces more energy.
• Currently, hydrogen is produced using fossil fuels, which contribute to environmental
degradation.
• As a result, the Indian government should prioritize hydrogen production from
renewable sources.
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) of India has been supporting
various hydrogen projects for development in academic institutions, research
organisations, and industry.
• Tata Motors launched a hydrogen fuel cell bus in 2019 in collaboration with the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Indian Oil (IOCL).

IMPORTANCE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

Concern for the environment due to ever-increasing use of fossil fuels and rapid depletion of
natural resources have led to development of alternative sources of energy which are renewable
and environment friendly. The following points may be mentioned in the connections:

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

i. The demand of energy is increasing by leaps and bounds due to rapid industrialization
and population growth, and hence the conventional sources of energy will not be
sufficient to meet the growing demand.
ii. Conventional sources (except hydro) are non-renewable and are bound to finish up one
day.
iii. Conventional sources (fossil fuels, nuclear) also cause pollution, thereby their use
degrades the environment.
iv. Large hydro resources affect wildlife, cause deforestation and pose various social
problems.
v. In addition to supplying energy, fossil fuels are also used extensively as feed stock
materials for the manufacture of organic chemicals. As reserve deplete, the need for
using fossil fuels exclusively for such purpose may become greater.

Due to these reason it has become important to explore and develop non-conventional energy
resources to reduce too much dependence on conventional resources.

MNRE (AKTU 2015-16)

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry of the Government
of India for all matters relating to new and renewable energy. The broad aim of the Ministry is
to develop and deploy new and renewable energy to supplement the energy requirements of
the country.

The mission of the Ministry is to ensure

o Energy Security: Development and deployment of alternate fuels like hydrogen, bio-
fuels and synthetic fuels and their applications to contribute towards bridging the gap
between domestic oil supply and demand; lesser dependency on oil imports
o Increase in the share of clean power: Renewables like wind, hydro, solar, geothermal,
bio & tidal power to supplement fossil fuel based electricity generation.
o Energy Availability and Access: Supplement energy needs of cooking, heating,
motive power and captive generation in rural, urban,industrial and commercial sectors
o Energy Affordability: Cost-competitive, convenient, safe, affordable and reliable
energy supply options
o Energy Equity: Per-capita energy consumption at par with the global average level by
2050, through a sustainable and diverse fuel- mix

Vision

To develop new and renewable energy technologies, processes, materials, components, sub-
systems, products & services at par with international specifications, standards and
performance parameters in order to make the country a net foreign exchange earner in the sector
and deploy such indigenously developed and/or manufactured products and services in
furtherance of the national goal of energy security.

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

Functions

Facilitate research, design, development, manufacture, and deployment of new and renewable
energy systems/devices for transportation, portable and stationary applications in rural, urban,
industrial and commercial sectors through:

o Technology Mapping and Benchmarking

o Identify Research, Design, Development and Manufacture thrust areas and facilitate the
same
o Lay down standards, specifications and performance parameters at par with
international levels and facilitate industry in attaining the same
o Align costs of new and renewable energy products and services with international levels
and facilitate industry in attaining the same
o Appropriate international level quality assurance accreditation and facilitate industry in
obtaining the same
o Provide sustained feedback to manufacturers on performance parameters of new and
renewable energy products and services with the aim of effecting continuous upgrade
so as to attain international levels in the shortest possible time span
o Facilitate industry in becoming internationally competitive and a net foreign exchange
earner Resource Survey, Assessment, Mapping and Dissemination
o Identify areas in which new and renewable energy products and services need to be
deployed in keeping with the goal of national energy security and energy independence
o Resource Survey, Assessment, Mapping and Dissemination.
o Deployment strategy for various indigenously developed and manufactured new and
renewable energy products and services
o Provision of cost-competitive new and renewable energy supply options

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

SOLAR CELL

What is a Solar Cell? (AKTU 2015-16)

A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is
basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed
to light.

What is Photovoltaic Effect? (AKTU 2021-22)

The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic
cell when it is exposed to sunlight. It is this effect that makes solar panels useful, as it is how
the cells within the panel convert sunlight to electrical energy. The photovoltaic effect was first
discovered in 1839 by Edmond Becquerel.

Solar Cell Equivalent Circuit

Fig.9. Solar cell equivalent circuit

The most common model for a PV cell is shown in Fig. 9 and consists of parallel and series
resistors coupled to a single diode and a current source. The solar cell's output current equations
are
𝑖 = 𝐼! − 𝐼" − 𝐼#$% (1)

where i denotes output current, Ip stands for photo current without loss which is dependent on
solar cell temperature and irradiation, Id and IRsh denote current through the diode and current
leakage in parallel path respectively.
&'(#!
𝐼#$% = #!"
(2)

($%&'! )
*
𝐼" = 𝐼) :𝑒 )*+ − 1< (3)

where n denotes the diode factor, the reverse saturation current is I0, VT is known as the voltage
equivalent of temperature and at room temperature, its approximate value is 26 mV.
,+
𝑉+ = *
(4)

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UNIT-I Renewable Energy Resources KOE074 Dr. Saibal Manna

Where Boltzmann constant is K, the p-n junction temperature is denoted by T, and the electron
charge is q.
respectively.
($%&'! )
&'(#!
𝑖 = 𝐼! − 𝐼) >𝑒 )*+ − 1? − #!"
(5)

Construction of PN Junction Solar Cell (AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19)

Ø A solar cell is a p-n junction diode, but its construction is slightly different from the normal
junction diodes. Some specific materials, which have certain properties such as bandgap
ranging from 1 EV to 1.8 EV, high electrical conductivity, and high optical absorption, are
required for the construction of solar cells.

Ø Semiconductors such as Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Copper Indium Selenide, Indium

Phosphide, and Cadmium Telluride satisfies these conditions; hence they are generally used
for constructing solar cells. Semiconductors can absorb the EM radiations of the
wavelength equal to the visible light (400-700 nm), which increases the efficiency of the
solar cells.

Ø Solar cells consist of an optical coating at the top, which is called the antireflection layer.
The antireflection layer is typically made of oxides of Titanium, Tantalum, or Silicon
through the vacuum deposition process or spin coating. This layer traps most of the sunlight
falling upon it and transmits it to the three energy-conversion layers, i.e., the top junction
layer, the absorber layer, and the back junction layer; all these layers lies below the top
anti-reflection layer.

Ø Two more electrical contact layers are coated at the top and back of the circuit that carries
the current to the output terminal and then back to the solar cell and complete the electric
circuit. The top layer is made up of good electricity conducting material, which is generally
a metal having a grid pattern with thin and widely spaced grid lines to allow the maximum
light collection as a thick metal layer can block the sunlight. However, the back layer does
not have such a problem, so it is simply a plane coating of the metallic layer.

Ø The solar cells consist of a thin layer of p-type material coated over the comparatively
thicker layer of n-type material. A few thin electrodes are applied over the p-type layer, and
some electrodes are applied at the bottom of the n-type region to collect the electric current.
This entire setup is then encapsulated in a thin glass that protects the sensitive components
of the solar cell from dirt, extreme weather conditions, and any mechanical shocks.

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Fig. 10. Construction of Solar Cell

Working Principle of Solar Cell (AKTU 2016-17, 2018-19)

Light reaches the p-n junction in the form of photons and supplies sufficient energy to the
intersection to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The thermal equilibrium condition of the
meeting is broken by incident light. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come
to the n-type side of the junction. Similarly, the depletion region's holes come to the junction's
p-type side. Once the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, the newly created
holes that come to the p-type side cannot further cross the junction because of the barrier
potential of the intersection.

Electrons concentration becomes higher on the n-type side of the junction, and hole
concentration becomes more elevated on the p-type side, so the p-n hub behaves like a small
battery cell. Thus voltage is set up, which is photo voltage. When we connect a small load
across the junction, current flows through it.

Materials Used in Solar Cell (AKTU 2015-16)

The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5ev. Commonly
used materials are-

1. Silicon.
2. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
3. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
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4. Copper Indium Selenide (CuInSe2)

Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell

1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.

2. It must have high optical absorption.
3. It must have high electrical conductivity.
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material must be
low.

SILICON

Silicon is, by far, the most common semiconductor material used in solar cells, representing
approximately 95% of the modules sold today. It is also the second most abundant material on
Earth (after oxygen) and the most common semiconductor used in computer chips. Crystalline
silicon cells are made of silicon atoms connected to one another to form a crystal lattice. This
lattice provides an organized structure that makes conversion of light into electricity more
efficient.

Solar cells made out of silicon currently provide a combination of high efficiency, low cost,
and long lifetime. Modules are expected to last for 25 years or more, still producing more than
80% of their original power after this time.

Gallium Arsenide

Gallium arsenide or GaAs is a compound of two elements: gallium and arsenic. Gallium is
rarer than gold and is a byproduct of the smelting of other metals, particularly aluminum and
zinc. Arsenic, on the other hand, is not rare, however, it is poisonous. Gallium arsenide also
has a very high absorptivity and it only requires a cell of a few microns thick to absorb sunlight.
GaAs cells are unaffected by heat and are highly resistant to damage from radiation. This makes
it suitable for concentrator systems and space applications.

Cadmium Telluride

Cadmium Telluride or CdTe is another well-known polycrystalline thin-film material. Similar

to copper indium selenide, CdTe also has a very high absorptivity and can be produced using
low-cost techniques. The properties of CdTe can be altered by the addition of alloying elements
such as mercury and zinc.

Copper Indium Dselenide

Copper indium selenide, CIS for short, has an extremely high absorptivity. This means that
99% of the light illuminated on CIS will be consumed in the first micrometer of the material.
The addition of a small amount of gallium will improve the efficiency of the photovoltaic
device. This is commonly referred to as copper indium gallium selenide or CIGS photovoltaic
cell.

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SOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY

A solar cell is the basic building block of a solar module. Each cell produces approximately
1/2 a volt and a solar module can have any number of solar cells.

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels.

Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective

laminate, and are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems.

Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-

installable unit.

A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV

modules and panels.

Working of a Solar Array (AKTU 2015-16, 2018-19)

The solar array is mainly responsible for passing the electric current to the solar inverter. When
the sun rays fall on the surface of the solar panels, the silicon cells take the energy. Through
their conductive properties, these silicon cells transform the sun rays into electricity.

When this conversion happens, the electrons within the cells charge up and start moving
restlessly. This motion forms the electric current which passes from the wires to the solar cell
arrays. Through the cables, the arrays deliver direct current to the solar inverter. The solar
inverter then converts the direct current to alternating current.

Solar Array – What’s the Composition?

Solar arrays are made of photovoltaic cells combined in a string. Each string has a maximum
of 20 panels aligned in a row. When electrically connected with a wire, the solar panels form a
large PV installation known as a solar array. The larger the surface area, the more panels are
needed.

If more panels are adjoined, the arrays required will be higher. More arrays will result in better
electricity. A photovoltaic panel mainly has a voltage of 12V or 24V. Depending on the electric
power required, the panels required to produce electric current can be more or less.

Features of Solar Array

• A solar array prohibits light reflection. Thus, it can hold the electricity from the sun’s rays
for a long time.
• It has a distinct layout and comes in different sizes for small and large area installations.

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• A solar cell array is lightweight but has a sturdy composition. It can hold the panels
together efficiently.
• It can function under harsh climatic conditions without causing failures.
• It has a simple design and is easy to install.
• Solar cell arrays have a shelf life of 25 years.
• These arrays are useful for both residential and commercial applications.

Applications of Solar Array

1. Since solar arrays help generate electricity, users can utilise them to charge electric devices
like mobiles, laptops, heaters, air conditioners, coolers, television, washing machines, and
other household appliances.
2. The solar cell array can be used in domestic and light industrial applications.
3. The large-sized solar arrays can be used in powering updraft towers, solar satellites, large-
scale renewable energy systems, and industrial processes and units.
4. You can use solar arrays to conserve energy.
5. It is essential for greenhouse heating.

Benefits of Using Solar Array

Ø It holds the solar panels firmly together.

Ø The PV array allows easy transmission of electric current to the solar inverter.
Ø It ensures maximum energy output.
Ø It helps produce energy without gas emissions.
Ø It has a good shelf life.
Ø It guarantees easy installation on the rooftop, ground, or solar canopies.
Ø It allows panels to work efficiently and supply current in all home equipment. As a result,
the electricity bill reduces.
Ø It keeps the grid structure intact.
Ø It is ideal for use in both urban and rural locations.
Ø It is simple to install in parallel or series configuration.

Fig. 11. Solar PV cell, module, Panel and Array

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MONOCRYSTALLINE CELLS

Monocrystalline solar cells are made from single crystalline silicon. They are very distinctive
in their appearance as they are often coloured, and the cells hold a cylindrical shape. In order
to keep the costs low and performance at optimal levels, manufacturers cut out the four sides
of the monocrystalline cells. This gives them their recognisable appearance.

Advantages

• They have the highest level of efficiency at 15-20%

• They require less space compared to other types due to their high efficiency
• Manufacturers state that this form of solar cell lasts the longest, with most giving them a
25-year warranty
• They perform better in low levels of sunlight, making them ideal for cloudy areas

Disadvantages

• They are the most expensive solar cells on the market, and so not in everyone’s price range
• The performance levels tend to suffer from an increase in temperature. However, it is a
small loss when compared to other forms of solar cell
• There is a lot of waste material when the silicon is cut during manufacture

Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Thin film

Fig. 12. Various solar cell

POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS (AKTU 2021-22)

The polycrystalline solar panels were first introduced to the public in 1981. Unlike the
monocrystalline cells, polycrystalline ones do not require each of the four sides to be cut.
Instead, the silicon is melted and poured into square moulds. These then form perfectly shaped
square cells.

Advantages

• The manufacturing process is cheaper and easier than the monocrystalline cells
• It avoids silicon waste
• High temperatures have less negative effects on efficiency compared with monocrystalline
cells. This makes the polycrystalline cells more attractive to people in warmer areas as the
price is lower

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Disadvantages

• Efficiency is only around 13-16% due to low levels of silicon purity. So they are not the
most efficient on the market
• They have lower output rates which make them less space efficient. So more roof space is
needed for installation

THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS

Thin film solar cells are manufactured by placing several thin layers of photovoltaic on top of
each other to creates the module. There are actually a few different types of thin film solar cell,
and the way in which they differ from each other comes down to the material used for the PV
layers. The types are as follows:

• Amorphous silicon
• Cadmium telluride
• Copper indium gallium selenide
• Organic PV cells
Depending on the technology that has been used, the efficiency rates for thin film solar cells
tends to vary from 7% to 13%.

Advantages

• They can be manufactured to be flexible, making them widely applicable to a range of

situations and building types
• Mass production is easy to achieve, making them potentially cheaper to produce than
crystalline solar cells
• Shading has a similar effect on their efficiency
Disadvantages

• They are not ideal for domestic use as thy take up a lot of space
• Low space efficiency means that they will cause further expenses in the form of enhancers,
like cables of support structures
• They have a shorter lifespan and so shorter warranty periods

Table 2: Difference between solar cell

Solar Cell Type Efficiency Appearance Advantages Disadvantages
Rate
Monocrystalline ~20% Black/ Darker High efficiency rate; Expensive
Solar Panels colour with optimised for
(Mono-SI) octagonal commercial use;
shape high life-time value
Polycrystalline ~15% Blue colour Lower price Sensitive to high
Solar Panels (p-Si) with square temperatures;
edges lower lifespan &
slightly less
space efficiency
Thin-Film: ~7-10% Depends on Relatively low costs; shorter
Amorphous the variant easy to produce & warranties &
Silicon Solar flexible lifespan
Panels (A-SI)

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SOLAR POWER PLANT

What is Solar Power Plant?

The solar power plant is also known as the Photovoltaic (PV) power plant. It is a large-scale
PV plant designed to produce bulk electrical power from solar radiation. The solar power plant
uses solar energy to produce electrical power. Therefore, it is a conventional power plant.

Types of Solar Power Plant

Mostly two key technologies have been used to use solar power to generate energy. These are
photovoltaic solar technology and solar thermal technology. The photovoltaic technology will
directly convert the sunlight into electricity, while the solar thermal technology will capture
the heat of the sun. After capturing the heat, it will be converted into mechanical energy, and
then it will turn into electricity.

The photovoltaic panels are designed to power up electrical devices. But the solar thermal
collectors are made to heat your homes. The photovoltaic options can power up more than
hundreds of acres of land. They can produce electricity for power grids.

Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant

Photovoltaic power plants are also known as the PV. They convert sunlight into electricity.
This type uses photovoltaic cells. These cells are made using silicon alloys. These panels are
available in different forms. Some popular forms are crystalline solar panels and thin-film solar
panels. PV options are preferred since it enables to store the solar energy into batteries. It can
feed into the national grid as well. The PV plants will need inverters for transforming the power
from the DC into the AC.

As mentioned above, PV panels usually come from semiconductor material. When the photons
of sunlight will hit the material, free electrons will be generated. The free electrons will flow
through the material to generate a direct electrical current. The entire process is known as the
photoelectric effect. The DC will be converted into AC by using an inverter, and finally, it will
be fed into the grid. The PV panels are different from the solar thermal plants. They use photo
effects. However, thermal plants use liquid heat-carrying ways. The benefit of PV panels is
that they do not focus on energy. Instead, they convert photons into energy.

Solar thermal power plant

A solar thermal plant is a facility designed for converting solar energy into electricity through
a conventional thermodynamic cycle. However, unlike thermal power plants that work by using
fossil fuels, solar thermal power plants use a completely eco-friendly energy source like
sunlight. The technology used to produce electricity is slightly different depending on the type
of solar thermal plant we're talking about, but its operating system is similar.

A solar thermal power plant concentrates the solar radiation to heat a fluid with thermally
conductive properties and raise its temperature until it's converted into steam. It's then fed to a

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turbine. Here, the thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy, which is transmitted to
an alternator where its final transformation into electricity takes place. Once the
thermodynamic cycle has been completed, the steam is returned to a condenser where it
recovers its liquid state and the process is repeated again.

From an efficiency point of view, it's important to take into account that the performance of a
solar thermal plant depends on the hours of sunshine and weather conditions. Therefore, these
power plants also have a storage tank that allows the energy obtained to be stored to use it when
necessary.

Cons of Solar Energy:

1. High initial cost

2. Uses a lot of space
3. Small amount of pollution during manufacture, transport and installation
4. Solar energy storage is expensive
5. Weather dependent
6. Location of solar cell
7. The direction of the Sun keeps changing with time. A proper extraction system is
required that changes its position according to the position of the Sun.
8. Enough and efficient systems of solar energy extraction are not available until now; at
present, only around 25% of solar energy is extracted.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY (AKTU

2021-2022)

When the energy source is converted directly to electricity, it is called direct energy. For
instance, wind, fossil fuel, biomass, and hydro energy are the indirect forms of solar energy.

Fig.13. Solar energy utilisation

A. Wind Energy
The wind originates due to uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. The heat due to
the sun generates atmospheric pressure. This atmospheric pressure results in the blowing of
wind by the process of diffusion. The area near the equator gets warmer than the area near the

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poles. The hot air rises and the pressure of the area near the equator becomes low as compared
to the pressure at the poles. Now, due to this pressure difference, cold winds blow from poles
towards the equator. Simultaneously, the hot air which rose up due to warming migrates
towards the poles and gets cooled up there. This cycle continues.

Fig. 14. Wind energy with help of solar energy

B. Biomass
Biomass is the organic material which is produced by plants and animals. But how is it related
to the sun? Let’s find out. The plants which produce this biomass use solar energy to synthesize
their own food with the help of photosynthesis and the animals feed on plants to live. In this
situation too, the solar energy is indirect, but the primary source of energy. The steam produced
by burning of biomass can be used to rotate the turbine and generate electricity.

Fig. 15. Bio mass energy is indirectly related to solar energy.

C. Wave Energy
Wave energy is produced by the movement of waves of the ocean. Waves are created when
wind moves over the surface of ocean. Wind in turn is a produced due to heating of the sun.
These waves can travel several kilometers with almost no loss of energy. The kinetic energy
of these waves can be converted to electricity with the help of Wave Energy Converter (WEC).
This WEC drives a generator which produces electricity.
D. Ocean Thermal Energy
When the sun rays fall on the surface of water, the surface absorbs the rays and becomes warm
while the water at deeper level remains cold. This creates a temperature difference between the
upper surface of water and the water at deeper level. This temperature difference can be utilized
to generate electricity. A plant is set up between these two layers of water with a working fluid
which has a low boiling point like ammonia. When the working fluid reaches the surface of the
region it gets vaporized. This vaporized fluid is used to drive the turbine of the generator. The
vaporized fluid is then condensed with the help of condenser which uses the cold water from
the deeper section of the ocean.

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Fig. 16. Ocean Thermal energy from solar energy

BASIC SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS (AKTU 2015-16)

Some of the major application of solar energy are as follows: (a) Solar water heating (b) Solar
heating of buildings (c) Solar distillation (d) Solar pumping (e) Solar drying of agricultural and
animal products (f) Solar furnaces (g) Solar cooking (h) Solar electric power generation (i)
Solar thermal power production (j) Solar green houses.
(a) Solar water heating
A solar water heating unit comprises a blackened flat plate metal collector with an associated
metal tubing facing the general direction of the sun. The plate collector has a transparent glass
cover above and a layer of thermal insulation beneath it.

The metal tubing of the collector is connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot
water during cloudy days. The collector absorbs solar radiations and transfers the heat to the
water circulating through the tubing either by gravity or by a pump.

This hot water is supplied to the storage tank via the associated metal tubing. This system of
water heating is commonly used in hotels, guest houses, tourist bungalows, hospitals, canteens
as well as domestic and industrial units.

b) Solar heating of buildings

(a) Collecting the solar radiation by some element of the building itself i.e. solar energy is
admitted directly into the building through large South-facing windows.

(b) Using separate solar collectors which may heat either water or air or storage devices which
can accumulate the collected solar energy for use at night and during inclement days.

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Fig. 17. Solar water heating system

When the building requires heat then from these collectors or storage devices, the heat is
transferred by conventional equipment such as fan, ducts, air outlets, radiators and hot air
registers etc. to warm up the living spaces of a building.

When the building does not require heat, the heated air or water from the collector can be
moved to the heat storage device such as well insulated water tank or other heat holding
material. For inclement days, an auxiliary heating system using gas, oil or electricity is required
as a backup system.

Fig. 18. Solar heating of buildings

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C) Solar-pumping
In solar pumping, the power generated by solar-energy is utilized for pumping water for
irrigation purposes. The requirement for water pumping is greatest in the hot summer months
which coincide with the increased solar radiations during this period and so this method is most
appropriate for irrigation purpose. During periods of inclement weather when solar radiations
are low then the requirement for water pumping is also relatively less as the transpiration losses
from the crops are also low.

Fig. 19. Solar pumping

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