3.1.S Theorem Let X = (Xn) be a sequence of real nwnbers, and -let x E 1R.

The ~
following statements are equivalent. · C
C

(a) X converges to x. •.. · \

(b) For every e > 0, there exists anatural number K such_that fa,· all n > Kt the tenns Xn
satisfy \xn - x\ < e. ·
(c) For every B > 0, there exists a natural nwnber K such that for all n·> K_,the terms Xn
satisfy x - e < Xn < x +e. ·
(d) . For every e-neig~borhood Ve(x) of.x, there exists anatural number K such that for
all n > K, the ter_ms Xn belong to Ve(x).
3.1.10 Theorem let (xn) be a sequence of real numbers and let x E IR. If ra.,i) is a
sequence of positive real nu!J1.bers with lim(an) = 0 and iffor some constant C > ~ and
some m EN we have. · · ·
·. /xn_.- x/ < Can for all n > m,
then it follows that 1im(x11 ) ·~ ·. x.
3.2.2 Theorem A conv~rgent sequence of real numbers zs bounded.

Proof. Suppose that lim(xn) = x and let e := I. Then there exists a natural number
K = K(l ) such that lxn - xi < 1 for all n> K. If we apply the Triangle Inequality with
n > K we obtain
lxnl = lxn - x + xi < lxn - xi + lxl < 1 + lxl ·
Raines
If we set Jant-· D (~lee
·-1 ev1 M
M: . sup{_lxil, lx2I, ... , lxK-11, r + lxl}, Neiv De~
],.,If~•
- 99
then it follows that lxnl < M for all n EN. Q..D.
3.2.3 Theorem (a) · Let X .=:· .(x;;) and Y = (y11) be s~quences of real numbers that
con~erge to x and >1, respe.ctively; .and let c E JR. Then the sequen~es X +Y, X-Y, X · Y, and
cX converge to x + Y,. x - y, xy, and ex, respectively.
(b) · If X = (xn) converges to ~r ·andZ · (zn) is a sequence of nonzero real numbers that
converges to z and if z =I= 0, .then th~ quotient sequence X/Z converg
.
es to x/ z.
.
~.2.7 Squeeze Thforem Suppose that X = (xn), Y = (Yn ), and Z = (zn ) are sequences
of real numbers sqch that . ··. . · .
.
.. . .
. ' . .

. "?Cn <·yn < Zn for all n E N,

and that Iim(xn} . Iim{zn): Then Y · (Yn) is convergent and
..

· Iim(xn) · lim(y,i) = lim(zn)-

· 3.2.9 Theorem Let the sequence X . (x11 ) converge io x. Then the sequence (ix.I) of
absolute values.converges to Jxl That is, if x = Iim(xn); then ,l xl .= lim(lxnl),

Proof. It follows from the ·r~angle Inequality (see Corollary 2.2.4(a)) that
/lx;1I - ~x// < /xn - x/ .: for all · n.EN.
. .

The convergence of (lxn I) to /xi is then an immediate conseque~ce of the convergence of

(xn) to x. · · Q.E.D

3.2.10 Theorem Let X.· (x-11 ) be a sequence of real numbers that converges to x and
suppose that Xn > 0. Then the sequence (/x,,) of positive square roots converges and
lim( fi;) = ,/x.
3.!.2.11 Theorem Let (r,,) be a ·sequence ofposiltPe real n11mbers mc/2 Iha/ L :==
~1/x,,) exists. IfL < 1, then (rn) co11J1erges and lim(A"n) == 0.
 3.3.2 Monotone Convergence Theorem . A n1onotone sequence of real numbers is
. convergent if and only if it is bounded. Further;
 "
(a) If X = (x,,) is·a bounded in_
creqsing sequence, then
lii:n(xn) = sup{x 11 : n EN}.
(b) If Y = (y,i) is a bounded de.creasing sequence, then
lim(y11 ) == inf {y 11 : n E N}.
. .
3.4.2 Theorem (fa sequence X = (-x 11 ) .of real nurnbers converges to a real number x,
then any subsequence X' = (x 11 k) -of X also converges to x.

Proof Let£ > 0 be given and let K( e) be such that if n ~ K(s ), then fx,; ·- .x: < s. Since
n1 < n2 < · · · < 11k < ··· is ari increasing sequence of natural numbers, it is easily proved
(by Induction) that nk > k. Hence, if k > K(c), we also have nk > k > K(e) so that
jx11t -· xi < c. Therefore the subsequence (x11.) also converges to x. Q.E.D.
3.4.4 Theoren1 Let X = (~11 ) be a ~equence of real _numbers, Then the.following are
equivalent:
. .
(i) The sequence X = (xn) does not converge to x ~-'1lt I
(ii) There exists an eo > 0 such that for any k·E N, there -e~ists nk EN such that .
nk > k and \xnk - x\ > eo. .
(iii) There exists an eo > 0 and a subsequence X' = (x,,k.}of X such t~at \Xn:: - xi > tofor
all k EN. . .· .. .
3.4.5 Divergence Criteria 1f a sequence X == (x11 ) of real numbers has either of the
following properties, then X is divergent.
(i) X has two con vergent subsequences X' = (xn,. ) and X" = (x,i) whose limits are nol
equal.
(ii) X is unbounded.
,:, 3.4.8 The Bolzano-V'feierstrass Theorem A bounded sequence of real numbers has a
.,,, convergent subsequence.

Fitls~It follows from the Monotone Subsequence Theorem that /x = (x.) is a

bounded sequence, then. it has a subsequence X' = (x 11k) that is monotone. Since this.
subsequence _is_also bounded, it follows from the Monotone Convergence Theorem 3.3.2
that the subsequence is convergent. · Q.E.D.
 sequence
3.5.1 Definition A sequence X = (x11 ) of real numbers is said to be a Cauchy
numbers
if for every s > 0 there exists a natural number H (e) .such that for all natural
n, ,n > H(s); the terms x11 , Xm s~tisfy /xn - Xml < E.
3.5.3 Lemma If X = (x,,) is a convergent sequence of real numbers, then Xis a Cauchy
sequence.

Proof. lf x := lim X, then given e > 0 there is a natural number K(e/2) such that if
n > K(r,/ 2) then Ix, - xi < r,/2. Thus, if H(e) := K(e/2) and if n,m > H(e), then we
have
lxn - Xml = 1(Xn - x) +(x - Xm)I
< IXn - xi+ :xm - xi < s/2+r,/2 = ~-
Since e > 0 is arbitrary, it follows that (xn) is a Cauchy sequence. Q.E.D.

In order to establish that a Cauchy sequence is convergent, we will need the following
result. (See Theorem 3.2.2.)

3.5.4 Lemma A Cauchy sequence of real numbers is bounded.

Proof. Let X := (x") be a Cauchy sequence and let e := 1. If H := H( 1) and n > H,

I

then \xn - x_,

11 \ < 1. Hence, by the Triangle Inequality, we have lxnl < lxHI + 1 for all
n > H. If we set
t\1 := sup{\xd, lx2I, ... , lxH-1 LlxH\ + 1},
then it follows tha~\\xn\ < M for all n E N. Q.E.D.

We now present the important Cauchy Convergence Criterion.

3.5.5 Cauchy Convergence Criterion A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and

only if it is a Cauchy sequence.
. .
Proof We have seen, in Lemma 3.5.31 that a convergent sequence is a Cauchy
sequence.
Conversely, let X = (xn) .be a Cauchy sequence; we will show that Xis convergent to
some real number. First we observe from Lemma 3.5.4 that the sequence X is bounded.
Therefore, by the Bolzano-Weierstrass Tl~eorem 3.4.81 there is a subsequence X' = (x k)
of x that converges to some real number .x . We shall complete the proof by showing that11 X
converges to x•,