CHAPTER- V

Nyquist Plots
Introduction:
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop
control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the
complete frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

Principle of argument
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P
poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane contour, then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane
must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we can write the number of encirclements N as,
N=P−Z

 If the ‘s’ plane contour contains only poles, then the direction of the encirclement in
the q(s) plane will be opposite (counter clock wise) to the direction of ‘s’ plane contour.
 If the ‘s’ plane contour contains only zeros, then the direction of the encirclement in
the q(s) plane will be in the same (clock wise) direction as that of ‘s’ plane contour.

For example, in case of 1 zero and 3 poles enclosed by the s- plane contour, the net encirclement
of the origin by the q(s) plane contour is (3-1) two counter-clockwise revolution as shown in
figure below. This relationship between the enclosure of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) b the s-plane
contour and the encirclement of the origin by G(s)H(s) contour is commonly known as principle
of argument.

Nyquist stability criterion

The characteristics equation of a system is

q(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)
The standard pole zero form of the OLTF G(s)H(s) is

(𝑠+𝑧 )(𝑠+𝑧 )−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧 )

G(s)H(s) = 𝐾 (𝑠+𝑃 1)(𝑠+𝑃 2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑚 ) (1)
1 2 𝑛
 (𝑠+𝑧 )(𝑠+𝑧 )−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧 )
‫ ؞‬q(s) = 1+ 𝐾 (𝑠+𝑃 1)(𝑠+𝑃 2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑚 )
1 2 𝑛

(𝑠+𝑃1 )(𝑠+𝑃2 )−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛 )+𝐾(𝑠+𝑧1 )(𝑠+𝑧2 )−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑚 )

= (𝑠+𝑃1 )(𝑠+𝑃2 )−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛 )

(𝑠+𝑧 ′ )(𝑠+𝑧2′ )−−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑛′ )

= (𝑠+𝑃1 (2)
1 )(𝑠+𝑃2 )−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛 )
From the above equation it is seen that the zeros of q(s) are the root of the characteristics equation
and the poles q(s) are same as the poles of open loop system. For the system to be stable, the roots
of the characteristics equation and hence the zeros of q(s) must lie in the left half s-plane. It is
important to note that even if some of the open-loop poles lie in the right half s-plane all the
zeros of q(s) i.e, the closed-loop poles may lie in the left half s-plane. It means that an open-loop
unstable system may lead to a closed-loop stable system.
In order to investigate the presence of any zero of q(s) in the right half of s-plane, a
contour to be chosen which completely encloses the right half of s-plane called as Nyquist
contour. It is directed clockwise and consist of an infinite line segment C 1 and an arc C2 of
infinite redius.

As the Nyquist contour encloses all the right half s-plane poles and zeros of q(s), let there are ‘z’
zeros and ‘P’ poles in the right half of s-plane. As s moves along the nyquist contour in the s-
plane, a closed contour Γq is traversed in q(s) plane which encloses the origin N (=P-Z) times in
anticlockwise direction.
For the system to be stable, there should be no zeros of q(s) in the right half of s-plane i.e,
Z=0
So N= P
The above equation implies that for a close loop system to be stable, the number of counter-
clockwise encirclement of the origin of the q(s) plane by the contour Γq should be equal the
number of the right half s-plane poles of q(s) which are also the poles of open-loop transfer
function G(s)H(s).
The open-loop transfer function can be written as
G(s)H(s)=q(s)- 1= [1+ G(s)H(s)]-1 (3)
Therefore the contour ΓGH of G(s)H(s) corresponding to the nyquist contour in the s-plane is the
same as contour Γq of q(s) (=1+ G(s)H(s)) drawn from the point (-1+j0). Thus the encirclement
of the origin by the contour Γq of q(s) is equivalent to the encirclement of the point (-1+j0) by the
contour ΓGH of G(s)H(s) as shown below.

Statement of nyquist stability criterion:

1. If the contour ΓGH corresponding to the Nyquist contour in the s-plane encircles the point (-
1+j0) in the counter-clockwise direction as many times as the number of right half s-plane pole
of G(s)H(s), the close loop system is stable.
2. The closed loop system is stable if the contour ΓGH does not encircles the point (-1+j0).

Mapping of Nyquist contour into the contour ΓGH of G(s)H(s):

1. For imaginary axis: Put s= jω in G(s)H(s) where s varies from –j∞ to +j∞ .

2. For infinite semi circle: put s= 𝑅𝑒 𝑗𝜃 where R→∞ and θ varies from + 90ᵒ to -90ᵒ.

3. For presence of pole at origin: put s= ∊ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 where ∊→∞ and θ varies from - 90ᵒ to +90ᵒ.

4. For presence of pole at imaginary axis: put s= jω1+ ∊ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 where ∊→∞ and θ varies from - 90ᵒ to
+90ᵒ.

Hence the complete contour ΓGH is the polar plot of G(jω)H(jω) with varies from ω -∞ to +∞.

Nyquist stability criterion applied to inverse Polar plot:

It is more convenient to work with inverse function 1/ G(jω)H(jω) rather than the direct function
G(jω)H(jω). Here we will see that the Nyquist stability criterion for direct polar plot can be
extended for use to inverse polar plot after minor modification.

Let us consider a open-loop transfer function:

(𝑠+𝑧 )(𝑠+𝑧 )−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧 )
G(s)H(s) = 𝐾 (𝑠+𝑃 1)(𝑠+𝑃 2)−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑚 ) (4)
1 2 𝑛
For the system to be stable none of the roots of the characteristics equation should lie in the right
half s-plane or on the jω-axis. The characteristics equation is

(𝑠+𝑧1′ )(𝑠+𝑧2′ )−−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑛

′)
q(s)= 1+ G(s)H(s) = (𝑠+𝑃1 )(𝑠+𝑃2 )−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑃𝑛 )
(5)
Dividing equation 5 by 4, we get
1 (𝑠+𝑧1′ )(𝑠+𝑧2′ )−−−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑛
′)
q’(s)= G(s)H(s) +1= (𝑠+𝑧1 )(𝑠+𝑧2 )−−−−−−−(𝑠+𝑧𝑚 )
(6)
From equation 5 and 6 it is seen that the zeros of q’(s) is same as the q(s), which are the roots of
the characteristics equation. It is further noticed that the poles of q(s) are same as the poles of
1
G(s)H(s), while the poles of q’(s) are same as the poles of or the zeros of G(s)H(s).
G(s)H(s)
1
It can be concluded that if has P right half s-plane poles and the characteristics
G(s)H(s)
1
equation has Z right half s-plane zeros, the locus of encircle the point (-1+j0) N times in
G(s)H(s)
counter-clockwise direction where N= P-Z.
Since for system stability no zeros of the characteristics equation locate on right half s-
plane i.e , Z=0, the Nyquist stability criterion for inverse polar plots can be stated below:

1
“It the Nyquist plot of corresponding to the Nyquist contour in the s-plane, encircles
G(s)H(s)
counter-clockwise the point (-1+j0) as many times as are the number of right half s-plane pole of
1
, the closed-loop system is stable. “
G(s)H(s)

1
In special case where G(s)H(s) has no pole in the right half s-plane, the close loop system is
1
stable provided the net encirclement of (-1+j0) point by the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) is zero.

Assessment of relative stability using Nyquist criterion:

The measure of relative stability of a closed-loop systems which are open-loop stable can
be analysed through the study of Nyquist plots. The stability of such system can be determined by
polar plot of G(s)H(s). It can be imagined that as the polar plot gets closer to (-1+j0) point, the
system tends towards instability.

Consider two different systems whose closed loop poles are shown on the s-plane in figure
a and b respectively. It is seen that system A is more stable than system B because its closed-loop
poles are located comparatively away to the left from jω-axis. The open-loop frequency response
(polar) plots for system A and B are shown in figure ‘c’ and ‘d’, respectively. The comparison of
the closed-loop pole location of these two system with their corresponding polar plot shows that
as a polar plot moves closer to (-1+j0) point, the system closed-loop poles move closer to the jω-
axis and hence the system becomes relatively less stable and vice versa.
The figure as given below shows a G(jω)H(jω) locus which crosses the negative real axis at a
frequency ω=ω2 with an intercept of a. Let a unit circle centred at origin (passes through point -
1+j0) intersect the G(jω)H(jω) locus at a frequency ω=ω1 and let the phasor G(jω1)H(jω1) makes
an angle of ф with the negative real axis measured positively in counter-clockwise direction. It is
observed that as G(jω)H(jω) locus approaches (-1+j0) point, the relative stability reduces.
Constant Magnitude Loci or Constant M Circle

The closed loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by

(1)

(2)

(3)
 (4)

𝑀2 𝑀
Equation 2 represents the equation of a circle with centre at [(1−𝑀2 ) , 0] having radius of (1−𝑀2 )

1
If M=1, then Equation 3 becomes(1 + 𝑥)2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 or x= − 2 (5)

1
It is a equation for straight line parallel to the y-axis and passing through (− 2 , 0) in the G(jω)
plane. For each value of M (except M=1) we get a circle. These circles are known as Constant
Magnitude Loci or Constant M Circle.
 Constant Phase Loci or Constant N Circle
From equation 1

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

1 1 1 1
Equation 10 represents the equation of circle with it centre at (− , ) with radius √( + )
2 2𝑁 4 4𝑁 2

For different values of N i.e, phase angle θ, equation 10 represents the family of the circles. For a
particular circle, the value of N i.e, phase angle θ remain constant on it. Therefore these circle are
known as constant phase loci or N circles.
Nichols Plot

Constant magnitude loci that are M-circles and constant phase angle loci that are N-circles
are the fundamental components in designing the Nichols chart. The constant M and constant N
circles in G (jω) plane can be used for the analysis and design of control systems. However the
constant M and constant N circles in gain phase plane are prepared for system design and analysis
as these plots supply information with fewer manipulations. Gain phase plane is the graph having
gain in decibel along the ordinate (vertical axis) and phase angle along the abscissa (horizontal
axis). The M and N circles of G (jω) in the gain phase plane are transformed into M and N
contours in rectangular co-ordinates. A point on the constant M loci in G (jω) plane is transferred
to gain phase plane by drawing the vector directed from the origin of G (jω) plane to a particular
point on M circle and then measuring the length in db and angle in degree.
The critical point in G (jω), plane corresponds to the point of zero decibel and -180o in the gain
phase plane. Plot of M and N circles in gain phase plane is known as Nichols chart /plot.

The Nichols plot is named after the American engineer N.B Nichols who formulated this plot.
Compensators can be designed using Nichols plot. Nichols plot technique is however also used in
designing of dc motor. This is used in signal processing and control design. Nyquist plot in
complex plane shows how phase of transfer function and frequency variation of magnitude are
related. We can find out the gain and phase for a given frequency. Angle of positive real axis
determines the phase and distance from origin of complex plane determines the gain.
Step-6: Check for stability:

As P= 0; N=0; Hence Z=0, System is stable.