Chola Empire

Imperial Cholas (Period from c. 850 – 1200 CE)

This was one of the longest lasting dynasties of South India {circa 300 BC to 13th century}. This
1500 years period has been divided into four parts viz. early Cholas, dark Period, medieval Cholas
and later Cholas.

 The Cholas are believed to have overthrown the Pallavas in south India.
 They became prominent in the 9th century and established an empire comprising the
major portion of South India.
 They also extended their control in Sri Lanka and the Malay peninsula
 Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples provide detailed information regarding the
administration, society, economy and culture of the Chola period.
 The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayala.
 Two prominent rulers (i) Rajaraja (985-1014) & (ii) Rajendra I (1014-1044)
 According to some historians Chola rule was the golden age of South India
 Famous for their administration, and gave patronage for art and architecture
 Chola period witnessed the culmination in evolution of dravidian temple architecture

Vijayala (c. 850 CE)

 Earlier, a feudatory of the Pallavas.

 Captured Tanjore and built a temple for Durga.

Rajaraja Ⅰ/Arumolivarman (c. 985 – 1014 CE)

 Raja Raja I developed the naval strength of the Cholas

 He re-organised the administrative system
 In 1000 Ad he began the conduction of a land survey
 He adopted the practice of inscribing the historical inscriptions
 He began the practice of associating Yuvaraja or crown Prince with the administration
 Raja Raja I being a patron of Shaivism constructed the great Raja Rajeshwar temple (Also
called as the Brihadeeswarar temple) at Tanjore.

Rajendra Ⅰ (c. 1014 – 1044 CE)

 During his reign, the whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola empire.
 His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to North India.
 He was also a great patron of learning and was called Pandita Cholan.

At the death of RajendraⅠ, the extent of the Chola empire was at its peak. The river Tungabhadra
was the northern boundary, the Pandya, Kerala, Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed part of
the empire.

Administration:

 The king ruled with the help of ministers.

 The administration was stable and efficient.
 Surprise visits were made by the king to check efficiency of the administration.
  The empire consisted of eight Mandalams (provinces) and each Mandalam had a
governor/viceroy (generally a prince). The provinces were further divided into Valanadus
and each Valanadus were divided into Nadus (districts).
 Practice of hereditary succession
 Source of income was land revenue and collected in kind or in cash or both
 Trade and commerce progressed

Chola Village Administration

The Chola village administration had two types of assemblies:

 Ur – The general assembly of the local residents of non Brahmadeya villages (or
Vellanvagai villages). It is believed that members of the assembly were less than
ten.
 Sabha or Mahasabha –The Sabha was an assembly of Brahmans/adult male
members in the agraharas i.e, rent-free Brahmadeya villages which enjoyed a
large measure of autonomy.
 Nagram – This was an assembly of merchants and traders.

Principal North Indian States on the eve of Turkish Conquest

 After death of Harsha in 647 AD, the Indian states became disintegrate
 State fought against state for power and there was no supreme power
 Ishwari Prasad rightly said “India during the period was nations within the nations”
 From the middle of 7th century to the end of 12th century is marked by the raise and growth
of Rajput power over northern India
 In northern india, each state under the control of Rajput

Major Rajput kingdoms on the eve of Turkish conquest as follows :

Kanauj
 Earliest kingdom that rose after the death of Harsha
 Ruled over by Parihar or Pratihar clan
 Yasovarman (king of Kanauj) was the powerful ruler
 Had a diplomatic relations with foreign rulers
 Kanauj succumbed in 916 AD to the power of Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III
 The power of the Kanauj rulers rapidly declined due to forceful incursions of the Muslims
Bundelkhand
 Rulers were Chandelas of Jejakabhukti and Kalachuris of Chedi
 Great interest in Architecture activity
 Aibak occupied this region by 1203 AD
Bengal and Bihar
 Palas of Bengal and Bihar were the contemporaries of Pratiharas of Kanauj
 Dharmapala and Devapala were the famous ruler
 Palas were succeeded by the Senas
Ajmer and Delhi
 Chouhan Rajputs established their kingdoms in Ajmeer & Delhi
 Vigraharaja was the most powerful among the Chouhans of Ajmeer
 Prithviraj of Delhi was the most powerful in the dynasty
 In 1192 AD, they lost against Mohammad Ghori

Punjab
  Three rulers Jaipala, Anadpala and Trilochandpala
 Their capital was at Bhatinda
 Trilochandpala lost against Muslim invader
Kashmir
 One of the earlist king of Kashmir was Chandragupta
 But the greatest ruler of Kashmir in Eight century was Lalitaditya
 The Hindu kingdom of Kashmir enjoyed its sovereignty in the 14th century

Indian Society and Culture in the 11th Century

 Abu Raihan al-Biruni was an Iranian origin
 Born in 973 AD in the city of Khwarizm then under the control of Samanid dynasty
 Not much is known about his early life and upbringing
 A great linguist and a prolific writer
 Besides his mother tongue Khwarizmi, he knew Hebrew, Syriac, and Sanskrit
 Deep knowledge of Arabic and Persian
 Most of his work in Arabic including Kitab-ul-Hind
 Before came to India many Indian works on astronomy, maths and medicine had been
translated into Arabic
 He honestly tells about the incompleteness of his information on any topic
 Al-Beruni writes about social and religious conditions, food and dress, games and
passtimes, weights and measures
 Important information about caste system
 According to him, some Hindus were of the view that the number of wives depend among
the caste
 Inhuman practices of killing of children by throwing them into fire
 Slate and chalk used in that time
 Alphabet of the Hindus consisted of 50 letters; many sounds
 He refers, Sidhamatrika in Kashmir, Nagara in Malwa, Andheri in Andhradesa
 Gave account of principal Indian festivals like Holi, Diwali, Shivaratri, Hindolicaitra, Harbali
and Mahatriji etc.
 Festivals were celebrated by women and children
 Indian write from left to right like greeks

Sultan Mahmud Ghazni

 First ‘Sultan’ of Muslim history is generally given by historian
 Son of Sabuktgin, the famous invader of India
 Contemporary sources : Kitab-ul-Yamini of Utbi who was a court historian of Sultan
Mahmud
 Kitab-ul-Yamini covers the whole period of Sabuktgin and Sultan Mahmud upto 1020 AD
 Zain-ul-Akhbar of Abdul Said Abdul Hai
 Other important contemporary works are Tarikh-i-Masudi and ‘The Diwans of Poets’
 Non contemporary works that provided description of references regarding Sultan
Mahmud invasion of India are: Rajtarangini of Kalhana, Al Kamil fit Tarikh of Ibnul Athir and
works of Abul Faraj Abdul Rahman, Jamai Uddin Abu Hasan and among later works
Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi of Firishta

Objectives of Sultan Mahmud’s Invasion

  Modern historians have given different opinions
 Mohammad Habib says that Sultan Mahmud did not follow the advice of Ulema and did
much damage to Islam. According to him he was purely a man of this world
 S.M. Jaffar opined that Mahmud attacked Hindu temples not because of his religious zeal
but because he desired to get their wealth
 Havell express the view that he could loot Baghdad the same way as he looted Indian
cities
 According to Nazim, the real object of his invasion was not religious but economic
 Mahmud’s main motive for invasion is to acquire money that he needed for building up in
large Central Asian Empire
 That is why he raided practically the whole of India but he did not make any effort to
establish his authority in the region
 AB Pandey’s opinion is different, he says that Mahmud’s aim was to procure elephants
which could be utilized in wars against his enemies in Centra Asia

Mahmud’s Invasion

 In 999 AD, Mahmud recognized as independent sovereign by Caliph of Baghdad

 After which he started invasion every year in India
 In 1000 AD, he invaded and occupied some frontier force
 1001 AD, attacked the ruler of Hindushahi dynasty Jaipal
 According to treaty Jaipal agreed to pay 250000 dinars and 50 elephants
 In 1009 AD, Sultan defeated the ruler of Narayanpur and plundered its wealth
 In 1018 AD, Sultan attacked Ganga-Jamuna doab Mathura and got enormous wealth from
Mathura
 In 1025 AD, Sultan with 3000 cavalry and 100 of volunteers came on his famous expedition
to Somnath temple
 Sultan’s last campaign was in 1027 AD

Possible Factors behind the Success of the Ghorians/Turkish

 Fakhr-i-Mudabbir’s account in his Adab-ul-Harb mentions some causes behind the success
 Modern historians of Medieval Indian history have given various causes for the Turkish
success
 Most important was their military superiority over the Indian armies
 Indian rulers did not aware about the developments of the art of warfare in Central Asia
 Mobility was the important feature of Turkish military
 According to British historian such as Elphinstone, Lane Poole and V.A. Smith, Indians
were vegetarian and Turkish were non vegetarian
 But this view have been discarded by the historians on scientific basis
 Another important cause was political weakness of India, lack of unity. In that time India
was divided into many states and they fought each other for political supremacy
 Social condition: caste system, untouchability
 Responsibilty of fighting war was on only to Kshatriyas
 Technological superiority of Turkish, they used iron stirrup and horse shoes for horse
power
 Fighting experience in Central Asia and political weakness of India and social condition
were the most important reason for the success of the Turkish armies in India

Slave Dynasty (1206-90)

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-10)
 In 1206 AD, at the time of the death, the Ghori’s possession in India comprised of Mutan,
Ochch, Narwada, Sialkot, Lahore, Tarain, Ajmeer, Meerut, Gwalior, Delhi, Bihar etc.
 After the death of Sultan Muizuddin, his famous slave Tajuddin Yelduz succeeded him in
Ghazni
 Another slave Nasiruddin Qubacha occupied control of Multan and Uchch
 Qutbuddin Aibek who was in Delhi at that time marched to Lahore and ascended the
throne
 Both Qubacha and Aibek had married the two daughters of Yelduz
 They struggled each other for the position of Punjab
 Aibak succeeded in keeping his control over Lahore which he made his capital
 Aibek had to face many challenges to keep his position
 Yelduz and Qubacha were the two contenders for the throne
 Aibek has been traced by contemporary historian for his liberality and gallantry

 Capital Lahore and later Delhi

 Patronized writers like Hasan Nizami and Fakhruddin
 Tazul Maasir of Hasan Nizami is a work primarily dealing with Aibak
 Constructed Quwwatul Islam Mosque, Adhai din ka Jhonpra and Qutub Minar
 In 1210, while playing Chaugan (polo) at Lahore, he fell off his horse and died of injuries

Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish (1211-36)

 Slave of Aibak
 Belongs to the Ilbari tribe of the Turks
 His father Ilam Khan was a leader of this tribe
 He was sold to a slave dealer by his brothers and after being sold and resold at different
hands he was finally purchased by Qutbuddin Aibak
 Aibak had understood his qualities and promoted him from one position to another
 Finally he made Iqtadar of Badaun
 Aram Shah was defeated and Iltutmish ascended the throne
 Iltutmish reign of 26 years may broadly be divided into three phases:
 (i) 1210-20, during which period he was mainly busy in dealing with rivals i.e. Yelduz and
Qubacha to his authority
 (ii) 1220-27, He had to direct his attention towards the situation created by the invasion
Chingiz Khan
 (iii) 1227-36, he was mainly busy in establishing his personal and dynastic authority
 Iltutmish introduced Iqta system
 Two types of Iqta, Iqta-i-tamlik and Iqta-i-isteghlal
 Iqta-i-tamlik covers land and Iqta-i-isteghlal was related to stipends (wazifa)
 Iltutmish assigned the iqtas to the Turks
 Among the Sultans of Delhi Iltutmish’s contribution to the military system of the Delhi
Sultanate was the greatest
 He issued coins, silver tanka and copper jital
 Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of forty) formed by Iltutmish
 Iltutmish patronized Minhaj-us-Siraj author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266-87)

 Last important ruler of slave dynasty

  The struggle between the monarchy and the Turkish slave officers continued till one of the
Turkish slave officer Ulugh Khan belong into the Turkan-i-Chahalgani gradually arrogated
all power to himself and finally ascended the throne in 1266 AD
 He was an Ilbari Turk, original name was Bahauddin and slave of Iltutmish
 In order to destroy the power of Turkan-i-Chahalgani, he propounded a new theory of
kingship
 Kingship theory derived its form from Sassanid Persia
 Kingship is the vice regency of God (niyabat-i-khudai), and took the title (zill-i-ilahi)
shadow of God on Earth
 In his court he introduced some formalities like Sijda and Paibos (kissing of feet)
 Balban emphasized a great difference between the high born and low born
 He was very careful about the genealogy of persons
 He believed that Persian traditions were essential for kingship
 Amir-i-Hajib was appointed to regularise the proceedings of the court
 A separate military department known as Diwan-i-wizarat and Diwan-i-Arz was
established
 Well known poet Amir Khusrau (1235-1325) adorned the court of Balban

Balban Theory of Kingship:

The chief means adopted by Balban for consolidating the empire was the restoration of the crown’s
prestige and an ability to inspire respect for its sanctity and power and the establishment of an
integrated and centralized state symbolized by a strong unquestioned monarchy.

Balban came to the conclusion that in order to strengthen the power and the position of the
monarchy, the power base of Turkan-i-chahalgani should have been destroyed. In fact, like French
monarch Louis XIV, he made monarchy a serious profession. It was in this context that he
propounded a new theory of kingship.

He borrowed the model of kingship from Sassanid Persia, where kingship had been raised to the
highest possible level. For that purpose, he made some compromises even with Islamic values. He
declared himself to be a successor of Afrasiyab, an Iranian warrior. He declared the crown as
Niyabat-I-Khudai (gift from God) and took the title for himself Jil-I-Ilahi (a shadow of God on
earth). In his court, he introduced some formalities like Sijda (prostration) and Paibos (kissing of
feet). Nobles have to maintain the proper decorum in the court. They had to appear in the court in
proper dress. An official Amir-e-Hajib was appointed to regularise the proceedings of the court.

So, Balban set about the task of consciously promoting the image of the crown. This was needed to
eliminate all contest for the throne. By drilling into the ears of his Maliks and amirs that kingship
is something divinely ordained, he wanted to wash off all stigma of being a regicide and wanted to
impress upon them that it was Divine will that had brought him to the throne.

Balban theory of kingship reflected racial leanings as well. In fact on the one hand he was breaking
the power of the Turkish nobles but simultaneously he was conscious to project himself as the
protector of the rights of Turkish nobles. He declared “whenever I see a base-born ignoble man my
eyes burn and my hand reaches up to the sword”. It is said that he refused to appoint some low -
born Muslim Kamal Amaya on the post of Khwaja.

Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320)

Jalaluddin Firoz Khalji (1290-96)

 He made kilokhari as his capital

 Malik Firuz Khalji had served Balban for many years and had earned great distinction as a
military officer in wars against the Mongols
 Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

 Alauddin assassinate his uncle Jalaluddin Khalji and ascended the throne
 Mongol had been a constant problem for the Sultans of Delhi since the time of Iltutmish
 During the reign of Alauddin there were five invasions of the mongols
 First Mongol invasion took place in 1297-98
 1 lac Mongols was defeated by Alauddin’s force led by Zafar Khan and nearly 20000
Mongols were killed and many Mongol officers were taken prisoner
Agrarian Measures
 Alauddin Khalji was the first sovereign in the Sultanate of Delhi who took keen interest in
agrarian measures
 There was a khalisa land directly under the diwan-i-wizarat who collected the revenue
through Amils, Karkuns etc
 Then there was a land under the provincial governor called Muqtis, who collected the
revenue, deducted their share of pay and expanses of provincial administration
 Alauddin’s first regulation converted all the land of the Sultanate into Khalisa (i.e. under
direct control of the state)
 By another ordinance, the Sultan fixed the land tax at 50% of the produce
 Abolished jagirdari system
Market Control Poilcy
 Barni says that Alauddin decided to implement price control for maintaining his strong and
efficient army against the Mongols
 In Khazainul Futuh of Amir Khusrau, not with reference to military measure but a measure
of public welfare
 KS Lal says, Alauddin therefore decided to cut down the salary of soldiers but to prevent
them from falling a victim to economic distress, He also reduced the price of commodities
of daily used
 According to U.N. Dey, the primary reason of controlling the market was not to reduce the
salary of soldiers but to check the raising prices of articles
 Alauddin organized the following markets in Delhi :
 (a) Central grain market or mandi
 (b) Sera-i-adl which was the exclusive market for cloth, sugar, herbs, dry fruits, butter, oil
etc
 (c) markets for horses, slaves and cattles
 Sultan received reports of the grain market from three independent sources
 First from the controller (Shuhna) of the market, second from Barids (intelligence officers)
and lastly from the secret spies
 Alauddin had ordered that all merchants of Delhi as well as of the Sultanate to be
registered with the ministry of commerce (Diwan-i-Riyasat) and their business was to be
regulated
 He also regulated market for horses, slaves and cattes
 The rates for first grade horses were 100-120 tankas
 Second grade horses were 90-100 tankas
 Third grade horses 60-70 tankas
 Barni and Firishta said that the price control obtained only in Delhi

Tughluq Dynnasty 1320-1414

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1320-25) and his administrative measures

 Malik Tughluq later known as Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (founder of Tughluq dynasty)

 Came to India during the Khalji period
  Atif and Ibn-i-Batuta place Tughluq is arrived in India during the reign of Alauddin Khalji
 But Amir Khusrau clearly say that after searching for livelihood in Delhi for considerable
time Tughlaq was taken into service of empire or guard by Jalaluddin Khalji
 During the reign of Alauddin Khalji Malik Tughluq raise position and prestige
 He was on bad terms with the famous Sufi saint Nizamuddin Aulia
 The first Sultan credited with digging canals for the promotion of agriculture
 He laid the foundation of a big palace fort which came to be known as Tughlaquabad

Mohammad bin Tughluq (1325-51)

 He was a experimental king

 He was criticized by many historians for his policies
 Prince Fakhruddin Jauna, entitled Ulugh Khan, succeeded under the title of Mohammad
Shah Tughluq
 He was well versed in various branches of learning i.e. astronomy, maths, medicine,
philosophy etc
 Formulated famine code to provide agriculture
 Created the department of Agriculture (Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi)
 Sultan raised the taxation level in Doab area
 He is the first Sultan to advance loans known as Sondhar to peasants for digging well to
extend cultivation
 He was quick in formulating new plans but slow in understanding the psychology of the
people
 Transfer of Capital, Delhi to Devagiri, Devagiri renamed as Daulatabad
 Sultan’s counsellors suggested Ujjain for that purpose but Sultan’s decision went in favour
of Devagiri
 According to Barni, Sultan made Devagiri his capital because he thought that it was more
centrally situated and equidistant from Delhi, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Sonargaon etc.
 Isami says, since the Sultan was suspicious of the people of Delhi, he thought of driving
them out in the direction of South in order to break their power
 In order to execute his transfer of capital project, the Sultan ordered many of the leading
officers including Sufi saints to shift to Devagiri
 Sultan had built a road from Delhi to Daulatabad and rest houses were also constructed
on the way to help the travellers
 Daulatabad was more than 1500 k.m.
 Many people died due to the rigorous of the journey and the heat of summer
 After a couple of years, Sultan decided to abandoned Daulatabad, because he soon
realized that just as he could not control the South from Delhi, he could not control
North India from Daulatabad
 Mohammad bin Tughluq has invested huge money to make this scheme a success but it
proved a failure and caused great resignment among the people

Revolts during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq

 One category of the Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq’s military activity was involved in
conquering areas and the another category was involved in suppressing the revolts
against him
 The first rebellion against the Sultan took place according to Isami 2 years after his
accession
 There were total of 22 revolts against the Sultan

Token Currency
 After the implementation and failure of the transfer of capital project Mohammad bin
Tughluq came forward another project of token currency
 In those days, silver coin known as ‘Tanka’ and copper coin known as ‘Jital’
 Sultan issued a bronze coin in place of the silver coin and demanded its acceptance as a
token coin equivalent to the silver ‘tanka’
 This experiment of token currency was not new in Asia, there was a shortage of silver in
the world in the 14th century
 Qublai Khan of China had already successfully experimented with it

Firoz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388)

 Feroze Tughlaq was termed as the Akbar of the Sultanate period by Henry Elliot and
Elphinstone
 The most remarkable contribution was made in the science of astronomy books like Zikr
Manasu bath Karva Cave
 The Sultan also opened a large number of hospitals (Darul Shafa) where medicines used to
be distributed free to the people
 He established and an employment bureau to provide work to unemployed, he also
created an endowment fund
 Revive the Jagir system which had been abolished by Alauddin Khalji and granted it to his
military in lieu of cash salaries
 A separate department for slaves Diwan-i-Bandgan was established
 He waived of all debts which the late Sultan had advanced to the agriculturist and
reduced the rates of land revenues
 His most important contribution was the introduction of a series of canals for irrigation
purpose
 The taxation policy was based on the Islamic law Shariat only five taxes were imposed,
Kharaj, Jaziya (alms), Jaziya (poll tax), Khams
 Public Works art and architecture
 Feroze was the first Muslim king to under take works of public utility and who was also
known as the lover of Gardens
 He founded the town of Jaunpur, Fatehabad, Hisar, Firozabad,
 He brought two of the Ashokan pillar to Delhi from Khizrabad and Meerut
 He was a great patron of learning and patronised Barni and Afif.
 Shams-i-Sriraz Afif was the official historian of Feroze reign

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

 The Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan, who was the governor of Multan and
Timur's deputy in India.
 This dynasty ruled for 37 years from 1414 to 1451 AD by four rulers- Khizr Khan, Mubarak,
Muhammad Shah, Alam Shah.

Khizr Khan (1414- 1421 A.D.)

 He was the founder of the Sayyid Dynasty in India and ruled as a deputy of Timur’s son
and successor, Shah Rukh.
 His reign was marked by utter chaos and disorder. The empire’s territory had Shrunken to
Delhi and adjoining areas and even these parts were frequently challenged by the Hindu
Zamindars of Etawah, Katehar, Kannauj, Patiala and Kampila.
 He died of illness in AD 1421.

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434 A.D.)

  2. He was the ablest ruler of the dynasty. He subdued the rebellion at Bhatinda and Daob
and the revolt by Khokhars Chief Jasrat.
 3. He patronised Vahiya Bin Ahmad Sarhind, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi.
 Mubarak Shah was succeeded by two incompetent rulers, Muhammad Shah (AD 1434-
1445) and Alauddin Alam Shah (AD 1445-1450).
 Most of the provincial kingdoms declared their independence. Hence, Alam Shah
surrendered the throne and retired in an inglorious manner to Baduan.
 Finally Bahlol Lodhi captured the throne of Delhi with the support of Wazir Khan.
 He is first Sultan ruler to appoint Hindu nobles in the court of Delhi.
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)
Lodi dynasty was originally from Afghan who ruled Delhi Sultanate for about 75 years.

Bahlul Lodi (1451 -1489 A.D.)

1. He was a wise statesman who knew his limits.

2. He took various measures to gratify his nobles.
3. Gwalior, Samthal, Sakit, Mewat was conquered by Bahlul Lodi.
4. To gain support and recognition, Bahlul Lodi never sat on the throne instead, he opted to
sit on the carpet with his nobles.

Sikandar Lodhi(1489-1517 A.D.)

 Sikandar Lodi took the title of Sikandar Shah. It was Sikandar Lodi who founded Agra city in
1504 and moved capital from Delhi to Agra.
 Sikandar Lodi, further, abolished the corn duties and patronized trade and commerce in his
kingdom.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 A.D.)

1. Ibrahim Lodi was stubborn and intolerant which were not good qualities in a ruler.
2. Nobles were killed cruelly and many nobles were humiliated by Ibrahim Lodi.
3. He also treated his son Dilwar Khan Lodi cruelly.
4. Invasion of India was done by Kabul ruler, Babur, at the behest of Daulat Khan, a very
powerful noble from Punjab.
5. In the 1st battle of Panipat in the year 1526 A.D, Ibrahim Lodi faced defeat at the hands of
Babur.

Administration of Sultanate

 The Sultan held the highest position in the administrative structure

 Political, legal, and military authority vested in him
 He was responsible for the safety and security of the state and as such he was responsible
for administration and was also the commander in chief
 He was also responsible for the maintenance for law and justice
 To discharge in this function the Sultan appointed the Qazis
 He was the court of highest appeal
 Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq did not hesitated in giving harsh punishment even to the
members of the Ulema Class
 The Delhi Sultanate was divided into two iqtas and these iqtas were given to the leading
military leaders
 The assignees of the iqtas were called iqtadars
 They were required to maintain law and order in their areas and to collect revenue due
to the government
  The Iqtadars could also be transferred from one place to another
 There were a number of ministers at the Centre who assisted the Sultan in the
administration but they held their position at the pleasure of the Sultan
 The Wazir was the most important minister in the Sultanate administration
 Next to the Wazir, the most important department of the state was the Diwan-i-Arz or
the military department, Head of the department was called Arz-i-Mamalik, Balban was
the first Sultan to establish a separate Arz department,
 Alauddin Khalji introduced dagh and hulya system in the Army
 There were two other important departments of the state – the Diwan-i-Risalat and
Diwan-i-Insha
 Chief Qazi was the head of the department of justice, he was called Qazi-i-Quzat
 The Sultans appointed intelligence agents called the Barids different parts of the
Sultanate, the head of this department was called Barid-i-Mamalik
 Under Allauddin Khilji and Mohammad bin Tughlaq an officer called Amir-i-Koh was in
charge of the agriculture department
 Under Feroze Tughlaq the Department of Public Works and the Department of slaves
were established

Administration in Delhi Sultanate

Administration during the Delhi Sultanate was based on the laws of the Shariat or the laws of Islam.
Political, legal and military authority was vested in the Sultan. Thus military strength was the main
factor in succession of throne. Administrative units were, Iqta, Shiq, Paraganaa and Gram.

Administration during the Delhi Sultanate was completely dependent on Muslim laws which were
the laws of the Shariat or the laws of Islam. The Sultans and the nobles primary duty was to observe
the laws of Shariat or Islamic laws in the matters of the state. This period rightfully stated that the
Administration of Delhi Sultanate was largely influenced by their religion.

Central Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Central administration of the Delhi Sultanate followed a very systematic and well planned
administration procedure which was run by different ministers who had specific work assigned to
them. Besides, there were also several other departments and the Sultan appointed their officers to
carry on specific duties.

1. The SULTAN - was the head of the state and enjoyed unlimited powers in every sphere of state
activity.
2. The NAIB - also enjoyed equivalent position as that of the Sultan.
3. The WAZIR - was the Prime Minister of the state and headed the financial department.
4. Diwan –I- Ariz – He was the head of the department of diwani-i-arz and in that capacity was the
controller-general of the military department.
5. Diwan –I- Risalt - was the minister of foreign affairs he was in command of state tie ups with
neighboring kingdoms and also was assigned the task of alliancing with powerful rulers.
6. Sadr –Ur -Sadar - was the head of the religious department. His work was to the safeguard the
Islamic Laws and its upkeep.
7. Amir –I-Mazls -Shahi - he was the minister who looked after the festivals of the state, and made
sure of all the public conveniences and arrangements during festive seasons.
8. Diwan-I-Insha- was the minister who looked after the local correspondence of and different
offices.

Sultanate Architecture
Features of Sultanate Architecture
  Arch and dome method which dispensed with the need for large number of pillars to
support the roof and enabled the construction of large halls with a clear view.
 Use of superior mortar to hold the stones.
 Use of slab and beam method.
 Decorative exuberance, such as use of geometrical shapes, calligraphy, inspirational art
etc.
 Synthesise of indigenous motif such as ball motif, lotus etc.

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

 The material used by them to build early structures was derived from the destruction of
temples in India.
 extensive use of concrete and lime mortar
 An amazing range of stones was utilised for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff,
marble, etc.
 Swastika, lotus, bells and other Hindu motifs were also widely used in the structures of the
Sultanate thus giving them a grand and exquisite appearance.
Glimpse of Sultanate Architecture

1. Qutub Minar It is a towering 73 meter high tower founded by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak and
completed by Iltutmish in the memory of the Sufi Saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The last two
storeys were completed Firoz Shah Tughlaq. The Qutub Minar complex comprises of the Quwwat-
us-Islam Mosque, a 7 metre high iron pillar, the tomb of Iltutmish, Ala’i-Darwaza and the Ala’I
Minar.

3. Tomb of Balban It is first example of true arch and is located at the archaeological park in
Mehrauli. It contains a dome, which for the first time was built on correct scientific lines and also
has arches of very pleasing proportions.

6. Alai Darwaza : It is first example of surviving true arch. It was constructed with a dome shaped
gate made of red sandstone and decorated with stunning Turkic features made of white marble
inlay and inscriptions engraved in the ancient Naskh Script and screens made with Lattice stones
depicting unique Turkic craftsmanship.

7. Alauddin Khilji’s tomb and madarsa : It is located in the Qutub Complex, which is located near
the Mehrauli Archaeological Park. It was built by Ala-ud-din Khilji, as a college for the education
on Islamic scriptures and theology that consists of rooms and halls built around a quadrangular
court.

8. Tughlaqabad : The Palace cum Fortress Complex of Tughlaqabad was constructed by

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq built the Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq on a high
platform which marks a new trend in architecture for imposing skyline. He also built Jahanpanah,
one of the cities of Dilhi. Firoz Shah built Hauz Khas, a pleasure resort and also built Firoz Shah
Kotla fort. The Tughlaqs rulers started building the tombs on an elevated platform. They combine
the principles of arch and done with Islam and as are evident in Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s construction
of Hauz Khas.

9. Lodhi Garden : It is the finest example of the synthesis of dome, arch, slam and beam. Other
examples of architecture are Masjid Moth, Bara Khan and Chota Khan.

The Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

The decline of Delhi Sultanate had begun much earlier. It reached the highest limits of territorial
expansion in the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq, but almost at the same time it began to suffer
from dissolution. Neither Muhammad bin Tughlaq nor his successors succeeded in restoring the
unity of the Empire. It fell to pieces. The causes of its decline are not far to seek.

1. Inherent weakness: First, the Turco-Afghan Empire was built on the power of the sword. It
never rested on the foundation of the good-will of the ruled, without which on Empire can
last long.
2. Absence of strong rules: Secondly, the organization of the empire was inherently weak.
The successors were weak and inefficient. If the reigning prince happened to be strong, it
worked. But if the ruler proved a weakling, the whole structure gave away. Unfortunately
after the death of Sultan Firoz on strong ruler arose and successive rule of weak kings
hastened the process of decline.
3. Unenlightened policy of the Govt.: Thirdly, the Turco-Afghans rules failed to evolve any
broad and enlightened policy of government. They were mostly orthodox and intolerant in
their views so that they failed to enlist the moral support of the Hindus who formed the
bulk of the population.
4. Mistakes of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq: Fourthly, the wild and visionary projects of Sultan
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq plunged the country in hopeless chaos and confusion from the
effects of which it was never destined to rise again.
5. Absence of popular support: Fifthly, the Delhi Sultanate is based on military strength and
not on popular support. As a result of this, when the military power weakened because of
the weak Sultans, self- seeking provincial leaders and military generals revolted against the
Sultanate. In the 14th century, many provincial leaders declared themselves free leading to
the disintegration of Delhi Sultanate.
6. Invasion of Tamer: Finally, the invasion of Tamerlane, gave the final blow to the remnants
of the Turco-Afghan Empire, so that fell to pieces almost immediately.
7. Nobles were very powerful and act as kingmakers who controlled the weak sultans.
8. The jagirdari system received by Firoz Tughlak was an important factor responsible for the
ruin of the Sultans. The jagirdars became very powerful in their territories and asserted
their independence.

Administration of Vijayanagara Empire

 The Empire of Vijayanagara was founded by Harihara I and Bukka in 1336

 Vijaynagar was ruled by three different dynasties
 The first dynasty ruled from 1336 to 1486
 The second dynasty ruled for a very short period and came to an end in 1505
 The third dynasty ruled from 1505 to 1565, Krishna Deva Raja the greatest among the
rulers of Vijaynagar belonged to this dynasty
 The Vijaynagar estate was a monarchy, the king a co-pilot app pivotal role in the
administration. The Vijayanagara kings, like the Chola rulers generally nominated their
heirs, usually the eldest prince
 The primary duty of the King was to give protection to all his subjects and redress their
grievances, there was to maintain an efficient police and military organisation in the state
to ensure maintenance of law and order in his dominions
 The king was the highest court of appeal
 The rayasam was an officer who recorded the oral orders of the king
 The karanikam was an accountant
 The sarvanyaka, the mudrakarta and the vasalkariyam were some of the officers connected
with the king and the court
 The whole empire was divided into rajyas or mandalam (provinces) below which were
nadu (district), sthala (sub-district), and grama (village)
 One third of the provincial revenues was deposited in the royal treasury and the rest was
utilized to cover the expenses of local administration
  The villages were administered by a village panchayat

Bahmani Kingdom

 Foreign novels in the Deccan revolted against Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq and occupied
Daulatabad and chose Hassan Gangu as their Sultan
 Hassan assumed the title of Abul Muzaffar Allauddin Bahman Shah and thus led the
foundation of the independent Bahmani kingdom in 1347
 The Bahmani kingdom remained a powerful state of the South and possessed a larger part
of it for nearly 200 years
 Bahman Shah proved a capable and ambitious ruler, he made Gulbarga his capital
 Brahman was an efficient administrator he divided his kingdom in 4 provinces whose
capital were Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar

Sufi Movement
Chisti Order

 The Chishti Silsila was introduced in India by Sheikh Moinuddin Sijzi, who came to India
before the Turkish conquest
 He was born in 1141 in Sizistan
 He was a disciple of Khwaja Usman
 Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti came to Ajmer which was not nearly as seat of Chauhan power
but also a religious Centre and settled there
 The very eminent disciples of Sheikh Moinuddin popularised Chishti Silsila in northern
India, they were:
 Sheikh Hamiduddin Sufi in Rajputana and Sheikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiar kaki in Delhi
 Iltutmish give Sheikh Hamid Uddin a hearty welcome and requested him to stay near his
palace, he refused the Sultan’s request and made his Khanquah outside the city to avoid
identification with the centre of imperial power and conquest
 Iltutmish offered the post of Sheikhul Islam to Sheikh Hamid Uddin but he declined to
accept it
 Sheikh Hamiduddin was very fond of mystic music (Sama)
 Sheikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki left two chief Khalifas : Sheikh Badruddin Ghaznavi and
Sheikh Fariduddin Masud Ganj Shakar
 With the efforts of Sheikh Farid Uddin, the Chishti order attained an all India status and
its branches came to be established in many important towns of India
 One of his important and popular Khalifa was Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya
 Many of the Chishti saints lived under conditions of appalling poverty
 Sheikh Moinuddin and Sheikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki never owned houses
 The Sufis of the Chishti Silsila cut themselves off completely from kings, politics and
government service
 The GST is established DR centres at Ajmer, Narnaul ,Suwal, Nagaur and Mandal in
Rajputana. Hansi and Ajodhan in Punjab and in some towns of UP. Richard Rishi is Cilla
spread into other parts of the country and Chishti centre sprang up in Bihar, Bengal, Assam
and the Deccan

Sohrawardi Order

 The credit for organising the Sohrawardi Silsila in India belongs exclusively to Sheikh
Bahauddin Zakaria
 He was born at Kot Aror near Multan in 1182-83
 He reached Baghdad and became a disciple of Sheikh Shahabuddin Sohrawardi
  After obtaining Khilafat Sheikh Bahauddin was ordered to settle in Multan for the
progress of the Silsila
 He was one of the most influential mystic teacher of his age
 Sheikh Baha Uddin had independent views on many problems of religion and politics
 His mystic ideology was radically different from that of the Chishti contemporaries
 He believed in living normal, balanced life
 Unlike the Chishtis, succession in the Sohrawardia order was determined on a hereditary
basis
 Sheikh Sadruddin Arif, Sheikh Jalaluddin Surkh, Sheikh Ruknuddin Abul Fath are some of
the other luminaries of the Sohrawardi Silsila
 Suhrawardy saints maintained relations with kings and put forward the following
arguments in support of this attitude
 (i) Visit to royal courts provide them opportunities to help the poor people by getting
their grievances redressed by the Sultan
 (ii) they believed that by establishing personal contact with the rulers they could bring
about a change in their outlook
 Sheikh Baha Uddin had a treasury (Khazana) containing boxes full of gold and tankas
 The Sohrwardia Khanquah had large stock of cereals in its granaries, it’s treasuries were
replete with gold and silver coins
 The Shohrwardi Silsila flourished in Sindh and Punjab. Multan and Oochch were the
important Shohrwardi centres

Order Founder Principle

Chisti Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti Keep aloof from royal court. Popularised music recitations
called Sama (Mehboob-i-ilahi)
Suhrawardi Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi Accepted royal Service
Qadri Sheikh Nizamat Ullah Relies strongly upon adherence to the fundamentals of
Islam.
Naqshbandi Khwaja Pir Mohammad Orthodox Sect. Mujaddid opposed Shia, philosophy of
Wahadat-ul-Shahdud , wrote ‘Red-i-Khafid’ arrested by
Jhangir
Firdausi Sheikh Sarfudin Yahya Branch of Suhrawardi
Rashaniya Miyan Bayazid Ansari (Pir Wrote the bookKhai-ul-Byan
(Akbar’s reign) Roshan)
Mahadawi Mullah Mohammad Mahdi Opposed orthodox muslims
Risi Nuruddin Noorani (Wali) Oposed orthodox muslims
Qalandaria Abu Wali Qalander Wandering monks were called Darveshes
Shattari Abdullah Shattari Claimed direct contact with God

Bhakti Movement
How did the Bhakti Movement start?

Bhakti Movement started from South India, by Alvaras and Nayanars. Alvaras are the devotees of
Lord Vishnu and Nayanars are devotees of Lord Shiva. These devotees travelled to various places
singing hymns in praise of their Gods. Many temples were built that became sacred places of
pilgrimage. Some of the causes of the rise in the Bhakti movement are given below.

1. Evil practices in Hinduism

2. Fear of spread of Islam
3. Caste systems
4. Complicated ritualism
5. Need for fulfilling method of worship and salvation.
What was the main principle of Bhakti Movement?

Some of the main principles of Bhakti Movement are given below

1. God is one
2. All men are equal
3. Give up caste practices
4. Devotion is more important than rituals.

What are the effects of the Bhakti Movement?

1. Introduced Social giving like Seva

2. Introduced dana (charity)
3. Community kitchens with free food.
4. Believed in Non-violence (Ahimsa)
5. Helping poor farmers and feeding poor people.
6. Providing free hostels for poor people