Lecture note/MKMIUnit3/Part2

UNIT 3
ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY SYSTEMS
" Fuelcells-working principles, advantages, applications, discuss its
engineering trends
eniy
FUEL CELLS

Comparison with conventional Galvanic cells:

Fuel cells differ from conventional Galvanic cells in the following aespects:
1. The consist of two catalytic electrodes
2. The reagents used as fuel and accident
3. The fuel and accident are not stored in the cellthey are stored outside and
supply as and when required.
4. No pollutants enhance fuel cells are environmentally friendly.
5. No toxic species are formed in a fuel cell.
6. They do not need charging.

Advantages and Limitations:

Distinct advantages of fuel cells are:

1. The offer high energy conversions
almost 75%.
2. The sales have high energy
density.
3. The cells use in expensive fuels.

Fuel cell suffer from a few limitations:

1. The electrodes used are either Pt,
Ag or the alloys of noble metal
prohibitively costly. which are
2. The power generated is moderate.

Cell representation
The Representation of the fuel cellis
Fuel |electrode | electrolyte |
electrode loxidant.
 Lecture note/MKM/Unit3/Part2

The chemical reactions involved at the electrodes are

At anode: Fuel> oxidation product + ne
At cathode : oxidant + ne - - reduction product

The overall cell reaction:

Fuel + oxidant -> Oxidising product + reduction product

The frequently used fuels are hydrogen , methanol, ethanol, hydrazine,

formaldehyde ,carbon monoxide and alkane.The oxidants could be pure oxygen
or air.

HYDROGEN OXYGEN FUEL CELL

Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen

atoms. The hydrogen reacts with oxygen across an electrochemical cell
similar to a batteryto produce electricity, water, and small amounts of heat.

Hydrogen fuel cell

water Out

hydrogen in

oxygen in
4

energy
out

Hydrogen fuel cells are currently used to power the electrical systems on
spacecraft and to supply electricity on earth. Small fuel cells have been
developed to power electronic devices, such as laptop computers and cell
phones. Several vehicle manufacturers have developed fuel cells to power
vehicles. Fuel cells can potentially provide electricity for emergency power in
buildings and for remote locations that are not connected to electric power grids.
 Lecture note/MKM/Unit3/Part2

WORKING:
The whole set up consists of chambers.The first chamber serves as an inlet for
hydrogen while the second one serves as an inlet for oxygen .there are two
electrodes :Hydrogen passes over the anode and oxygen passes over the cathode
.In the middle is a Proton exchange membrane separating the two electrodes
from one another where these two gases can interact with each other .The
electrolyte separating the two electrodes is an ion -conducting material. When
electricity is applied the following reactions take place at the two electrodes:
Anode: 2H2(g)+40H-(aq)’4H20(1),+4e
cathode: 02(g)+2H2O()+4e-’40H-(aq)

Overall reaction: 2H2(g)+02(g)’2H20(|)

Types of Fuel Cells

Fuelcells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This
classification determines the kind of electro-chemicalreactions that take place
in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell
operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in turn,
affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several
types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages,
limitations, and potential applications.

POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells-also called proton exchange
membrane fuel cellsdeliver high power density and offer the advantages of
low weight and volume compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a
solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a
platinum or platinum alloy catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the
air, and water to operate. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied
from storage tanks or reformers.
PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F).
Low-temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time)
and results in less wear on system components,resulting in better durability.
 Lecture note/MKM/Unit3/Part2

However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to

separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The
platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning,
making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce carbon monoxide
in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from a hydrocarbon fuel. This reactor
also adds cost.
PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some
stationary applications. PEM fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in
vehicle applications, such as cars, buses, and heavy-duty trucks.

DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell
system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming
hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct
methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is
usually mixed with water and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.
Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical
of some fuel cell systems because methanol has a higher energy density than
hydrogen though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to
transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure because it is a
liquid, like gasoline. DMFCs are often used to provide power for portable fuel
cell applications such as cell phones or laptop computers.
ALKALINE FUEL CELLS
Alkaline fuelcells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies
developed, and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to
produce electrical energy and water on-board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a
solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety
of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. In recent years,
novel AFCs that use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte have been
developed. These fuel cells are closely related to conventional PEM fuel cells,
except that they use an alkaline membrane instead of an acid membrane. The
high performance of AFCs is due to the rate at which electro-chemical reactions
take place in the celI. They have also demonstrated efficiencies above 60% in
space applications.
Akey challenge for this fuel cell type is that it is susceptible to poisoning by
carbon dioxide (C02). In fact, even the smallamount of CO2 in the air can
 Lecture note/MKM/Unit3/Part2

dramatically affect cell performance and durability due to carbonate formation.

Alkaline cells with liquid electrolytes can be run in a recirculating mode, which
allows for electrolyte regeneration to help reduce the effects of carbonatewith
formation in the electrolyte, but the recirculating mode introduces issues
additional
shunt currents. The liquid electrolyte systems also suffer from
difficulties handling
concerns including wettability, increased corrosion, and
(AMFCs) address these
differential pressures. Alkaline membrane fuel cells
than liquid-electrolyte
concerns and have lower susceptibility to C02 poisoningperformance and
and
AFCsdo. However, CO2 stillaffects performance,AMFCs are being considered
PEMFCs.
durability of the AMFCs still lag that of AMFCs include tolerance
the Wto kW scale. Challenges for
for applications in
carbon dioxide, membrane conductivity and durability, higher temperature
to and anode electrocatalysis.
management, power density,
operation, water
PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELLS
acid fuel cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as an matrix
Phosphoric Teflon-bonded silicon carbide
electrolyte the acid is contained in a
electrodes containinga platinum catalyst. The electro
and porous carbon shown in the diagram to the
the cellare
chemical reactions that take place in
one of
right.
considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is
The PAFCis used commercially. This type of
and the first to be
the most mature cell types power generation, but some PAFCs
have
typically used for stationary
fuel cellis
vehicles such as city buses.
been used to power large fossil fuels that have been
reformed
tolerant of impurities in
PAFCs are more by carbon monoxide
hydrogen than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned"
into platinum catalyst at the anode,
because carbon monoxide binds to the when
the fuel cell's efficiency. PAFCs are more than 85% efficient
decreasing efficient at
co-generation of electricity and heat but they are less
used for the efficiency is only slightly more
alone (37% 42%). PAFC
generating electricity
that of combustion-based power plants, which typically operate at around
than
efficiency. PAFCs are also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the
33%
weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and
same
much higher loadings of
heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. They require cells do, which raises the
fuel
expensive platinum catalyst than other types of
cost.
 Lecture note/MKM/Unit3/Part2

MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural
gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military
applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte
composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically
inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide matrix. Because they operate at high
be used as
temperatures of 650°C(roughly 1,200°F), non-precious metals can
catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.
significant cost reductions
Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer
phosphoric acid fuel cells. Molten carbonate fuel cells,when coupled with
over
65%, considerably higher than the
aturbine, can reach efficiencies approaching cell plant. When the waste heat
fuel
37%-42% efficiencies of aphosphoric acid 85%.
efficiencies can be over
is captured and used, overallfuel an
alkaline, phosphoric acid, and PEM fuel cells, MCFCs do not require
Unlike
natural gas and biogas to hydrogern.
external reformer to convert fuels such as light
high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, methane and other
At the hydrogen within the fuel cell itself
hydrocarbons in these fuels are converted to
reforming, which also reduces cost.
by a process called internal technology is durability. The high
disadvantage of current MCFC
The primary the corrosive electrolyte used
temperatures at which these cells operate and
corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists
accelerate component breakdown and
currently exploring corrosion-resistant materialsfor components as well as
are current 40,000 hours (~5 years)
fuel celldesigns that double cell life from the
without decreasing performance.

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELLS

as the
Solidoxide fuelcells (SOFCs)use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound
electricity. In
electrolyte. SOFCsare around 60% efficient at converting fuel to
applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co
generation), overall fuel use efficiencies could top 85%.
High
SOFCs operate at very high temperatures-as high as 1,000°C(1,830°F).
temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby
reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables
the use of avariety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a
reformer to the system.
SOFCs are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several
orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types can. In addition, they are
 Lecture note/MKM/Unit3/Part2

not poisoned by carbon monoxide, which can even be used as fuel. This
property allows SOFCs to use natural gas, biogas, and gases made from coal.
High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and
requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which
may be acceptable for utility applications but not for transportation. The high
operating temperatures also place stringent durability requirements on materials.
The development of low-cost materials with high durability at celloperating
temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.
Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature
SOFCsoperating at or below 700°C that have fewer durability problems and
cost less. Lower-temperature SOFCs have not yet matched the performance of
the higher temperature systems, however, and stack materials that will function
inthis lower temperature range are still under development.

REVERSIBLE FUEL CELLS

Reversible fuel cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and
generate heat and water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells. However,
reversible fuel cell systems can also use electricity from solar power, wind
power, or other sources to split water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel through a
process called electrolysis. Reversible fuel cells can provide power when
needed, but during times of high power production from other technologies
(such as when high winds lead to an excess of available wind power), reversible
fuel cells can store the excess energy in the form of hydrogen. Thisenergy
storage capability could be a key enabler for intermittent renewable energy
technologies.
FUEL CELLS
Afuel cell isa device that converts chemical potential energy (energy
stored in molecular bonds) into electrical energy.
Unlike a generator, a fuel cell directly "converts" an energy source into electricity
through a chemical reaction. This involves one step rather than multiple steps. This
allows a fuel cell to remain efficient, quiet and clean.
Difference between fuel cell and battery:
The biggest difference between the two is that a battery stores energy, while a
fuel cell generates energy by converting available fuel. Afuel cell can have a
battery as asystem component to store the electricity it's generating.

Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ.
The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass
between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel
through the electrolyte,they would disrupt the chemical reaction.
Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water,
which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen,
it willgenerate electricity.
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells.
Direct methanol fuel cells.
Alkaline fuel cells. .
Phosphoric acid fuel cells.
Molten carbonate fuel cells.
Solid oxide fuel cells.
Reversible fuel cells.

Howdo fuel cells work?

There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But in general
terms, hydrogen atoms enter afuel cell at the anode where achemical reaction strips
them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now "ionized," and carry a positive
electrical charge. The negatively charged electrons provide the current through wires to
do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC output of the fuel cell must be
routed through a conversion device called an inverter.

Catalyst Catalyrt Oxygen

from
Proton Echange Alr
Membrane

Exhaust

Hydrogen
from
Tank

Electrical Circuit
Graphic by Marc Marshall, Schatz Energy Research Center

Oxygen enters the fuel cellat the cathode and, in some cell types (like the one
illustrated above), it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical circuit
and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other
celltypes the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte to the
anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions.

The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass
between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel
through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical reaction.

Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water,
which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen,
it will generate electricity.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Hydrogen + Oxygen= Electricity + Water Vapor

APEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) celluses hydrogen gas (H.) and

Oxygen gas (0.)as fuel. The products of the reaction in the cell are
water, electricity, and heat.
There are four basic elements ofa PEM Fuel Cell:

HydrogeD Cathoda
Anode Ait
(ogen)

Water

PEM

Hydrogen Oxygen
Flow Field Flow Field
Backing Layers
 Proton exchange membrane fuel celI
Hydrogen fuel is channeled through held flow
piates to the anode on one side o the fuel ell.
while oxidant loxygen or ar) s channeled to the
cathode on the other side d the cel.

Backing layers Oxidant

Hydrogn Oxidant flow fiekd
Hydrogen
flow heid The potymer electrolyte
At the anode, a membrane (PEM) alows
2 platinum catayst only the pastivey
causes the charged ions to pass
hydogen to split through it to the cathode.
into positve The negatvey charged
hydogen ions electrors must travel
iprobns) and along an extemal circuit
negatively charged to the cathode, creating
eiectrons. an electrical curent.

Unused y
fuei

Anode Cathode
(negative (positive)
At the cathode, the electrons
polymer
electrolyte and r
hudrpostvely charge
mbine wth
membrane oVOEn to form er, wh
flows out of the cell.

H,

Anode

ions+
ions+ Electrolyte ionst |Load

Cathode

H,0
O2
 How does it work?
Pressurized hydrogen gas (H.) entering the fuel cell on the anode side.
. This gas is forced through the catalyst by the pressure. When an
H. molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits
into two H+ ions and two electrons (e-). The electrons are conducted
through the anode, where they make their way through the external
circuit (doing usefulwork such as turning a motor) and return to the
cathode side of the fuel cell.
Meanwhile,on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (O.) is being
forced through the catalyst, where it forms two Oxygen atoms. Each of
these atoms has a strong negative charge. This negative charge attracts
the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with an
Oxygen atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to form a
water molecule (H.O).

Due to the high energetic content of hydrogen and high efficiency of fuel
cells (55%), this great technology can be used in many applications like
transport (cars, buses, forklifts, etc) and backup power to produce
electricity during a failure of the electricity grid.

Detailed functions of differentcomponents:

The anode, the negative post of the fuel cell, has several jobs. It
conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so
that they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it
that disperse the hydrogen gas equally over the surface of the catalyst.
The cathode, the positive post of the fuel cell, has channels etched into it
that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also conducts
the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they
can recombine with the hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane.This specially treated
material, which looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrap, only
 heat Advantages
thermodynamics) fuel By combining
perform areprotons
the
electrons
membrane. As
converting
from cells forced
protons the
some useful and name
avoid
with to go are
cells of electrons
travel It
implies,
chemical blocked.
the the e directly allows
thwork,
can and
"thermal
technology: protonsthrough
also like protons the
are (remember,
potential
be
through So,
more lighting heart
harnessed,
bottleneck" and an when
efficient
to
external
O, a to the pass of
energy
on
bulb the a the
boosting protonthrough H, cell
(a in the cathode
extractingdirectly or
circuit. hits
consequence other
driving is
system isthe the
side Along side,catalyst the it
energy into virtually proton
efficiency a same
electrical motor,
to while
from produce the
of unimpeded, exchange
still athe
way the and as
fuel. before an
further. energy,2- electrons
they splits
Waste law water. H+
ion) into
of while
conducts positively charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons. For a
PEMFC, the membrane must be hydrated in order to function and
remain stable.
The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen
and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum nanoparticles very thinly
coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so
that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the
hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the
PEM.

As the name implies, the heart of the cell is the proton exchange
membrane. It allows protons to pass through it virtually unimpeded,while
electrons are blocked. So, when the H., hits the catalyst and splits into
protons and electrons (remember, a proton is the same as an H+ ion)
the protons go directly through to the cathode side, while the electrons
are forced to travel through an externalcircuit. Along the way they
perform useful work, like lighting a bulb or driving a motor, before
combining with the protons and O, on the other side to produce water.

Advantages of the technology:

By converting chemical potential energy directly into electrical energy.
fuel cells avoid the "thermal bottleneck" (a consequence of the 2- law of
thermodynamics)and are more efficient in extracting energy from a fuel. Waste
heat from some cells can also be harnessed, boosting system efficiency still further.
Thus fuel cells are inherently more efficient than combustion engines,
which must first convert chemical potentialenergy into heat, and then
mechanical work.

Direct emissions from a fuel cell vehicle are just water and a little
heat. This is a huge improvement over the internal combustion
engine's litany of greenhouse gases.
Fuelcells have no moving parts. They are thus much more reliable
than traditional engines.
Hydrogen can be produced in an environmentally friendly manner,
while oil extraction and refining is very damaging.

So why can't Igo out and buy a fuel cell?

Drawbacks of Fuel Cells:

The basic workings of a fuel cellis are simple. But building inexpensive, efficient, reliable
fuel cells is a far more complicated business in terms of the choice of electrolyte, the
design of electrodes and purity of fuel. Today, the main electrolyte types are alkali,
molten carbonate, phosphoric acid, proton exchange membrane (PEM)and solid oxide.
The type of fuel also depends on the electrolyte. Some cells need pure hydrogen, and
therefore demand extra equipment such as a "reformer" to purify the fuel. Other cells
can tolerate some impurities, but might need higher temperatures to run efficiently.

The type of electrolyte also dictates a cell's operating termperature-"molten" carbonate

cells run hot, just as the name implies.

Each type of fuel cell has advantages and drawbacks compared to the others, and none
is yetcheap and efficient enough to widely replace traditional ways of generating power,
such as coal-fired, hydroelectric, or even nuclear power plants.
 Different types of fuel cells.
Alkali fuelcells operate on compressed Alkali
Fuel Cell
hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use Electron’
a solution of potassium hydroxide Flow
(chemically, KOH) in water as their Losd

electrolyte. Efficiency isabout 70 percent,

and operating temperature is 150 to 200
degrees C. Hydrogen Oxgen

In these cells, hydroxyl ions (OH-) Ojo o

migrate from the cathode to the Water
Hydroxy
lons
anode. At the anode, hydrogen gas
reacts with the OH- ions to produce
water and release electrons. Electrons Anode Cathode
Electrolyte
generated at the anode supply Drawing of an alkalicell.
electrical power to an external circuit
then return to the cathode. There the electrons react with oxygen and water to
produce more hydroxyl ions that diffuse into the electrolyte.
Applications:
Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water.
They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are
expensive. And like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.

Molten Carbonate Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use

Fuel Cel high-temperature compounds of salt (like
Electron ’ sodium or magnesium)carbonates
Flow
Load
(chemically, CO:) as the electrolyte.
Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent,
and operating temperature is about 650
Hydrogen o |Oxygen degrees C.
Carbon The salts melt and conduct carbonate
Trioxide
lons ions (CO3) from the cathode to the
Water
Carbon anode. At the anode, hydrogen reacts
Doxde with the ions to produce water, carbon
Anode Cathode
dioxide, and electrons. The electrons
Electrolyte
Drawing of a molten carbonate cell
travel through an external circuit,
providing electrical power along the
way, and return to the cathode. There, oxygen from air and carbon dioxide
recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form CO3 ions that
replenish the electrolyte and transfer current through the fuel cell.

Applications
Molten carbonate fuel cells demand such high operating temperatures that most
applications for this kind of cell are limited to large, stationary power plants. Yet
consumers might benefit from this type of cell, even if they never see it in their homes.
The high operating temperature opens the oppotunity of using waste heat to make
steam for space heating, industrial processing, or in a steam turbine to generate more
electricity. Many modern gas-fired power plants exploit this type of system, called
cogeneration.

The high temperature limits damage from carbon monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and
waste heat can be recycled to make additionalelectricity. Their nickel electrode
catalysts are inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells. But the high
temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs-they would probably be
too hot for home use. Also, carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the
reactions, making it necessary to inject carbon dioxide to compensate.
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency
ranges from 40 to 80percent, and operating temperature is between 150 to 200
degrees C. PAFCs tolerate a carbon monoxide concentration of about 1.5 percent,
which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. Hydrogen for the fuel cell is
extracted from a hydrocarbon fuel in an external reformer. If the hydrocarbon
fuel is gasoline, sulfur must be removed or it will damage the electrode
catalyst. Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able to
withstand the corrosive acid.
 Phosphoric Acid and
PEM Fuel Cells
Electron’
Flow
Load

Hydrogen Oxygen

Olo o OHydrogen
lons
Water

Anode Cathode
Electrolyte
Drawing of how both phosphoric acid and PEM fuel
cells operate.

Application:
It has found use in electric vehicles.

Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

in the form
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells work with a polymer electrolyte
of a thin, permeable sheet. This membrane is small and light, and it works at low
temperatures (about 80 degrees C, or about 175 degrees F). Other electrolytes require
temperatures as high as 1,000 degrees C.

To speedthe reaction a platinum catalyst is used on both

sides of the membrane. Hydrogen atoms are stripped of
their electrons, or "ionized," at the anode, and the positively
charged protons iffuse through one side of the porous
membrane and migrate toward the cathode. The electrons
pass from the anode to the cathode through an exterior
circuit and provide electric power along the way. At the
cathode, the electrons, hydrogen protons and oxygen from
the air combine to form water. For this fuel cell to work, the
proton exchange membrane electrolyte must allow GE's Russell Hodgdon shows a
hydrogen protons to pass through but prohibit the passage polymer electrolyte in 1965
of electrons and heavier gases.
Efficiency for a PEM cellreaches about 40 to 50 percent. An external reformer is
required to convert fuels such as methanol or gasoline to hydrogen. Currently,
demonstration units of 50 kilowatt (kw) capacity are operating and units producing up to
250 kw are under development.
Application:
In spacecrafts, automobiles and at home.

Solid Oxide Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

Fuel Cell
Electron Asolid oxide fuel cell(SOFC) uses a hard
Flow
Load
ceramic electrolyte instead of a liquid and
operates at temperatures up to 1,000
degrees C(about 1,800 degrees F). A
Hydrogen o |Oxygen mixture of zirconium oxide and calciùm
oxide form acrystal lattice, though other
Oxide combinations have also been used
Oxygen O
lons
as electrolytes. The solid electrolyte is
Water coated on both sides with specialized
porous electrode materials.

Anode
Electrolyte
Cathode At these high operating temperature,
Drawing of a solid oxide cell
Oxygen ions (with a negative charge)
migrate through the crystal lattice. When a
fuel gas containing hydrogen is passed over the anode, a flow
of negatively charged oxygen ions moves across the
electrolyte tooxidize the fuel. The oxygen is supplied, usually from air, at the cathode.
Electrons generated at the anode travel through an external load to the cathode,
completing the circuit and supplyingelectric power along the way. Generating
efficiencies can range up to about 60 percent.

Applications
Like molten carbonate fuel cells, solid oxide cells require high operating temperatures,
and their most common application is in large, stationary power plants. The high
temperatures open the opportunity for "cogeneration"using waste heat to generate
steam for space heating, industrial processing, or in asteam turbine to make more
electricity.