Meaning and Origin

The word virtue comes from the Latin root vir, for man. At first, virtue meant

Manliness or valor, being parallel to the old expression “man of character”, but over time

It settled into the sense of moral excellence. Virtue can also mean excellence in general

While it can be construed also as the quality of being morally good. Virtue ethics is

Classified as a teleological ethical principle. Teleological or teleology comes from the key

Greek word, telos, meaning an end or purpose proper to one’s nature. In other words,

Attaining virtue is the telos or purpose proper to human nature, e.g. virtue is knowledge in

Socrates, and virtue of character and intellectual virtue in Aristotle.

Socrates, as represented in Plato’s early dialogues, held that virtue is a sort of

Knowledge (the knowledge of good and evil) that is required to reach the ultimate

Good, or eudaimonia, which is what all human desires and actions aim to achieve.

Discussion of what were known as the Four Cardinal Virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude
And temperance) can be found in Plato’s “Republic”. He also claimed that the rational

Part of the soul or mind must govern the spirited, emotional and appetitive parts in order

To lead all desires and actions to eudaimonia, the principal constituent of which is virtue.

The concept reached its highest elevation in Aristotle’s “Nicomachean Ethics” in

The 4th Century B.C.E. Aristotle held that eudaimonia is constituted, not by honor, wealth

Or power, but by rational activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life, what

Might be described today as productive self-actualization. This rational activity, he

Judged, should manifest as honesty, pride, friendliness, wittiness, rationality in judgment;

Mutually beneficial friendships and scientific knowledge.

The Greek idea of the virtues was later incorporated into Scholastic Christian moral

Theology, particularly by St. Thomas Aquinas in his “Summa Theologiae” of 1274 and his

“Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics”. The Christian virtues were also based in

Large part on the Seven Virtues from Aurelius Clemens Prudentius’s epic poem (410 A.D.):
Chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, kindness, patience and humility. Practice of

These virtues was alleged to protect one against temptation from the Seven Deadly Sins

(lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath, envy and pride).

The term “virtue ethics” is a relatively recent one, essentially coined during the 20 th

Century revival of the theory, and it originally defined itself by calling for a change from

The then dominant normative theories of Deontology (e.g. Immanuel Kant with

Categorical Imperatives) and Consequentialism (e.g. Jeremy Bentham on Utilitarianism)

To illustrate the difference among three key moral philosophies mentioned above,

Ethicists Mark White and Robert Arp refer to the film The Dark Knight where Batman has

The opportunity to kill the Joker. Utilitarians, White and Arp suggest, would endorse killing

The Joker. By taking this one life, Batman could save multitudes. Deontologists, on the

Other hand, would reject killing the Joker simply because it’s wrong to kill. But a virtue

Ethicist “would highlight the character of the person who kills the Joker. Does Batman

Want to be the kind of person who takes his enemies’ lives?” No, in fact, he doesn’t.
So, virtue ethics helps us understand what it means to be a virtuous human being.

And, it gives us a guide for living life without giving us specific rules for resolving ethical

Dilemmas.

Character Building For A Good Life

Imagine a person who always knows what to say, can diffuse a tense situation,

Deliver tough news gracefully, confident without being arrogant, courageous but not

Reckless, generous but never prodigal. This is the type of person everybody wants to be

Around with and to be like, someone who seems to have mastered the art of being a

Person. This sounds like an impossible feat but Aristotle believed that while rare, these

People do exist. They are all what we should aspire to be: virtuous!

Virtue theory does not spend a lot of time telling you what to do, there is no

Categorical imperative or principles utility, and no set of rules to follow in order to be a

Good person, instead it’s all about an individual’s character. Aristotle and other virtue
Theorists argued that if we can just focus on being good people, the right actions

Naturally follow, and effortlessly; become a good person and you will do good things.

The theory reflects the ancient assumption that humans do have a fixed nature or

Essence and that the way we flourish is by adhering to that nature. Aristotle describe this

In terms of what he called proper functioning; everything has a function and a thing is

Good to the extent that it fulfills its function and it is bad if it does not. This is easy to see in

The things around us like a chair whose function is to be sat upon for comfort and

Convenience; a flower is expected to grow and reproduce and if it does not fulfill its

Function then it is a bad flower. The same is true for humans, while we are also animals, all

The stuff that indicate proper functioning for an animal holds true for us as well- we need

To grow, be healthy and fertile. We are also a rational animal, and social animal, so our

Function also involves using reason and getting along with our own species. Proper

Functioning is not all about God’s plan but that nature built into us that desire to be
Virtuous.

What does it mean to be virtuous? To claim that having virtue just means doing

The right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the right amount and to the right

Person is vague. For Aristotle, there is no need to be specific, because if you are virtuous,

You know just what to do. You know how to handle yourself and how to get along with

Others; you have a good judgement and you know what and when it is right. Aristotle

Understood virtue as a set of robust character traits that once developed, will lead to

Predictably good behavior. Virtue is the midpoint between two extremes, which are

Called vices; it is the right amount, the sweet spot between the extreme of excess and

The extreme of deficiency, and this spot is known as the Golden Mean; it is also referred

To by some scholars as the Theory of Moderation, or Theory of the Middle. To

Demonstrate the theory let’s take a look at some particular virtues starting with courage.

What is courage? Take a closer look at this situation: while on your way home you
See a person being mugged, what is the courageous action for you to take? Your

Immediate reaction might be the in line with the acclaimed idea that “a courageous

Person would run over there and stop the mugging because courage means putting

Yourself in a harm’s way for a good cause”. A virtuous person in the Aristotelian sense

Would first take a stock of the situation, size up the mugger and have a good reason to

Believe that you could safely intervene, and that is probably the courageous choice. So

If you assessed the situation and you recognized that intervention is like to mean that

Both you and the victim are in danger, the courageous thing to do is not to intervene

And call for help instead. According to Aristotle, courage is the midpoint between the

Extremes of cowardice and recklessness – cowardice is the deficiency of courage while

Recklessness is an excess of courage, and both are bad. Aristotle said that “you definitely

Can have too much of a good thing”, so being courageous doesn’t mean rushing

Headlong into danger, but rather “a courageous person will assess the situation, they will
Know their own abilities, and they will take the right action in the particular situation”.

Furthermore, part of having courage is being able to recognize when, rather than

Stepping in immediately, you need to find authority who can handle the situation that is

Too big for you to tackle alone. Basically, courage is finding the right way to act. Aristotle

Thought all virtues work like this: the right action is always a midpoint between two

Extremes so there is no “all or nothing” in this theory including honesty. Accordingly,

Honesty is the midpoint between the extremes of brutal honesty and failing to say things

That need to be said – it is knowing what needs to be put out there and what you should

Keep quiet about. It also means knowing how to deliver hard truths gracefully, how to

Break bad news gently, or to offer criticism in a way that it is constructive, rather that

Soul-crushing.

To determine the midpoint of every action can become tedious, not to mention

The fact that the midpoint could vary from person to person as well as from one situation
To the other. How then can we possibly learn to be virtuous? According to Aristotle, virtue

Is a skill, a way of living, and it is something that can only really be learned through

Experience. Virtue is a kind of knowledge he called practical wisdom, or phronesis. It is

Something that one can learn practically in the streets or while performing those multiple

Concerns or chores in life like cooking, attending classes or even reading a book. A

Character is developed through habituation – if you do a virtuous thing over and over

Again, eventually it will become part of your character. Furthermore, learning to do the

Right thing comes by way of finding those who are, in a way, already virtuous and

Emulating them. These people who already possess virtues are called moral exemplars,

And according to this theory, we are built with the ability to recognize them and with the

Desire to emulate them, so you learn virtue by watching it and then doing it. In the

Beginning it would be hard or you may feel phony because you are just copying someone
who is better than you of being a good person. But over time these actions will

Become an ingrained part of your character and eventually it becomes that robust trait
That Aristotle is talking about. It will just manifest every time you need it, that’s when know

You have virtue and before you realize it, becomes effortless.

Why do we need to build our character, apply practical wisdom and emulate

Moral exemplars? What motivates us to become the ‘good person’ that we can be?

Virtue theory evokes that we should become virtuous because if we are then we can

Attain the pinnacle of humanity. It allows us to attain what is known as eudaimonia, a

Greek word which would mean “a life well lived” or “a good life”, while it can also mean

“human flourishing”. A life of eudaimonia is a life of striving. It’s a life of pushing oneself to

The limit and finding success. A eudaimonistic life is full of the happiness that comes from

Achieving something really difficult, rather than just having it handed to you. But

Choosing to live a eudaimonistic life means that you are never done improving,

Constantly setting

Goals and working to develop new ways to achieve them. Choosing to live life in this way
Also means you’ll face disappointments and failures. Eudaimonia does not mean a life of

Cupcakes and rainbows, it does mean rather the good feeling of sinking into your bed

After an absolutely exhausting day in school or office – it is the satisfaction of knowing

That you accomplished a lot and then you pushed yourself to be the very best person

That you could be.

Summary

Virtue ethics is the quest to understand and live a life of moral character. This character-

Based approach to morality assumes that we acquire virtue through practice: honing our

Strengths while working on our weaknesses. By practicing being honest, brave, just,

Generous, and so on, a person develops an honorable and moral character. According

To Aristotle, by honing virtuous habits, people will likely make the right choice when faced

With ethical challenges.

(*** Lecture of Mr. Raul Leandro Villanueva)

 Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is regarded with the theories of Self-Realization. Theories of self- realization

Represent the moral reflections of the ancient people more than two millennia years ago.

The common denominator of these theories is the idea that the moral good of the

Individual consists in the development of one’s potentialities as perfectly as possible, and

Thus fulfilling and realizing one’s nature. This fulfillment is achieved by actualizing man’s

Possibilities, considering all important elements of human nature and including the
inherent

Social character of the human person. Virtue ethics considers that moral life should be

Concerned with cultivating a virtuous character rather than following rules of actions. In

Virtue ethics, a moral person is someone who displays the character traits of honesty,

Courage, and integrity.

Virtue ethics was introduced by Socrates in his ‘know-thyself ‘principle which is a lifetime

Project inculcating self-questioning, self-reflection and self-assessment. This process of

self-
Knowing implies that a person cannot cheat himself/herself since for Socrates, ‘an

Unexamined life is not worth living.’ In life, one has to be wise by being prudent, temperate,

Courageous and just. Wisdom sums up everything that a person does. Plato’s moral

Philosophy (429 – 347 B.C.) introduced the view that things that exist on this earth are

Merely imperfect copies or reflections of the ideal world. Ideas are perfect, eternal,

Immutable and universal. Things we perceive through our senses in space and time are

But the temporary manifestations of the ideal, which is one, indivisible, timeless and
space-

Less. Thus, human dignity, integrity and virtues continue to live even if the person already

Dies. In another sense, Platonic morality implies that ‘you cannot put a good man down.’

Virtues are unseen and indefinable yet they are important, valuable and essential. So,

We are to strive to attain completeness of the Good, Beauty and Truth, and yet, we can

Never complete them absolutely.

Known as father of idealism, Plato grounded his ethical thought where morality

Consists essentially in the constant imitation of the Good, the highest of all ideas. To be

Moral, a human person ought to know the Good, to follow or do the Good, and ultimately

To possess the Good. In his allegory of the cave, the world is an imperfect copy of the ideal

World; thus, ideas are eternal, immortal and perfect and ignorance is the only evil (absence

Of good). For this reason, one must educate oneself through virtues that are eternal,

Immutable or immeasurable – good, beauty and truth.

1. Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.)

Unlike his teacher Plato, Aristotle believes that the world that we perceive is the real

World. Human nature is as it actually is and not simply a copy or manifestation of the idea,

e.g., man. Man is a composite of body and soul, mind and matter, senses and intellect.

Man is, therefore, a rational being. While man has a nature in common with the other

Animals, he is, however, above all of them because of his reason. As such, man strives
Towards an end or goal in view. This is the Good. But what is the Good that man seeks? To

Aristotle, it is happiness. But what is man’s true happiness? To answer this question, we
must

Understand what man’s true end is. What is the proper function or purpose of man?

If man is rational then the proper function of man is the act of reason. For Aristotle,

The end or function of man could only be the activity of reason brought to its fullest extent,

Namely, the moral virtues viewed within the framework of a communal life of the “polis”

And the “act of contemplation.” Moral virtue is following the rule of moderation: taking the

Middle between two extremes, excess and deficiency. Overeating as well as eating too

Little is bad; eating moderately is good. To drink much alcohol results to hang-over while

Not drinking alcohol can result to making the body imbalanced. To experience real

Happiness, one needs to drink moderately.

To Aristotle, the act of contemplation is the best and most perfect virtue.

Contemplation is to engage in the highest, most perfect type of reflection, whereby

Man can commune with the divine and eternal truths. It is the fulfilment of the

Highest potential of man as a rational being. The twin ends of moral virtues and act

Of contemplation enable man to attain happiness. Happiness or “eudaimonia” is

The result of virtuous living, the proper exercise of reason in all of man’s action and

Endeavors.

It is truly important for persons to live as humans, thus must practice virtues such as

Righteousness, honesty, integrity, moderation, goodness, truth and sincerity. On the other

Hand, the possible counterargument is that virtue ethics is not always the best to resolve

Ethical dilemmas. Issues are not resolved by being good alone nor being righteous alone.

Terms in Aristotelian Ethics

Akrasia – Usually translated as “incontinence,” this term connotes a lack of self-control.

A person exhibiting akrasia knows what good behavior consists of but lacks the self-control

Not to give in to physical pleasures. The concept of akrasia is significant to Aristotle, as he

Generally agrees with the Socratic claim that no one willingly does evil and that all

Wrongdoing is a result of ignorance. If the incontinent person acts wrongly in full

knowledge

Of what is good, this poses a dilemma for Socratic ethics, which Book VII of the Ethics

Attempts to answer.

Arete – Usually translated as “virtue,” this important term means something more akin to

“excellence.” For the Greeks, arete can be used to refer not only to a person’s moral or

Intellectual virtues, but to any other kind of excellence, be it the fitness of an athlete or

Even the sharpness of a knife. Generally speaking, a person, animal, or thing exhibits arete

When it is performing its function properly. That the Greeks use the term arete in their

Discussions of ethics implies a strong sense that humans have a function just as knives do,

And that we become good by fulfilling this function.

Doctrine of the Mean – Aristotle’s doctrine, stated most explicitly in Book II, that virtue

Is a mean state between the vicious extremes of excess and deficiency. This doctrine is left
Necessarily vague, as Aristotle thinks that this mean varies from person to person.
Essentially,

It consists of the observation that it is always possible to have too much or too little of a

Good thing.

Energeia – This Greek word, which is the root of our word energy, is generally translated

As “activity.” However, it is not necessarily an activity in the sense that we might understand

It. For instance, Aristotle describes both happiness and contemplation as activities. In

Calling happiness an energeia, Aristotle contrasts it with virtue, which he considers to be a

Hexis, or disposition. That is, the virtues dispose us to behave in the correct manner.
Actually

Behaving according to the virtues, however, is not itself a virtue but rather the energeia of

Happiness.

Ethos – We can see that this term is the root of our word ethics. However, it is more

Accurately translated as “character,” which gives us an important insight to understanding

The Ethics. Aristotle is not so much concerned with moralizing as he is with determining
what

Constitutes an admirable character.

Eudaimonia – Normally translated as “happiness,” eudaimonia also carries

Connotations of success and fulfillment. For the Greeks, happiness is not an inner,
emotional

State, but the activity, or energeia, of a successful person. The Greeks did not share our

Sharp distinction between the public and the private, so for them, happiness is a public

Matter that can be evaluated just as accurately by an observer as by the person being

Observed.

Hexis – Translated as “disposition,” hexis is the term Aristotle uses to qualify the virtues.

According to Aristotle, virtue is not something one actively does. Rather, virtue is a

Disposition to behave in the right way.

Phronesis – Often translated as “prudence,” this term is perhaps better, but more

Cumbersomely, translated as “practical wisdom.” Phronesis is an important intellectual

Virtue that allows us to reason properly about practical matters. Phronesis consists in no

Small part of an appropriate application of the practical syllogism.

Psyche – The root of our word psychology, psyche is generally translated as “soul,”

Though it carries none of the spiritual connotations of the Christian use of that word.
Psyche

Is that unobservable property that distinguishes living things from nonliving things. The

Human psyche consists of three major parts: the nutritive part, which it shares with both

Plants and animals; the appetitive part, which it shares with only animals; and the rational

Part, which is distinctively human.

Telos – This important term can be translated variously as “end,” “goal,” or “purpose” but

Specific for the Greeks, telos is the purpose proper to ones nature. According to Aristotle,

We have a telos as humans, which it is our goal to fulfill. This telos is based on our uniquely

Human capacity for rational thought. Aristotle’s view of humans having a telos based in
Our rationality leads directly to his conclusion in Book X that contemplation is the highest

Human good.

Themes, Ideas & Arguments

Virtue and Happiness

The word happiness in the Ethics is a translation of the Greek term eudaimonia, which

Carries connotations of success and fulfillment. For Aristotle, this happiness is our highest

Goal. However, Aristotle does not say that we should aim at happiness, but rather that we

Do aim at happiness. His goal in the Ethics is not to tell us that we ought to live happy,

Successful lives, but to tell us what this life consists of. Most people think of happiness as

Physical pleasure or honor, but this is because they have an imperfect view of the good

Life.

The conception people have of happiness frequently does not line up with true happiness

Because people are generally deficient in virtue. Virtue is a disposition to behave in the

Right manner, which is inculcated from a young age. A person with the virtue of courage,
For instance, will not only show confidence in the face of fear, but will think of this courage

As a good thing. Behaving courageously will make the virtuous person happy and will be

One part of living a generally good life. By contrast, a person who has been poorly brought

Up and exhibits the vice of cowardice will find happiness in the avoidance of danger and

Thus will have an imperfect view of the good life.

Moral Education

A question of high importance in any investigation of ethics is how we can teach people

To be good. Aristotle is quite clear that he does not think virtue can be taught in a

Classroom or by means of argument. His Ethics, then, is not designed to make people
good,

But rather to explain what is good, why it is good, and how we might set about building

Societies and institutions that might inculcate this goodness.

According to Aristotle, virtue is something learned through constant practice that begins
At a young age. We might understand his outlook better if we recognize the meaning of

The word arete, which is rendered as “virtue” in most English translations. This term more

Generally means “excellence,” so a good horseman can exhibit arete in horsemanship

Without necessarily implying any sort of moral worth in the horseman. It should be obvious

To anyone that excellence in horsemanship cannot be learned simply by reading about

Horsemanship and hearing reasoned arguments for how best to handle a horse. Becoming

A good horseman requires steady practice: one learns to handle a horse by spending a

Lot of time riding horses.

For Aristotle, there is no essential distinction between the kind of excellence that marks a

Good horseman and the kind of excellence that marks a good person generally. Both kinds

Of excellence require practice first and theoretical study second, so the teaching of virtue

Can be only of secondary importance after the actual practice of it.

The Doctrine of the Mean

One of the most famous aspects of the Ethics is Aristotle’s doctrine that virtue exists as a
Mean state between the vicious extremes of excess and deficiency. For example, the

Virtuous mean of courage stands between the vices of rashness and cowardice, which

Represent excess and deficiency respectively.

For Aristotle, this is not a precise formulation. Saying that courage is a mean between

Rashness and cowardice does not mean that courage stands exactly in between these

Two extremes, nor does it mean that courage is the same for all people. Aristotle

Repeatedly reminds us in the Ethics that there are no general laws or exact formulations in

The practical sciences. Rather, we need to approach matters case by case, informed by

Inculcated virtue and a fair dose of practical wisdom.

Aristotle’s claim that virtue can be learned only through constant practice implies that

There are no set rules we can learn and then obey. Instead, virtue consists of learning

Through experience what is the mean path, relative to ourselves, between the vices we

May be liable to stumble into.

The Unity of the Virtues

For Aristotle, virtue is an all-or-nothing affair. We cannot pick and choose our virtues: we

Cannot decide that we will be courageous and temperate but choose not to be

Magnificent. Nor can we call people properly virtuous if they fail to exhibit all of the virtues.

Though Aristotle lists a number of virtues, he sees them all as coming from the same
source.

A virtuous person is someone who is naturally disposed to exhibit all the virtues, and a

Naturally virtuous disposition exhibits all the virtues equally.

Our word ethics descends from the Greek word ethos, which means more properly

“character.” Aristotle’s concern in the Ethics, then, is what constitutes a good character.

All the virtues spring from a unified character, so no good person can exhibit some virtues

Without exhibiting them all.

The Importance of Friendship

Aristotle devotes two of the ten books of the Ethics to discussing friendship in all its forms.

This is hardly a digression from the main line of argument. Happiness, according to
Aristotle,

Is a public affair, not a private one, so with whom we share this happiness is of great

Significance.

The city-states of ancient Greece were tightly knit communities. In the Politics, Aristotle

Argues that we cannot fully realize our human nature outside the bounds of a Greek city-

State. The bonds that tie citizens together are so important that it would be unthinkable to

Suggest that true happiness can be found in the life of a hermit.

The Life of Contemplation

In Book X, Aristotle ultimately concludes that contemplation is the highest human activity.

This is largely a consequence of his teleological view of nature, according to which the

Telos, or goal, of human life is the exercise of our rational powers. In discussing the various

Intellectual virtues, Aristotle extols wisdom as the highest, since it deals only with
Unchanging, universal truths and rests on a synthesis of scientific investigation and the

Intuitive understanding of the first principles of nature. The activity of wisdom is

Contemplation, so contemplation must be the highest activity of human life.