Lecture 09 Language Learning Theories in Psycholinguistics (Behaviourism)

Students’ Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, the students will be able to
i. Define Behaviourism
ii. Know about the history of behaviourism
iii. Tell about different terms used in behaviourism
iv. State the theoretical assumptions used in behaviourism
v. Know its applications in ELT
Important Definitions
Behaviourism is a theoretical approach in psychology that emphasises the study of observable
behaviours and the environmental factors that influence them. It is based on the idea that behaviours
can be learned through conditioning and reinforcement, and that these learned behaviours can be
observed and measured (Skinner, 1957). Behaviourists believe that internal mental processes, such as
thoughts and feelings, are not as important as the external stimuli and consequences that shape behaviour
(Watson, 1913).
Stimulus- Response
Stimulus is something that comes into our senses, like a sound, touch, or sight, and makes us react.
Response is how we react or act to that stimulus, like saying a word when we hear a sound or moving
when we feel a touch.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning, is a learning process in
which an innate or unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus, eventually causing the
neutral stimulus to elicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. This concept was first
introduced and extensively studied by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who observed this
phenomenon in his experiments with dogs (Pavlov, 1927).
In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US) naturally triggers an unconditioned
response (UR) in an organism. For instance, when a dog experiences hunger, it naturally salivates upon
seeing food (US and UR, respectively). Over time, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, with
the presentation of food. Eventually, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus, CS) could elicit the
same salivation response as the food (now a conditioned response, CR). This process demonstrates how

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classical conditioning works:
1. Introduction of the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR)
2. Pairing the Neutral Stimulus (NS) with the Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
3. Development of the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Conditioned Response (CR)
This influential study by Pavlov has been widely applied to understand various aspects of human and
animal behavior and has been a fundamental concept in psychology and neuroscience (Rescorla, 1988).
Operant Conditioning [aka Instrumental Conditioning]
Operant conditioning is a learning process where an individual's behavior is influenced by the
consequences that follow it. B.F introduced this concept. Skinner, a prominent psychologist and
behaviourist (Skinner, 1953). In operant conditioning, behaviours that are followed by positive
outcomes or reinforcements are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes
or punishments are less likely to be repeated.
INTRODUCTION:
Behaviourism
The behaviourist movement began with John Watson in 1913. It is also known as a
psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The
behaviourists claim that knowledge is external, and humans are born with a blank slate. Learning
takes place through an association between stimuli-response processes resulting in specific habit
formation. Some examples of behaviourist theory are:
 Drill/ rote work

 Repetitive practice

 Bonus points (incentive to do more)

 Participation points (incentive to participate)

 Verbal reinforcement (such as ‘well done’)

 Establishing rules
According to Ellis (1990), “Learning could be affected by manipulating the environment to
provide the required experience.” Behaviourism is an approach to psychology and learning that
emphasizes observable measurable behaviour. Behaviour theorists define learning as a more or less
permanent change in behaviour. In behaviourism, the learner is viewed as passively adapting to their

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environment. According to a pure behaviourist, human beings are shaped entirely by their external
environment. Alter a person’s environment, and we will alter his or her thoughts, feelings, and
behaviour. Provide positive reinforcement whenever students perform a desired behaviour, and soon
they will learn to perform the behavior on their own. The behaviorists tried to explain learning without
referring to mental processes. John B. Watson, an American psychologist who is considered the "father
of behaviorism”, in his article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," remarks:
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well informed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and
I’ll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief; and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”-John Watson (1924)
BACKGROUND:
The behaviourist school of thought ran concurrently with the psychoanalysis movement in
psychology in the 20th century. We have earlier discussed that the Behaviourist Theory was first
introduced in 1913 by the American psychologist John B. Watson. Watson is credited by some with
coining the term “behaviourism”. Watson’s view was largely influenced by the research of the Russian
physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov during the early 1900s. The most influential version of this theory is put
forward by B. F. Skinner in 1959. His version of Behaviourism is best known as Radical
Behaviourism.
LAW OF EFFECT:

‘Law of Effect’ was introduced by Edward Thorndike (1898). It proposed that pleasant feedback leads
to the repetition of a particular behaviour and unpleasant feedback ceases it. The theory views learning
as a process of developing a n association between a certain situation and its resultant pleasant
outcome.
The theory proposed three laws of learning:
 Law of Readiness: willingness is considered crucial for learning
 Law of Exercise: (a) the law of use and (b) the law of disuse
 Law of Effect: pleasant outcomes strengthen connections and unpleasant ones weaken them.
Three laws were supplemented by five characteristics of learning:
1. Multiple or varied responses: Learners should be encouraged to respond to a situation or
problem in multiple ways. It promotes flexibility in thinking and problem-solving skills.

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 2. Set of behaviours or attitude: Learning is not just about acquiring knowledge but also involves
developing specific behaviors and attitude like curiosity, open-mindedness, persistence, and
collaboration, …essential for effective learning and personal growth.
3. Partial activity or prepotency of elements: Learning is an ongoing process, and individuals are
continuously exposed to various experiences and information. These experiences and
information can be partially processed or assimilated, and their elements may have a prepotency
(or readiness) to influence future learning experiences. This idea encourages learners to be aware
of their past experiences and how they might influence their current understanding.
4. Assimilation: This characteristic refers to the process of incorporating new information or
experiences into an individual's existing knowledge and understanding. Assimilation is
crucial for learning, as it allows individuals to make sense of new information by connecting it
to their prior knowledge. This process helps in the construction of new meanings and deeper
understanding
5. Associative shifting: This characteristic emphasizes the importance of adapting and adjusting
one's perspective or viewpoint when encountering new information or experiences. Associative
shifting encourages learners to explore different associations between ideas, concepts, and
experiences, which can lead to new insights and a broader understanding of the subject matter.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was a brilliant Russian Behaviorist. He studied about behaviorism
(reflexes) for thirty years and was considered to be the father of conditioning theory. The basics of
Pavlov’s classical conditioning serve as a historical backdrop for current learning theories. However,
the Russian physiologist’s initial interest in classical conditioning occurred almost by accident during
one of his experiments on digestion in dogs.
Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed
them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov concluded that if a particular stimulus
in the dog’s surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become
associated with food and cause salivation on its own.
In Pavlov’s experiments the unconditioned stimulus (US) was the food because its effects did
not depend on previous experience. The bell’s sound is originally a neutral stimulus (NS) because it
does not elicit salivation in the dogs. After conditioning, the bell's sound becomes the conditioned

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stimulus (CS) because its effects depend on its association with food. Likewise, the responses of the
dog follow the same conditionedversus-unconditioned arrangement. The conditioned response (CR)
is the response to the conditioned stimulus, whereas the unconditioned response (UR) corresponds to
the unconditioned stimulus.
Subsequently, it was studied in infants by John B. Watson. Like Pavlov, he was originally involved in
animal research but later became involved in the study of human behaviour. Watson believed that
humans are born with a few reflexes (A reflex is an involuntary response that happens without conscious
thought or effort. Reflexes help keep internal organs functioning properly and protect the body from
harm. Reflexes require both an unconditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response. This means that
these reflexes are innate and do not have to be learned or practiced. For example, the instinct to jerk a
hand away from a hot stove burner or iron is not a learned response from being burned in the past.
Rather, it is an automatic reflex that doesn't have to be taught) and the emotional reactions of love and
rage. All other behaviour is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.
Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert) and a
white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud noise whenever
Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to
fear and avoid the rat. Watson then extinguished the fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise.
Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it
really was

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OPERANT CONDITIONING: [aka. Instrumental Conditioning]
B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) is referred to as the father of operant conditioning, as he proposed
the concept of ‘Operant Conditioning.’ He introduced the theory of Verbal Behaviour in 1957.
According to this theory, a person’s behaviour gets reinforced through the mediation of other
persons. Any change that occurs in one’s behaviour is a result of others’ reinforcement. Skinner
identified following three types of responses that can follow behaviour:
Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These
terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative. There are a total of
five consequences.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding, increasing the
frequency of that behavior. For example, if a rat in a Skinner box gets food when it presses a lever, its
rate of pressing will go up.
Negative reinforcement (a.k.a. escape) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the
removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing the original behavior’s frequency. In the Skinner
Box experiment, the aversive stimulus [An unpleasant stimulus intended to induce a change in
behaviour.] might be a loud noise continuously inside the box; negative reinforcement would happen
when the rat presses a lever to turn off the noise.
Positive punishment occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus.
Example: pain from a spanking, which would often result in a decrease in that behavior. Positive
punishment is a confusing term, so the procedure is usually referred to as “punishment”.
Negative punishment (penalty) occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal
of a stimulus. Example: taking away a child’s toy following an undesired behavior by him/her, which
would result in a decrease in the undesirable behavior.
Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer
effective. Example: a rat is first given food many times for pressing a lever, until the experimenter no
longer gives out food as a reward. The rat would typically press the lever less often and then stop. The
lever pressing would then be said to be “extinguished.”
THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS
The theoretical assumptions underlying the Behaviourist Theory are as follows:
Language learning is a habit formation resembling the formation of other habits. In other words,

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language is learned in the way in which other habits are learned.
Language learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour or knowledge. It takes place
when experience or practice causes a change in a person’s knowledge or behaviour.
Language learning is an external event because it involves an observable change in behaviour brought
about by the stimuli coming from the environment. It does not involve any unobservable change in
mental knowledge. All behaviours can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states
or consciousness.
Only human beings have the capacity for language learning. They acquire a language as discrete units
of habits, independently trained, not as an integrated system.
STIMULUS-RESPONSE-REINFORCE-CHAIN
The Behaviourist Theory explains two major aspects. It firstly explains how the child produces
speech. It secondly explains how he/she understands speech. Positive and negative reinforcement
contain various adult utterances which function as discriminating stimuli for the production of the
child’s responses (behaviours). When the child hears these adult utterances he/she tries to imitate them
to produce his/her speech. The child earns the ability to understand a speech when he/she becomes able
to produce an utterance which is appropriate to the situation. Reinforcement can come from different
sources. The mother is the primary source of reinforcement because she has to take care of the child
almost all the time. The people around him/her can also provide reinforcement.
APPLICATION OF BEHAVIORISM FOR ELT
Behaviorism offers a particular perspective on how learning occurs and how teaching impacts
that process. According to Beavers, Eaglin, Green, Nathan and Wolfe (2002)),
“Learning is a persisting change in performance or performance potential that results from
experience and interaction with the world.”
Behaviorism, as a learning theory, has several applications in English Language Teaching (ELT). Some
of these applications include:
1. Skill-based approach: Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of breaking down complex tasks
into smaller, manageable skills. This approach is useful in ELT as it allows teachers to focus on teaching
specific language skills, such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking, one at a time.
2. Reinforcement and punishment: Behaviorism highlights the role of reinforcement and punishment
in shaping behavior. In ELT, this can be applied by providing positive reinforcement (such as praise or

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rewards) for correct language use and discouraging incorrect usage through gentle correction or negative
reinforcement.
3. Observable behaviors: Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors, which can be easily measured
and evaluated. In ELT, this can be applied by setting clear learning objectives and assessing students'
progress based on their observable language skills.
4. Drill and practice: Behaviorism supports the idea of drilling and practicing specific skills to improve
performance. In ELT, this can be applied through repetition exercises, such as language drills, sentence
transformations, and grammar practice, to help students internalize language rules and improve their
fluency.
5. Shaping behavior: Behaviorism suggests that complex behaviors can be developed through a series
of small steps. In ELT, this can be applied by breaking down complex language tasks into smaller, more
manageable steps, allowing students to gradually build their language skills.
6. Imitation and modeling: Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of observational learning through
imitation and modeling. In ELT, this can be applied by exposing students to authentic language
materials, such as audio recordings, videos, and texts, as well as encouraging them to imitate and
practice the language they hear and see.
7. Classroom management: Behaviorism provides insights into effective classroom management
techniques, such as setting clear rules and expectations, using positive reinforcement, and consistently
applying consequences for inappropriate behavior.
Behaviorism can be applied through the teaching method such as the Audiolingual method, TPR,
Silent way.
AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD
One of the examples of extensively drilling in learning is Audio Lingual Method which is an American
method. It functions as a structural approach designed to develop oral communication fluency in L2.
Audio Lingual Method focuses on accuracy (pronunciation and intonation). Mistakes should be avoided
and corrected immediately if they happen. Ellis (1990: 23) wrote:
“For learning to be effective habits had to become automatic.”
In short, language learning’s pattern has to be “over-learnt”. If followed by the positive reinforcement,
it will help students to develop correct habits to learn the language.
DRAWBACKS

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Although sound in many ways, the theory is not free from limitations. The shortcomings of this theory
are as follows:
The Behaviourist Theory completely ignores the inborn aspect of human knowledge.
The theory puts over-emphasis on the role of imitation and ignores completely the creativity of the
child, making him/her somewhat passive viewer than actor in the process of language acquisition.
The Behaviorist Theory seems to be somewhat mechanical in nature, since the child is considered a
passive object.
It cannot develop the child’s problem-solving skills. The child may find himself/herself in a situation
where the stimulus to the correct response does not occur. In such cases, the child won’t be able to
respond.
It fails to explain how the child understands utterances he/she has never heard before, or he/she produces
new and unique utterances.
The Behaviourist Theory cannot explain how the child precedes in his/her journey of language acquisition
at such a young age.
Criticism on Behaviourism
The Behaviourist Theory came under fierce attack when Chomsky proposed his Innate Theory in
1959. Chomsky’s theory strongly proved that the child is not a tabula rasa; rather he is born with an
innate capability to learn language. Followings are critics’ views on it:
1. Lack of attention to mental processes: Behaviorism primarily focuses on observable behaviors and
external stimuli, ignoring the internal cognitive processes that play a crucial role in language acquisition.
2. Overlooking the role of intentionality: Critics argue that Behaviorism fails to acknowledge the
intentional aspect of language use, which is essential for understanding how humans communicate and
learn languages.
3. Ignores the influence of innate abilities: Behaviorism assumes that all learning is a result of
conditioning and reinforcement, neglecting the role of innate abilities and genetic factors in language
acquisition.
4. Limited scope in explaining complex language use: The theory is mainly concerned with simple,
observable behaviors, and it struggles to explain the complexity of language use, including the
acquisition of grammar rules, comprehension, and production of creative sentences.
5. Disregard for the role of the learner: Behaviorism treats the learner as a passive recipient of stimuli,

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whereas learning is an active process involving the learner's participation and engagement.
6. Inability to account for individual differences: The theory does not adequately explain the
variations in language learning among individuals, as it assumes that all learners follow the same
learning process.
7. Insufficient explanation for language transfer: Behaviorism does not provide a satisfactory
explanation for how learners transfer their knowledge from one language to another, which is a crucial
aspect of second or foreign language acquisition.
8. Lack of consideration for the social aspect of language learning: The theory does not emphasize
the importance of social context and interaction in language learning, which is a significant factor in
acquiring a language.
Conclusion
To infer, the Behaviourist Theory, despite its limitations, significantly impacted language
acquisition studies and was accepted by the Bloomfieldian school of linguistics. It led to well-known
language teaching models like the Audio Lingual Method and influenced child-rearing and classroom
learning theories for years.
Lecture 09 POINTS TO REMEMBER
 Behaviourism is a psychological approach that emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation.
 It was introduced by John Watson in 1913 and focuses on observable, measurable behavior.
 According to Behaviourism, learning is a more or less permanent change in behavior, and the learner is viewed
as passively adapting to their environment.

 ‘Law of Effect’ was introduced by Edward Thorndike (1898). It proposed that pleasant feedback leads to the
repetition of a particular behaviour and unpleasant feedback ceases it. The theory views learning as a process of
developing association between a certain situation and its resultant pleasant outcome.
 Stimulus-Response:
 Stimulus: Information received through senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.)
 Response: How we react or act to the stimulus
 Classical Conditioning:
 Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response
 Unconditioned Response (UR): The organism's natural reaction to the US
 Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially has no effect
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS): NS after being paired with US
 Conditioned Response (CR): Response elicited by the CS
 Pavlov's Experiment Steps:
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 US and UR occur (e.g., food and salivation)
 Pair NS with US (e.g., bell and food)
 CS develops (e.g., bell alone)
 CR occurs (e.g., salivation in response to the bell)
 Operant Conditioning:
 Behavior influenced by consequences
 Reinforcement: Positive outcomes lead to behavior repetition
 Punishment: Negative outcomes lead to behavior avoidance
 The theory has several applications in English Language Teaching (ELT), such as the skill-based approach,
reinforcement and punishment, observable behaviors, drill and practice, shaping behavior, imitation and
modeling, and classroom management.
 However, it also has some limitations, including ignoring the inborn aspect of human knowledge, over-
emphasizing imitation, being somewhat mechanical, not developing problem-solving skills, and failing to explain
how the child understands or produces new utterances.
 Critics argue that Behaviourism lacks attention to mental processes, overlooks the role of intentionality, ignores
the influence of innate abilities, has limited scope in explaining complex language use, disregards the role of the
learner, and cannot account for individual differences and language transfer.

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