Kampala International College (KIC) Computer Fundamentals

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE- KIC

CERTIFICATE IN FOOD SCIENCE AND

NUTRITION

DFSN 1106 : Computer Fundamentals

2020

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INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

Definition of ICT Terminologies

Information and communication technology (IT) is the application of computers and

telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data, often in
the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym
for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information
distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are
associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software,
electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-commerce and computer
services

DATA AND INFORMATION

Data – this is a "raw material" - it needs to be processed before it can be turned into
something useful. Data relates to transactions, events and facts. On its own - it is not
very useful. Data can be obtained by reading, observation, counting, measuring, and
weighing which are then recorded. Data simply to raw facts.

Information and data are frequently used interchangeably. However, Data are a set of
facts relating to an activity in a given environment. The activity can be accounting,
inventory control etc. Environment can be business, scientific, education, etc.

Data can also be described as raw data, if they are not yet even partially processed, i.e.
they convey no particular meaning to a given activity within any given environment. It
means data are unprocessed information consisting of details relating to business
transactions. For example, in payroll system data examples are employee's name,
basic salary, department number, marital status, etc. Data is thus the raw material that
is transformed into information by data processing.

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Information: Processed Data, Something useful to a recipient that can be used for
decision making. In other words it’s the end result of data processing. E.g. CVs,
Transcripts, Payrolls, Balance Sheets, Final %s of votes.

Information means processed data directly useful in decision making. In other words,
information is an assembly of meaningful data items. The information is a very
important item in any organisation’s working strategies because the information
generated by the data processing activities is used by the organisations to make
decisions. The information in payroll activity includes netpay, total tax deductions etc.
In stock control, the information generated includes closing stock, total item cost,
purchases, issues, etc. The information is achieved by applying some processing
procedures onto the input raw data. For example, the net pay in payroll activity can be
arrived at by applying the following procedure.

Net pay = (Basic salary + Overtime pay if any) + Allowance – total deductions/taxes.

TYPES OF INFORMATION

Before we enter data into a computer system, we usually need to tell the computer what
type of data it is. This is because the computer stores and processes different types of
data in different ways...

NUMERIC DATA

Numeric data simply means numbers. But, just to complicate things for you, numbers
come in a variety of different types...

INTEGERS

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An integer is a whole number - it has no decimal or fractional parts. Integers can

be either positive or negative.

EXAMPLES

 12
 45
 1274
 1000000
 -3
 -5735

REAL NUMBERS

Any number that you could place on a number line is a real number. Real numbers
include whole numbers (integers) and numbers with decimal/fractional parts.
Real numbers can be positive or negative.

EXAMPLES

 1
 1.4534
 946.5
 -0.0003
 3.142
 Some computer software used strange names for real data.

You might see this data type referred to as 'single', 'double' or 'float'.

 CURRENCY

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 Currency refers to real numbers that are formatted in a specific way. Usually
currency is shown with a currency symbol and (usually) two decimal places.

EXAMPLES

 £12.45
 -£0.01
 €999.00
 $550

PERCENTAGE

Percentage refers to fractional real numbers that are formatted in a specific way - out
of 100, with a percent symbol.

So, the real value 0.5 would be shown as 50%, the value 0.01 would be shown as 1%
and the number 1.25 would be shown as 125%

EXAMPLES

 100%
 25%
 1200%
 -5%

ALPHANUMERIC (TEXT) DATA

Alphanumeric (often simply called 'text') data refers to data made up of letters
(alphabet) and numbers (numeric). Usually symbols ($%^+@, etc.) and spaces are
also allowed.

EXAMPLES

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 DOG
 “A little mouse”
 ABC123
 [email protected]

Text data is often input to a computer with speech marks (". . .") around it:

"MONKEY"

These tell the computer that this is text data and not some special command.

DATE AND TIME DATA

Date (and time) data is usually formatted in a specific way. The format depends upon
the setup of the computer, the software in use and the user’s preferences.

DATE EXAMPLES

 25/10/2007
 12 Mar 2008
 10-06-08

BOOLEAN (LOGICAL) DATA

Boolean data is sometimes called 'logical' data (or in some software, 'yes/no' data).
Boolean data can only have two values: TRUE or FALSE

Examples  FALSE  OFF

 TRUE  ON  YES
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 NO

Note that TRUE and FALSE can also be shown as YES / NO, ON / OFF, or even
graphically as tick boxes (ticked / unticked)

SELECTING DATA TYPES

When we are presented with data to be input into a computer system, we must analyze
it and select appropriate data types for each value...

e.g. For the following data, we might use the date types shown:

Data Name

 Name  Phone No.

 Height  Pay Rate
 Date of Birth  Tax Rate

Data Type

 Text  Alphanumeric
 Real  Currency
 Date  Percentage

Example Data

 "Bob Gripper"
 1.85
 19 May 1980
 012 44565
 £35.75
 15%

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Note that the telephone number in the example to the left has a data type of
alphanumeric.

You might think that it should be numeric, however phone numbers often have spaces,
dashes, etc. which numeric data cannot have.

OTHER types / EXAMPLES OF INFORMATION include,

Audio, videos, pictures etc

Characteristics of Good Information

For information to convey any meaning to the end-user, it must have the following
characteristics;

(i). It should be relevant for its purpose.

This refers to the current utility of information in decision making or problem
solving. For example, a typical professor who collects book after book on the
assumption that some day they will be useful in preparing a lecture is not
collecting the relevant information for the current problem at hand, but is merely
filling the book shelf. Thus, information gains in value if it is relevant.

(ii). It should be sufficiently accurate and comprehensive.

Information, if it is to be of value, should be accurate and should truly reflect the
situation or behaviour of an event as it really is. Otherwise, the user will take the
incorrect information as correct and may use it for decision-making that may lead
to disastrous results.

(iii). It should be complete enough for its purpose

Information is considered as complete if it tells its user all that he wishes to know
about a particular situation/problem. The more complete the information, the
higher its value.

(iv). It should be obtained from a reliable source.

Good Information should be obtained from a source in which the user has
confidence. The information should be reliable and the external source relied
upon should be clearly indicated.

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(v). It should be understandable by the user.

Information is of value if it is provided to the user in the form that is useful and
best understood by him/her. For example, top management may require
information on key matters in a summarized form and the operation managers in
detailed form. The language used should also be that which is understood by the
recipient.

(vi). It should be communicated in time and should be up to date

Information should be made available when it is needed for a particular purpose
and not before and in any case not after. Delayed information has far less value
to be considered a good resource.

(vii). It should be communicated by an appropriate channel of communication.

Good information should be communicated through the right channel to avoid
any changes being made to the information. The channels used can be
telephone, face-to-face talk, electronic mail, postage, fax, etc

(viii). It should be communicated to the right person.

For the validity of information to be relied upon, it should be communicated to the
right person that it is intended for, for example information meant for a manager
should be directed to him/her without passing through several people, who may
subject it to change.

DATA PROCESSING

Data processing can be described as the activity of manipulating the raw facts to
generate a set or an assembly of meaningful data, which is described as information
because the assembly of data shall convey some meaning. Data processing may also
be defined as those activities which are concerned with the systematic recording,
arranging, filing, processing and dissemination of facts relating to the physical events
occurring in the organisation.

Data processing activity is therefore, very important aspect in any organisation of any
size or nature because it generates information for decision making. Data processing
can be described as electronic data processing, if it uses sophisticated processing tools
or aids e.g the computer.
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Data processing is the process that involves transformation of data into information.
This is done through classifying, merging, recording, retrieving, transmitting, or
reporting. Turning data into information involves several steps. These steps are known
as data processing cycle.

Uses of Data / Information in Business Organizations:

 Data can be used for decision making

 Used for planning and operating functions of the organization
 Provides insight about the industry, market and other elements of the
environment in which the firm competes.
 Used for controlling purposes
 Managing performance
 Trends analysis

The stages of Data Processing/Data Processing Cycle

These will include the following: -

1. Origination of data: This looks at the sources of data for example customer orders,
goods received notes, price lists etc.

2. Input of data: This is the act of passing the data to the processor in the processing
stage. This could be by the clerk, on the computer through the keyboard etc.

There are three stages involved when inputting data i.e.

 Collection: collects the data and assembles it

 Verification: checks whether the data being processed is exact and complete

 Coding: translating data in order for it to be used into machine readable form
by the computer.

3. Processing: includes all the necessary operations to arrive at the end product
(information) and to keep data up-to-date.

Under processing the following activities may take place;

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 Classification; the data is classified into different groups and subgroups, so that
each group or sub-group of data can be handled separately.

 Sorting; the data is arranged into an order so that it can be accessed very
quickly as and when required.

 Calculations; The arithmetic operations are performed on the numeric data to

get the required results. For example, total marks of each student are calculated.

 Summarizing; the data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. . For

example, the summary of the data of student is prepared to show the percentage
of those who passed and failed the examination etc.

4. Output: This is when data that has been processed is presented as a document. This is
the production of the end product for example annual reports, financial statements,
payrolls etc.

Methods of Data Processing

 Manual data processing

 Mechanical data processing
 Electronic data processing

1. Manual Data Processing

This method is done by individuals using simple tools such as pens, markers, rulers,
erasers and people’s mental capacity for the data to be processed.

Advantages

 It’s cheap
 Flexible
 Easy to adopt
 Simple to use

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Disadvantages

 Only low volumes suitable for each worker

 No automation of calculation or totaling potentially leading to more errors
 More personnel required for most tasks
 It takes longer time than an electronic document
 It’s tiresome as it involves a lot of mental thinking
 More prone to errors
 It is slow for a large volume of data to be processed as it cannot compute a thousand
instructions in a second as compared to a computer.

2. Mechanical Method

This method involves the use of machines like the traditional typewriter, duplicating machines
etc. it is semi manual and semi electronic.

Advantages

 It is faster than the manual method

 Quality of output is much better than the manual method
 More accurate compared to manual
Disadvantages

 The method has the weakness of machine breakdowns that may disrupt the process
 It is more expensive than the manual method
 It’s slower than electronic data processing
 Not suitable for processing large volumes of data

3. Electronic Method

This involves the use of automated machines like computers to process data.

Advantages

 Speed; It operates the speed of electric flow which is measured in billions and trillions
of a second. It is faster than any other machine designed to do similar works.
 Accuracy; High accuracy results. The electronic circuitry of a computer is such that,

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when the machines are programmed correctly and when incoming data is error free,
the accuracy of the output is relatively assured.
 Automatic Operation; An electronic computer can carry out sequence of many data
processing operations without human interaction, the various operations are executed
by way of a stored computer program.
 Decision Making Capability; A computer can perform certain decision instructions
automatically.
 Compact Storage; Electronic data processing systems have the ability to store large
amounts of data in compact and easily retrievable form
 Flexibility; The modern digital computers can be used for a variety of purposes. E.g.
online processing, multiprogramming etc.
 Reduction in Paper Work; The use of computers for data processing has helped the
management of business organizations to cope with increasing problem of paper
handling. The computers have speeded up the process and have eliminated the paper
needs through the storage of data in data bases and files.
 Reduced Costs; Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, but it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction. Cost reduction occurs due to
processing of huge data and record keeping.
 Quality
 Handles large volumes of data
 Few errors
 More timely information can be produced
Disadvantages

 Power failure, computer viruses and hackers are the inherent problems of using
computerized systems
 Danger of computer fraud if proper level of control and security whether internal and
external are not properly been instituted.
 It’s expensive to acquire
 Requires high skills to operate.
 System failure
 Fraud
 Viruses

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 Expensive to acquire
 Subject to constant changes

Data Processing Modes/Strategies

Data processing modes describe the way these transactions are handled during processing.
They include: Batch processing, on-line processing, Time sharing processing, Real time
processing and Distributed processing.

1. Batch Processing

This involves processing a group of a number of transactions of a similar kind which have
been entered over a period of time in a computer system.

Example 1: a payroll for salaried workers/staff is done in one operation once a month. To
help with organizing the work, the payroll office may deal with each department separately,
and do the salaries for department 1, followed by the salaries for department 2 and then
department 3, ands so on. If this is the case, then the batch processing would be carried out
by dividing the transaction records into smaller batches e.g. one batch per department, one
batch per bank etc.

Advantages:

 Relatively easy to develop

 Less processing power is required as it deals with similar updates.
 Less hardware required therefore cheaper.
 It allows sharing of computer resources among many users and programs,
 It shifts the time of job processing to when the computing resources are less busy.
 It avoids idling the computing resources with minute-by-minute manual intervention
and supervision. Jobs can run without any end user interaction or are scheduled to run
as resources permit.
 It can go unmonitored and only stops when it encounters an error or completes all
tasks in the script.
 It stores up tasks and executes them while the computer is idle. This speeds up
productivity and frees memory for more exhaustive programs as well as time saving.
 It optimizes a computer’s performance as it takes full advantage of the processors

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capabilities.
 It eliminates redundant tasks such as repeating the same step over and over again.
Disadvantages
 Time lag between origination of the transactions and the information availability.
 Late information is not suitable in situations where instant decisions are required.
 Management information is often incomplete due to missing data.
 Often master files are kept off line therefore access may not always be available.
 Undesired commands may be executed without the users knowledge
 Batch files created are not easy for a novice user to edit, so changing settings requires
the user to repeat the batch each time.
 The master file is not always kept up-to-date.

2. Real-time Processing

Is the continual receiving and rapid processing of data so as to be able to feed back the
results of that input to the source of the data.

Examples include

 A sale is made in a supermarket and details are keyed in on the point of sale terminal,
the stock records are updated in real time. Any customer wishing to buy a product can
be informed as to whether the item is available or not
 Advantages
 Information is more up to date therefore providing better information for management.
 Information is readily available for instant decision making
 Provides better services to users or customers in terms of quick service.
 It’s a fast and reliable mode of data processing

Disadvantages
 Costly, as the system becomes more complex to run and to develop because in
certain circumstances they are run on a 24hr basis.
 Not easy to use, user has to be trained.
 Usually use two or more computers; sharing up the workload, the concept described
as multi-processing which is expensive.

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3. On-line Processing:

This is a processing mode where all the computer peripherals and other equipments are
under control of the central processor.

Advantages of on-line processing

 The files are maintained up-to-date.

 Information is readily available for current decisions. This information is fed back to the
work stations where they are needed.
Disadvantages of on-line processing

 These systems are complex to develop

 They are costly in terms of hardware, software, storage media, operating system
communication facilities etc.

4. Time Sharing Process:

In this processing mode the central processor serves two or more users with different
processing tasks or requirements. The central processor is therefore available to a variety of
users, connected to the central computer via communication links.

Advantages

 It delivers better services to users as the information output is normally faster.

 The problem of the processor idle time is solved because the processor does not need
to wait for the slower communication peripherals
 Files are held on-line hence inquiries are possible
 Helpful to small companies which cannot afford purchasing the computer and its
related facilities
Disadvantages

 The users have got no control over the central computer

 The response time is also slow whenever there are many tasks

5. Centralized Processing

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This involves all data or information being processed in a central place, such as a computer
center at head office.

Advantages

 Having a central up-to-date set of data will be accessible by all departments

 Maintaining a single set of data which will eliminate inconsistencies in data used for
different purposes.
 Centralization would also facilitate the standardization of applications.
 If one powerful computer is installed, the resultant advantages will be increased
speeds in operation, storage capacity and processing capacity
Disadvantages

 Capital costs the back-up-system and the high costs of the main computer are both
major factors.
 Increased operating costs for example telecommunications costs.
 The problem of being entirely dependent on one machine is a very risky scenario as
failing would lead to serious consequ
6. Distributed Processing:

This is a data processing mode where the system includes multiple computers linked by a
communication network, allowing the processing to be "distributed" around the system. E.g.
ATMs and banks in different regions.

Advantages

 Less effort is expended on data transmission.

 Results may be obtained more quickly as data is processed locally.
 Speed of processing is improved and local priorities can be better satisfied.
 In case of a single machine failing, it would be reasonably easier to acquire another on
a short term basis, and it would be able to be installed with a minimum of work.

Disadvantages

 Capital costs, involving acquisition of several minicomputers, will be high, although

with phased regional implementation, this can be spread more easily than a single

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main frame purchase.

 Operation costs, particularly staff costs, will be high as it will be necessary to maintain
a certain level of expertise at each regional office, resulting in some duplication.
 Installation of, and training on, new versions of software would take more time and
cost more. In addition, the logistics of installing later releases of software would require
careful monitoring.
MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

An information system is a system that accepts data resources as input and processes them
into information products as output.

Information systems can also be defined as any organized combination of people, hardware,
software, communications networks, and data resources that stores, retrieves, transforms,
and disseminates information in an organization.

Management of Information System (MOIS) is therefore the art or process that involves
planning, organising, leading and controlling of the resources of an information system.

COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

(i) People Resources

People are required for the operation of all information systems. These people
resources include end users and IS specialists.

 End users (also called users or clients) are people who use an information system or
the information it produces. They can be accountants, salespersons, engineers, clerks,
customers, or managers. Most of us are information system end users.

 IS Specialists are people who develop and operate information systems. They include
systems analysts, programmers, computer operators, and other managerial technical,
and clerical IS personnel. Briefly, systems analysts design information systems based
on the information requirements of end uses, programmers prepare computer programs

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based on the specifications of systems analysts, and computer operators operate large
computer systems.

(ii) Hardware Resources

The concept of Hardware resources includes all physical devices and materials used in
information processing. Specially, it includes not only machines, such as computers
and other equipment, but also all data media, that is, all tangible objects on which data
is recorded, from sheets of paper to magnetic disks. Example of hardware in computer-
based information systems are:

 Computer systems, which consist of central processing units containing

microprocessors, and variety of interconnected peripheral devices. Examples are
microcomputer systems, midrange computer systems, and large mainframe computer
systems.

 Computer peripherals, which are devices such as a keyboard or electronic mouse for
input of data and commands, a video screen or printer for output of information, and
magnetic or optical disks for storage of data resources.

(iii) Software Resources

The concept of Software Resources includes all sets of information processing

instructions. This generic concept of software includes not only the sets of operating
instructions called programs, which direct and control computer hardware, but also the
sets of information processing instructions needed by people, called procedures.

It is important to understand that even information systems that don’t use computers
have a software resource component. This is true even for the information systems of
ancient times, or the manual and machine-supported information systems still used in
the world today. They all require software resources in the form of information

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processing instructions and procedures in order to properly capture, process, and

disseminate information to their users.

The following are the examples of software resources:

 System Software, such as an operating system program, which con controls and
supports the operations of a computer system.

 Application Software, which are programs that direct processing for a particular use of
computers by end users. Examples are a sales analysis program, a payroll program,
and a work processing program.

 Procedures, which are operating instructions for the people who will use an information
system. Examples are instructions for filling out a paper form or using a software
package.

(iv) Data Resources

Data is more than the raw material of information systems. The concept of data
resources has been broadened by managers and information systems professionals.
They realize that data constitutes a valuable organization resource. Thus, you should
view data as data resources that must be managed effectively to benefit all end users in
an organization.

Data can take many forms, including traditional alphanumeric data, composed of
numbers and alphabetical and other characters that describe business transactions and
other events and entities. Text data, consisting of sentences and paragraphs used in
written communications; image data, such as graphic shapes and figures; and audio
data, the human voice and other sounds, are also important forms of data.

The data resources of information systems are typically organized into:

 Database that hold processed and organized data.

 Knowledge bases that hold knowledge in variety of forms such as facts, rules, and case
examples about successful business practices.

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For example, data about sales transactions may be accumulated and stored in a sales
database for subsequent processing that yields daily, weekly, and monthly sales
analysis reports for management. Knowledge bases are used by knowledge
management systems and expert systems to share knowledge and give expert advice
on specific subjects.

(v) Network Resources

Telecommunications networks like the Internet, intranets, and extranets have become
essential to the successful operations of all types of organizations and their computer-
based information systems. Telecommunications networks consist of computers,
communications processors, and other devices interconnected by communications
media and controlled by communications software. The concept of Network resources
emphasizes that communications networks are a fundamental resource component of
all information systems. Network resources include:

 Communication media, Examples include twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, microwave systems, and communication satellite systems.

 Network Support, This generic category includes all of the people, hardware, software,
and data resources that directly support the operation and use of a communications
network. Examples include communications control software such as network operating
systems and Internet packages.

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COMPUTER SYSTEMS

COMPUTER CLASSIFICATIONS
There are the different categories of computers. Computers can be generally classified into
four classes. Basic Computer Classification includes.
 Classification by process

 Classification by purpose

 Classification by processor power

 Classification by size

Classification by Process

Under this classification computers are classified according to how the data processed is
presented. This classification is further divided in to 3 sub classes which include;

 Digital computers

 Analogue computers

 Hybrid Computers

Digital Computers

These are computers designed to process data in numerical or discrete form. The numbers
operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary system; binary digits, or bits,
are 0 and 1. Applications of digital computers are used for reservations systems, data-
processing, word-processing applications, desktop publishing, electronic games and many
other purposes

Analogue Computers

These are computers that process data that’s in a continuous form or measurable
quantities/units. For example pressure, electrical voltage. The output from these computers is

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often in form of smooth graphs from which information can be read. Examples of analogue
computers include those used in thermometers, voltmeters and speedometers etc.

Hybrid Computers

Hybrid computers are those that have the combined features of both the digital computers
and the analogue computers. This means they can present data in numerical form as well as
continuous form. Examples include the common microcomputers.

Classification by Purpose

The hybrid computers can be classified according to the work they are intended to perform
this gives us 2 categories;

 Special purpose
 General purpose

Special Purpose Computers

These are computers designed to handle only a particular task. Their form of operation is
restricted in nature, e.g. computers that are used in digital watches, Lifts in tall buildings,
Petrol pumps, Missiles. These computers cannot perform any other task other than what they
have been designed for. For example computers embedded in missiles cannot perform any
other duty other than weapon guidance.

General Purpose Computers

Unlike special purpose computers general-purpose computers can be adopted to perform

any task or solve specific problems by means of specially written programs. For example a
typical computer of this type can perform calculations, keep data, time, word process a
document, Store data bases etc. Previously, computers used to be classified according to the
purpose they were used. E.g. word processing computer

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Classification by Processor Power

Computers can also be classified according to the power of the processor (CPU). Processor
power is the ability of the computer to process data at very high speeds Examples of
processor types are

 Pentium I

 Pentium II

 Pentium III

 Pentium IV

 Intel Celeron

 Intel i3

 I5

 I7

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Classification by Size

General-purpose computers can be further sub divided depending on the size of the machine
from the smallest size to the biggest size. They are mainly categorized as

 Main frames

 Mini computers

 Micro computers

 Super computer

Super Computers
Super computers are the fastest, largest and costliest computers available. The speed is in
the 100 million instructions per second range. They tend to be used for specific applications
in weather forecasting, aircraft design and nuclear research, stock analysis. Super computers
are sometimes used for time sharing as well. Memory size is in hundreds of megabytes.

Uses of Supercomputers

Because of their superiority, supercomputers are not intended for your everyday tasks. They
handle exhaustive scientific applications that require complex and real-time processing.

 In the field of science, researchers use these machines to compute and model properties
of biological compounds like protein and human blood. They are also used to interpret
new diseases and strains, and predict illness behavior and treatment.

 The military use supercomputers to test new aircraft, tanks, and a host of weaponry and
camouflage. They also use them to understand the effects they will have on soldiers and
wars. These machines are also used to help encrypt and decrypt sensitive data.

 In entertainment, supercomputers are used to help make a flawless online gaming

experience. Games like World of Warcraft demand intense processing. When thousands
of gamers around the world are playing, supercomputers help stabilize the game
performance.

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 Meteorologists use them to simulate weather behavior. They can also be used to predict
earthquakes.

 Scientists use them to simulate and test the effects of nuclear weapon detonation.

 Scientists also use them to simulate the events of the Big Bang and other space related
projects.

Mainframe Computers

These are larger general-purpose computers with extensive processing, storage, input and
output capabilities.

They are used in large organizations where thousands of clients have to access data
simultaneously.

For examples:

 Performing ATM cash withdrawals and deposits. During the process, communication
between the mainframe and remote computer will help accomplish the financial
transactions at hand.

 Business transactions that use credit cards or pre-paid cards., they are applied in places
like banks, railways, etc

Online electronic transactions

Mini Computers

They have high processing, storage, input & output capabilities compared to microcomputers.
They are mainly used by big organizations, ministries, banks, and government organisations
to handle big databases. Minicomputers are now referred to as mid-range servers. They can
also be applied in Engineering processes and manufacturing processes for automation.

Micro Computers

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These are much smaller compared to the mainframe and mini computers. They are designed
to handle less tasks or jobs with minimal processing, input, and output capabilities. They are
single user in terms of user capacity. One person can use the keyboard, CPU and monitor at
a time.

Examples of Microcomputers

 Desktop computers; these are designed to be stationed in one place or on the desk
hence its name.

 Laptop computers; these are microcomputers used on top of people’s laps; they are
portable, smaller and are therefore good for field work.

 Notebook Computers these are very small computers the size of a notebook. They
are smaller than laptops but bigger than palm tops portable and good for field work.

 Palmtop or handheld PC; A palmtop or handheld PC is a very small microcomputer

that also sacrifices power for small size and portability.

 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA); handheld microcomputer that trades off power for
small size and greater portability. They typically use a touch-sensitive screen for both
output and input.

Characteristics of computers

For a device to be characterized as a computer, it must manifest to all the following

characteristics.

 Speed: Computers are very fast in their operating speed. They have a capability of
operating at millions of speeds faster than human beings.
 Accuracy: Computers are known to be so accurate that they hardly make mistakes. In
fact they are able to detect mistakes and correct them.
 Automation: They work automatically. They do not need supervision to be able to
perform.
 Diligence: They have the capability to perform the same tasks over and over again for
long hours without getting tired or bored.

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 Artificial intelligence: They are artificially intelligent. They can perform computations
as well as making logical decisions. They can respond to requests given to them and
provide solutions. All this is accomplished by the power of programs installed in them.
 Storage: They have some kind of work space where data and information are stored.
This storage area is referred to as the computer memory.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS HARDWARE

A computer is a programmable device that is capable of allowing input, processing, storing

and outputting of information at a very great speed.

A computer system simply refers to computer hardware and software; where hardware
refers to the tangible parts of a computer i.e. parts that can be felt or touched plus any other
device that is physically connected to a computer( computer peripherals)and software
referring to the non physical components of a computer.

Hardware also refers to the tangible parts of a computer e.g motherboard, CPU, RAM, Power
supply etc.

It is also an electronic device which operates by the control of instructions stored in its own
memory and can input process, store and retrieve information.

There are 6 major components of a computer system i.e. input unit, processing unit (control
unit plus arithmetic and logic unit), output unit, storage/memory unit (primary and secondary
memory), and communication unit.

Computer Hardware Devices

Hardware comprises of the tangible parts of a computer i.e. parts that can be felt or touched,
plus any other device that is physically connected to a computer (computer peripherals).
These hardware devices include;

 Input devices

 Output devices

 Storage devices (Primary and Secondary Storage)

 Processing devices (ALU and CU)

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 Communication devices

Input devices

These are devices used in entering data. Note that the input could be text (numbers, letters,
and formulae), images, sound etc.

Examples include:

a) Keyboard

A Plastic board with a number of buttons on it known as keys. Some keys are
marked with numbers and others with letters .Entry of information into a
computer is done by pressing these keys.

b) Mouse/Mice

It’s a pointing device with 2 or more buttons on it. It has a pointer that moves
on the screen when the mouse is moved. Its name is derived from its shape,
which looks a bit like a mouse plus its connecting wire that one can imagine
to be the mouse's tail.

Computer mouse can be USB (Universal Serial Bus), PS/2 (Personal System 2) or
cordless/ wireless. Types of computer mouse include; Optical/ Opto mechanical ,
Mechanical Mouse et al.

c) Microphone

This device helps to input voice/sound. It can be used with a voice recognition system
which processes the information. This can be used with a word processing program to
enter text.

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d) Light pen

It’s a pointing device shaped like a pen. It allows users to select items, icons or menu
options with direct contact to the monitor. The user brings the pen to the desired point
on screen and presses the pen button to make contact.

e) Touch screens/Touch sensitive Monitors

These are special types of VDUs that enable the user to interact with the computer by
simply touching the screen. They are ideal/ suitable for people who find it hard to use
a mouse or other pointing devices.

f) Joysticks

An input device used for video games and for some graphics applications. A
joystick is similar to a mouse except that with a mouse the cursor stops moving
as soon as you stop moving the mouse but with a joystick, the pointer continues
moving in the direction the joystick is pointing.

g) Sensors

Devices that are electronic or electromechanical and are used to detect and
supply either physical or environmental information. They are used to measure a
physical quantity such as temperature, pressure or loudness and convert it into
an electronic signal of some kind. They respond to signals or stimulus. These
devices collect data directly from the environment and put it into the computer
system. E.g. include sensors in cars, door sensors, soil moisture sensors,
pressure sensors.

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e) Digital Camera

This allows you to take pictures and to store a digital photographic

image that can be read by a computer. You can then transfer the
images directly from your camera on to your computer.

f) Scanner:

This is a device that is used for quick input of text or images.

Scanners are capable of converting pictures or graphics/ reading
text or illustrations from paper format to digital format that can be
displayed on a computer. The entire picture is converted into very
small dots called pixels. When the pixels are displayed at once, the
picture appears on the screen.

Output devices

These are devices that are used for presenting information i.e. in a soft format or hard format
say on paper or any other material. Such devices include:

a. Printers

These are used to print text/ illustrations on the monitor onto paper or
transparencies. They can print words, Numbers or pictures.

b. Plotters

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These are used for presenting very large maps on paper. They use the same
technology as printers but they can print large images. A plotter can be used to
produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings.

c. Projectors

These are used to represent photographic slides on a screen

in a bigger size. They are connected to computers from which
they derive their information.

A DLP (digital light processing) projector, which uses tiny mirrors to reflect light,
can produce much better images even in a well-lit room

d. Monitor

It is a TV like screen that displays all that the computer

does on its screen so that the user can be able to see
and monitor the computer’s activities/ interact with the
CRT Monitor LCD Monitor
computer. The output on the screen is called the
softcopy. There are two types of monitors ie. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) and LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display)

e. Speaker/ Headphones

It’s a device that gives you sound output from your computer. Speakers let you
have a conversation with others, listen to music, or hear sounds generated from
the computer. Its function therefore being to make speech or music audible.

Memory/ Storage Devices:

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These are hardware devices used to store data, information and instructions
entered into a computer system.

Memory in a computer is classified into two forms.

1. Primary Memory/Main Memory (Primary Storage)

This refers to the computer’s internal memory. Primary storage is used to

store data that is likely to be in active use. This location holds data for short
periods of times i.e. during processing. The primary/ main storage of the
computer system has 2 sections i.e. ROM and RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory): The place in a computer where the operating
system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can
be quickly reached by the computer's processor. It is the biggest section of the
main memory consisting about 70% of the main memory. It is the section of the
main memory where users can read, change and even delete the information. It
is a temporal section where information can be lost anytime if it has not been
stored before. This section is therefore volatile i.e. its contents can be lost by
simply switching off the computer.

ROM (Read Only Memory):

ROM is the name given to chips that store information or instructions that do not
change. An example would be the instructions and data used when a computer is
first turned on. The contents of ROM memory are retained when the power is
shut off, therefore it is nonvolatile.

It’s the section of the main memory that stores information/ programs that can
only be read or retrieved but not changed or altered. Programs/ instructions are
stored permanently implying programs can’t be lost by merely switching off the
computer. Programs stored in this part of the memory include: Operating
systems (programs that control the operation of the computer system like
Windows, DOS, and Unix etc). ROM also stores system instructions and

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commands. This section is the smallest constituting about 30% of the main
memory.

Types of ROM

EPROM (Erasable-Programmable Read Only Memory): is the type of ROM

section that can be reprogrammed, the programs can be changed by the
professional programmers but still remain Read only for the users.

The PROM can be erased by ultraviolet light or electricity. The ultraviolet light
clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the memory. To write to and
erase an EPROM, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or
PROM burner. An EPROM differs from a PROM in that a PROM can be written
to only once and cannot be erased.

Difference between RAM and ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the part of the computer that temporarily
stores the instructions that the computer is running, and the data it is processing.

RAM is a volatile storage device. This means that if the computer’s power is
turned off the contents of RAM disappear and are lost.
RAM, like the CPU, also plugs in to sockets on the motherboard.
When a computer is in use, its RAM will contain…

1. The operating system software

2. The application software currently being used
3. Any data that is being processed

The storage capacity of memory is measured in Bytes.

Usually RAM can hold millions of bytes of data, so you will see capacities measured in:

 Megabytes (MB) or 1,000,000 (1 million) Bytes

 Gigabytes (GB) or 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Bytes

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So, if a computer has 2GB of RAM, it can hold 2 billion bytes of data and instructions at
any time.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is used in most computers to hold a small, special

piece of software: the 'boot up' program.
This software runs when the computer is switched on or 'boots up'. The software
checks the computer’s hardware and then loads the operating system.
ROM is non-volatile storage. This means that the data it contains is never lost,
even if the power is switched off.

This 'boot up' software is known as the BIOS (Basic Input Output System)

Data Storage Capacity

Some storage media can only store a very limited amount of data, whilst others
can store vast amounts...

Data storage capacity is measured in bytes (B).

A thousand bytes is known as a kilobyte (kB)
1,000B = 1kB
A million bytes is known as a megabyte (MB)
1,000,000B = 1MB
A thousand million bytes is called a gigabyte (GB)
1,000,000,000B = 1GB
A million million bytes is called a terabyte (TB)
1,000,000,000,000B = 1TB

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2. Secondary Memory/ auxiliary storage/Back storage devices

This is used for permanent storage. The information here is kept intact even if
power is switched off.

Secondary storage devices hold files that are not currently being used/
processed. For a file to be used it must be copied to the main memory first. After
any modifications files must be saved to the secondary memory. Secondary
storage is more permanent than main memory, as data and programs are
retained when the power is turned off.

There are a number of devices that can be used for storage of information
permanently. These include:

i. Hard disks

These are storage devices that are permanently installed

inside a computer. The computer can accommodate more
than one hard disk.

Currently, we can group hard drives into four types:

 Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA)

 Serial ATA (SATA)
 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
 Solid State Drives (SSD)

ii. Floppy disks

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These are small devices with a memory of 1.44 MB. It is however fragile (easily
spoilt) and it is not recommended for long term and reliable storage.

There are three types of floppy diskettes i.e Double Kb, Density (DD) with
storage capacity 714Kb, High Density (HD) with 1.44Mb, and Extra High Density
with storage capacity 2.88Mb.

iii. Compact disks

These have a larger capacity and are used for storing greater
volumes of information. Programs like Microsoft Office 97,
Windows 2000 and many other application softwares are
provided on CD’s. Most CD’s have a capacity of at least 700 MB.

iv. Flash disks

Are a new storage technology commonly used these days. They have storage
capacities ranging between 1GB to 32GB or more. They are ideal for storing and
transferring files .They are very portable and can be put in a pocket or attached
to a keychain.

v. DVDs

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DVD stands for “Digital Versatile/ Video Disk.” A DVD is a high-capacity

optical disk that looks like a CD but can store much more information
enabling massive computer applications, full-length motion movies and
large amounts of data to be stored on a single DVD. Their storage
capacity is about 5 Gigabytes.

High Capacity Optical Discs

Blu-Ray

Blu-Ray disks are a recent replacement for DVDs. A Blu-Ray disc can hold 25 -
50GB of data (a dual-layer Blu-Ray disc can hold twice that). Blu-Ray discs are
random-access devices.

Blu-Ray discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above) but, since
they can hold more data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-
definition (HD) video.

The 'Blu' part of Blu-Ray refers to the fact that the laser used to read the disc
uses blue light instead of red light. Blue light has a shorter wave-length than
red light (used with CDs and DVDs).
Using a blue laser allows more data to be placed closer together on a Blu-Ray
disc, than on a DVD or CD, so Blu-Ray has a much higher storage capacity
than these older discs.

HD DVD

High-density DVD (HD-DVD) discs can hold around 15GB of data (a dual-layer
HD-DVD can hold twice that). HD-DVDs are random-access devices.

HD-DVD discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs (see above) but, since
they can hold more data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-
definition (HD) video.

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Recordable Optical Discs

Recordable optical discs can have data written onto them (‘burnt’) by a computer user
using a special disc drive (a disc ‘burner’).

CD-R and DVD-R

CD-Recordable (CD-R) and DVD-recordable (DVD-R) discs can have data burnt onto
them, but not erased. You can keep adding data until the disc is full, but you cannot
remove any data or re-use a full disc.

CD-RW and DVD-RW

CD-ReWritable (CD-RW) and DVD-ReWritable (DVD-RW) discs, unlike CD-Rs and

DVD-Rs, can have data burnt onto them and also erased so that the discs can be re-
used.

When CD-Rs and DVD-Rs are burnt, the laser makes permanent marks on the silver-
coloured metal layer. This is why these discs cannot be erased.
When CD-RWs and DVD-RWs are burnt the laser makes marks on the metal layer, but
in a way that can be undone. So these discs can be erased.

Magnetic Tapes

These are storage medium made of plastic with one side magnetically
coated on which data can be encoded. They are an older storage
technology but still used for storage of large volumes of information. Their storage
capacities range from a few hundred kilobytes to several gigabytes.

Processing Devices:

Processing in the computer is done by the microprocessor also known as a

central processing unit (CPU). At times the CPU is also referred to as the
brain of the computer

The central processing unit (CPU) or the processor is the portion of a computer
system that carries out the instructions of a computer program, and is the primary

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element carrying out the computer's functions. It is the unit that reads and executes
program instructions. The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do. The
instructions are very basic things like reading data from memory or sending data to the
user display, but they are processed so rapidly that we experience the results as the
smooth operation of a program. This term has been in use in the computer industry at
least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have
changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation
remains much the same.

The CPU is the 'brain' of the computer. It is the device that carries out software
instructions.

The Pentium processor made by Intel is an example of a CPU.

CPUs usually plug into a large socket on the main circuit board (the motherboard) of a
computer. They get very hot when they are operating so usually have a large fan
attached to their top to keep them cool.

Two major components of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) include

THE CONTROL UNIT (CU)

The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing unit (CPU)
that directs the operation of the processor. It tells the computer'smemory,
arithmetic/logic unit and input and outputdevices how to respond to a program's it is
control all part of processor instructions.

The Characteristics of the CU include the following;

a) This part of the of the CPU is the one that is in charge of all the operations being
carried out.
b) It is responsible to direct the system to execute instructions.
c) It helps in communication between the memory and the arithmetic logical unit.

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d) It also aids in the loading of data and instructions residing in the secondary
memory to the main memory as required.

The characteristics of the ALU are as follows:

a) The ALU is responsible for performing all logical and arithmetic operations. Some
of the arithmetic operations are as follows: addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
b) Some of the logical operations are as follows: comparison between numbers,
letter and or special characters.
c) The ALU is also responsible for the following conditions: Equal-to conditions,
Less-than condition and greater than condition.

Functions of the CPU

1. Fetch Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor
takes this address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking
which instructions the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.
3. Execute While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a
different address.
4. Store The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data is
written to the memory.

The speed of a CPU is measured in Hertz (Hz).

The speed generally corresponds to the number of actions the CPU can perform every
second.

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 1 Megahertz (MHz) is 1,000,000 (1 million) Hertz

 1 Gigahertz (GHz) is 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Hertz

A typical, modern, fast CPU runs at around 2.8GHz. That means it can perform almost
3 billion actions every second!

Communication Devices:

Modem

Modem is short form for MOdulator, DEModulator. A hardware that

lets one computer talk to another computer over a phone line.

Codec

A codec is a device or program capable of performing encoding and decoding on a

digital data stream or signal. The word codec may be a combination of any of the
following: 'compressor-decompressor', 'coder-decoder', or 'compression/decompression
algorithm'.

Network card

It is also called network adapter, network interface card (NIC). It is a

piece of hardware designed to provide for computer communication
(i.e. enabling a computer communicate with other computers) via a
direct network connection.

Buses

A bus is a channel (or shared data path) through which data are passed in electronic
form. Three types of buses link the CPU, primary storage, and the other devices in the
computer system. The capacity of a bus, called bus width, is defined by the number of
bits they carry at a time.

1. Data Bus, moves data to and from the primary storage

2. Address Bus, transmits signals for locating a given address in primary storage
3. Control bus transmits signals specifying whether to read or write data to or from
a given primary storage address, input device or output device.

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software refers to the non physical components of a computer. It is machine

intelligence in form of written programs/ instructions/procedures that cause the
hardware to work. It is these set of instructions that help the computer to process data
and give information. In other words software will basically instruct/tell a computer what
to do.

Software is categorized into two:

1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE

2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Computer software can be grouped under Proprietary Software or Open source

software.

(A). Proprietary software is the one that is purchased from a programming house or a
programmer at a fee with associated copyright laws. Before a user installs it, he/she
has to pay for it and also accept the copyright laws, for example not to modify it without
permission of the programmer.

(B). Open source software on the other hand is software that is developed by many
programmers and users are allowed to install it at almost no charge (they only pay a
support fee). The users are also allowed to modify the software and share the
modifications with other people in the society that programmed it.

1. System Software

System software refers to the various programs that control and support operations of a
computer system. They are any computer software whose purpose is to help run the
computer system.

System software is composed of the following:

1. Operating system

2. Programming language processors/translators.

3. Utilities

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1. Operating System

An operating system is a system software that acts as an intermediary between the

Computer user and the computer hardware and software.

An operating system is the type of system software supervising and directing all of
the other software components plus the computer hardware.

It’s the master controller of all activities that take place within a computer. It is
sometimes referred to as the supervisor/ executive since it coordinates the whole
computer system.

Examples of Operating systems include;

a) Windows (Microsoft Windows): Windows was developed by Microsoft and is

today the most popular O/S for businesses and home PCs. This is because it is
very user friendly because of its Graphical User Interface (GUI) and has
encouraged numerous people to use computers. It allows you to do more than
one thing at a time.

Windows has several versions including:

 Windows 1.0 -1985  Windows 8

 Windows 2.0 -1987  Windows 8.1

 Windows 3.0 -1990  Windows 10

 Windows 3.1 -1992

 Windows NT -1993

 Windows 95 -1995

 Windows 98 - 1998

 Windows 2000/Millennium
Edition -2000

 Windows XP -2001

 Windows 2007

 Windows Vista -2007

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b) DOS (Disk Operating system): It is a single tasking O/S, command line oriented
and not user friendly. DOS is commonly used on personal computers, normally
stand alones. There are two types of DOS i.e. PC DOS developed by IBM
Corporation and MS DOS by Microsoft.

c) UNIX: an advanced O/S more suitable for network use. UNIX is popular among
large organisations particularly those with I.T. backgrounds. It is the best multi-user,
multitasking O/S with extensive stability.

d) Linux: a UNIX based O/S best described as the G.U.I. version of Unix. It is more
user friendly than its parent O/S. It allows you to perform more than one task at a
time. Linux is an example of open source software and the source code can be
modified by developers to fit their particular needs.

e) Mac: The Mac O/S is only used in Macintosh computers. It is user friendly with
support for high graphics handling. It is also suitable for multitasking.

f) Windows CE (Compact Edition), EPOC and Palm OS: specifically developed

for the PDA’S/Hand held computers. Normally these OS are automatically installed
in the computer’s ROM-BIOS.

Functions of the operating system

i. It does the initial setting up of the computer after switching on. It is the operating
system that loads itself automatically into RAM and runs the computer and sets it
up ready for some one to use.

ii. It determines the interface of the desktop. Some operating systems are
command based and thus require one to type in commands (e.g. DOS) while
others use graphics/pictures (E.g. Windows XP).

iii. It coordinates the computer hardware e.g. the keyboard, printer, memory,
monitor and the application software.

iv. It checks whether the computer hardware and peripherals are functioning
properly, with proper connections, proper usage (e.g. whether the computer has

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been shut down the right way) etc. It also displays messages to alert you on such
things.

v. It manages multi-tasking (doing many tasks at once e.g. printing, inputting and
processing) and multi-programming (a technique of having more than one
program in the main/primary storage, which programs may be to running/are
being processed at the same time). For example having a word document and an
excel spreadsheet open at the same time.

vi. Controlling system security by maintaining the use of passwords. A password is

a set of characters which may be allocated to a person or facility which is
required to be keyed into the system before further access is permitted.

vii. File management; Opening and closing of files. When files are deleted, the OS
re-organizes the storage such that the remaining space is available for use.

viii. It enables loading of programs into and out of memory from time to time
i.e. coping the rest of the OS from secondary storage into RAM

ix. Loading of files/ programs from external storage into memory/hard disk.

x. Supervises and directs other programs of the computer system.

xi. Ensures the automatic update of time and date on the computer.

The four Managerial functions of an operating system are

 Disk management  Processor Management

 Device management  Memory Management.

2. UTILITIES/SERVICE PROGRAMS

These are programs specifically designed to enhance/tune the performance of the

operating system.

These programs include:

b) Sort utility: This is a program that arranges records in a pre-determined

sequence. The sort programs are normally used to sort files into a specific
sequence to ease their access.

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c) Tracing and Debugging: This is a program that enables tracing of errors in the
program and after such errors are located, they are eliminated in a process
called debugging. A Bug is a mistake/error in a computer program.

d) Rename utility: These are programs that enable one to rename files.

e) Delete utility: These are used to delete files and unwanted sentences in a
document.

f) File maintenance: A program designed to carry out the process of insertion or

deletion of records in any file for proper maintenance.

g) Virus checkers: These check for viruses the computer may have received from
downloading information from the internet, e-mail or other disk media.

h) Merge utility: Programs that merge/combine files from different destinations into
a single destination.

i) File copying utility: it is a program which simply copies data from one media to
another e.g. from a disk to a magnetic.

j) Resource usage utility: for logging in networking

k) Editors: These programs provide facilities for the creation or amendments of

programs. If you want to make changes to a program, you use a program called
editor to help you edit the other.

2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE

They are programs written by the user or professional software houses to solve specific
problems. They are designed to solve user problems of a general nature e.g. producing
a document, making computations, designing business posters, coming up with a
database or website, accounting purposes etc).

Application software is categorized into two:

1. Off shelf packages

2. Customized programs/ Bespoke/ Tailor-made programs

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1. OFF SHELF PACKAGES

These are programs already written and ready to be run upon their purchase.

Examples include;

a) Word processors

These are programs that enable you to perform word processing functions, they
are document production applications. Word processors help one to perform
functions such as composing/creating a document, editing, formatting, printing
documents, performing spell checks, merging, finding words synonyms, saving
documents etc

Examples are;

 Microsoft word  Word pro

 Word perfect  Word star

b) Spread sheets

They are computer application programs usually used to work with numbers; they
arrange data into columns and rows. To ease computation these programs have
inbuilt functions that perform standard calculations like adding, multiplying,
averaging or even counting, sorting, filtering, what if analysis, financial functions
etc.

Examples of spreadsheet applications are;

 Lotus 1-2-3  Microsoft Works

 Quattro Pro  Microsoft Excel

c) Database mgt systems

Database (DB)

It is a collection of information organized in such a way that a computer program

can quickly select desired pieces of data. Application Software used to develop
databases includes;

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 Ms Access

 SQL

 Oracle

 My SQL etc.

Database mgt systems

They are a collection of programs that enables you to store, modify, and extract
information from a database. The data obtained is usually used for analysis and
decision making.

 Computerized Library Information Systems

 Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)

 Airlines Reservation Systems

 Inventory Management System

 Customer Relationship Management System

 Supply Chain Management System

d) Presentation software

These are computer applications used to create professional slide shows. Slide
shows are usually employed during meetings, lectures, seminars to enhance
presenters’ ideas. Special features can be added like sound, moving text,
images, and graphs. An example of presentation software is Microsoft
PowerPoint.

e) Development Software

These are application programs used to tailor other packages/ applications.

Examples include;

 Java

 Visual basic

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f) Project Management Software

These are computer applications used to develop and manage projects. They
enable the features like identifying the critical path, resource, time and financial
management etc. Examples include;

 Microsoft Project

 Visual

 Enterprise Architect

g) Web designing software

These are computer applications used to develop and update websites.

Examples include;

 Notepad

 Macromedia Dreamweaver

h) Desktop publishing software

These are computer applications that enable the preparation of finer quality text
and images. They enable the user to edit images by moderating the size, color
and even shape or orientation. Examples are;

 Adobe Photoshop  Corel Draw

 Adobe Page Maker  Macromedia Fireworks

i) Accounting software

These are computer applications that enable entering of cash inflows and
outflows, calculation of depreciation etc. They enable production of cashbooks,
balance sheet, profit and loss statements and other accounting statements.
Examples are;

 Pastel Accounting  QuickBooks

 SAGE  Sun Systems

 Tally

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Advantages of off shelf packages

 They are relatively cheaper than bespoke packages.

 They are readily available for purchase.

 They are user friendly; many have a graphical user interface, sample manuals
provided on purchase.

 The user does not face research and development costs or problems since the
package is already in operation.

 The user faces limited risk since the user has an option to seek information
from existing users about the package before making a decision to purchase.

 The user does not face personal problems since such packages are
standardized and he can consult several people who could be using a similar
package.

 They are compatible with almost all computer types.

 Any system bugs would have been discovered by other users and eliminated
before the final version is made.

 They are designed in a way that they can easily be inter-linked with other
application programs.

 They are designed to perform so many tasks since they are designed to meet
needs of a variety of users.

Disadvantages of off shelf packages

 They hardly fulfill users’ specific needs perfectly.

 They are standardized implying it may be hard to make adjustments.

 They may not be recommended where a particular company wants to gain

competitive advantage over others.

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 Where the package does too much compared to the company needs, the
amount of extra space occupied in the hardware can lead to memory wastage.

 The package may also be limited to a particular operating system like Microsoft
Office for Windows operating system.

 It may be easy to manufacture viruses that may tamper with such application
programs.

2. CUSTOMIZED/TAILOR-MADE/BESPOKE PROGRAMS

These are tailor made program constructed to meet specific user requirements.
They are specifically designed to meet user requirements. These packages are
written by programmers either in house or externally by a software company.

Merits of customized programs

 Ability to satisfy user’s specific needs

 The company will be able to perform tasks with its software that its
competitors cannot do with theirs thereby gaining a competitive advantage.

 They can easily be modified or upgraded.

 Ownership is to the company that ordered for the software.

Demerits of customized programs

 Time taken to develop the package may be long yet requirements could be
urgent.

 The cost of paying programmers makes them expensive. The organisation

has to incur development and consultancy costs in this case.

 They are not flexible i.e. not meant to do various tasks.

 They are expensive to maintain. When they breakdown programmers who

are expensive have to be called in.

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 Incase of breakdown, the company may be brought to a standstill

 There is a greater probability of bugs in bespoke programs.

 They are not compatible with all computer types i.e. they are designed for
specific computer types.

 The program may not run which means that the programmer has to design
another one. This could even lead to more costs on the side of the user as
well as causing delays

Factors to bear in mind when choosing a software package

1. It should be easy to use; it should be user-friendly. Menu driven packages are

easier to use because the menu lists options available for the user (sub menus)

2. The cost of the package; a firm should go for the package corresponding to
the funds available. There is also need to put into consideration the
maintenance costs incase of breakdown. It is thus important to carry out a
costs-benefit analysis.

3. Company needs; the user must be convinced that the capacities and facilities
of the package will handle the needs and solve problems of the company’s
business e.g. before purchasing one should consider the number of transactions
handled by the package, also consider memory requirements.

4. Technical requirements; where technical knowledge is required, the person

purchasing should ensure that the desired knowledge is possessed by the staff
that will be using the package.

5. After purchase service/support; the user should know exactly how he should
be helped to solve problems if they occur after purchase.

6. Market confidence/Performance of the package; the user should consider

how long the package has been on the market and how satisfied the existing
users are with that package. A good package should be effective and efficient.

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7. Legal implications; the user must understand his/her rights to the package and
all details related to issues like copy rights and restrictions of the package.

8. Extent of documentation; a good package should be well documented i.e.

sample manuals, amount of memory, lists of hardware that can be used etc.

9. Compatibility of the package with existing hardware

10. Time factor; where a company needs a particular task to be accomplished in

the shortest time possible then off-shelf packages may be recommended.

11. Other forces; for example demand from customers, suppliers, employees,
competitors and regulatory bodies may determine the software to purchase.

12. Controls; what controls are included in the package e.g. passwords, data
validation checks, spelling checks, error detection etc.

13. Up datedness; how will the package be kept up to date? Look at the ability of
the firm to have the package move with the changes in technology, incase of a
fault how easy will it be to handle the fault? Can the package be modified?

POWER BACK UP (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at
least a short time when the primary power source is lost. It also provides protection from power
surges.

An uninterruptible power supply or uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an electrical apparatus

that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or main power fails.

A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the device senses a loss of power from the
primary source. If you are using the computer when the UPS notifies you of the power loss, you
have time to save any data you are working on and exit gracefully before the secondary power
source (the battery) runs out. When all power runs out, any data in your computer's random

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access memory (RAM) is erased. When power surges occur, a UPS intercepts the surge so that
it doesn't damage the computer.

USES OF POWER BACK UP (UPS)

a) Provides power temporarily in the event of blackout and brownout.

b) It regulates power from an unstable source.

c) Allow the user to switch off the computer correctly and save the work.

d) Safeguards the computer against damage when power goes off

e) Providing backup power supply while mains fails so that electronics

especially critical electronics like servers, PC, routers, switches etc won’t
shut down and lose data.
f) Providing clean power sources. Online UPS can eliminate spikes, noise;
surges caused by mains and output pure sine wave power to loads.
g) Most UPS can be remotely monitored. Advanced UPS are built with intelligent
management functions which can auto shut down (not like the shutdown by
power-off) PC

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COMPUTER HANDLING AND MAINTENANCE

Factors to Consider when Buying a Computer

Brand

For a lot of people, brand really matters…and for a good reason. Some brands are
straightaway winners while others not so much. If you are the type of user who takes
pride in the brand of your gadgets, or who believes some brands are simply superior to
the competition, this should be your priority

Each popular PC brand often excel in different areas to minimize as much competition
as possible so if you can’t decide on what brand to pick, you can further break down
your needs by asking whether one offers better (and sometimes longer) warranties than
its rivals. Some brands may not have best warranty offers but they may offer better
software packages. Proprietary software that you may be interested in buying later may
be offered as a bundle by a particular brand so may consider it even if the entire unit
may cost more than other brands. Most Sony Vaio models are usually more pricey than
other good brands because they provide interesting software packages that you will
have to otherwise pay separately later on. Other brands may not have interesting
software packages but their hardware specifications may be their highlight. Acer
computers usually offer cheaper units yet their hard drive and memory capacity are still
above standard.

Bulkiness

Size is often the second thing most users consider when buying computers, especially
laptops. Some may like their monitors large for viewing pleasure while others may
prioritize portability by choosing smaller ones.

Desktop users may pick bulkier casings to allow better ventilation while some may want
to save space by getting a smaller tower. If you’re planning on getting a desktop to be
placed in a large room, size should not matter. In fact, we recommend that you choose
the one with a bigger tower so give as much ventilation to the system as possible. If you
are constantly on the go, picking a laptop with a smaller screen may be a wise choice.

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Price

Of course price matters. Even if you know exactly what you need but if such a rig costs
way too over budget, you will obviously settle for a much less pricier one. Again, price
must be considered if you don’t have enough resources to pay for expensive ones.

Some users may prefer performance over looks so settling for less attractive tower to
save more for a powerful video card and additional RAM can be done. Gamers usually
do this but if you fancy looks over anything and performance is not that important for
you, choosing that sexy Sony Vaio may be preferable.

Usability

Most home users usually buy computers to be used mainly for browsing and light office
and school tasks. If you are this type, then you should avoid sales pitches that touts
performance. In a lot of cases, sales people in stores will offer the more expensive
computers first by highlighting amazing specifications of video cards, processors, and
hard drive capacity. Unless you want to do graphics-heavy tasks like video editing,
gaming, 3D professional works and such, we suggest that you avoid expensive rigs. If
you know that all you want to do is browse the internet, chat with friends, or do some
class assignments, you can always save your hard-earned bucks for other features at a
later time.

For those looking forward to playing the most recent PC games or working video tasks
at home, you want to pick the best performing computer within your budget. High
performance PCs can be upgraded further at a later date to give it even more
processing power, hard drive and RAM capacity so make sure so investing in the
newest available model may be a better choice.

Operating System

Most of the time Windows operating system is sold in different types, with the more
expensive editions usually offering more features. For example, Microsoft’s Windows 10

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operating system is being offered in four different editions — Home, Pro, Enterprise,
Education. Each of these editions have varying list of features so make sure that you do
some research before buying one. Some stores will usually ask a customer what
Windows operating system to install on their machine so make sure that you do your
research ahead of time. Editions with more features are obviously more expensive so
unless you really need a particular feature that’s only offered in the most expensive
edition, do some study in order to save some dollars. For example, Windows 10 Home
edition does not offer a full disk encryption feature called BitLocker so if you take hard
drive security seriously, you should pick other editions.

Peripherals

If you’re looking forward to connecting to watching DVDs in your laptop, for example,
make sure that you consider your machine has a built-in DVD reader or optical drive in
it. Keep in mind that the more peripherals a machine can handle, the bulkier and more
expensive it may get. If you can live without installing something on your laptop via an
optical drive, it may be a great option for you to simply skip it to avail of a thinner and
cheaper model.

Hard Drive Capacity and Speed

Having to decide whether to get a 500GB or 1TB hard disc drive is often beyond an
average user but we suggest that you consider it still, especially if you’re planning on
saving a lot of photos or videos later on. Of course, the bigger the hard drive capacity is,
the better but you must also be mindful of the cost.

More advanced users may be torn whether or not to get a Sata drive or SCSI drive. If
you can’t decide on which hard disc to have, ask yourself what you want to do with your
computer. Again, if you’ll be mainly using it for light tasks such as internet browsing, you
may not necessarily need to have a special hard disc like an SCSI. Capacity may be
important to you but only if you plan on storing big files in the future.

Processor

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Like the hard disc, many average users tend to leave processor choice to whatever unit
they happen to like after considering the things above. A processor is a critical computer
component that can often make a rig’s performance enjoyable or annoying. For cheaper
PCs sporting low end processors, doing light tasks as internet browsing may be okay
but once a user starts loading multiple apps simultaneously, performance may begin to
suffer. Having a good processor can mean the difference between a computer that
freezes or locks up constantly and the one that offers flawless experience. The general
rule in picking up a processor is to stay in the middle, not too cheap but not too
expensive as well. Try to get a range of available units with their corresponding
processor and compare the prices. Then pick the one in the middle unless your budget
can afford a faster one. Remember, if money is not an issue, you’re always better off
picking the more expensive ones as they tend to operate efficiently and are expected to
give better performance.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Like in picking a processor, especially if you can afford it, the more RAM you can get,
the better. RAM matters for users that regularly run games and other applications at the
same time. If you are fond of multi tasking or jumping between applications, more RAM
can offer a smoother performance. In most light tasks though, basic RAM may be
enough.

Depending on the application you will be using most of the time on your computer,
picking the right RAM type may matter so make sure that you do more research on what
suits your computer usage best.

Warranty

Although almost all brand new purchases of computers are provided a warranty, some
brands may have better offers over their rivals. The usual warranty of course is one year
from the date of purchase but many stores can usually extend the standard
manufacturer warranty up to several years if you are willing to pay for it. Prices for
warranty extensions vary of course so if you want to ensure that your machine is

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covered for a long time, try to compare prices first before deciding on which warranty
offer fits you best. Some warranty terms can be worded in vague manner so make sure
to understand them before paying.

THREATS AND RISKS TO COMPUTERS

If you do not take measures to keep your computer safe, your computer -- and you --
could become the target of a cybercrime.

Cybercrimes are those instances when criminals, known as hackers or attackers,

access your computer for malicious reasons. You can fall victim any time you are on an
unprotected computer, receive a deceptive email claiming there is an “urgent matter”
regarding your Monster account or just surfing the Web. They might be seeking
sensitive, personal identification information stored on your computer, like credit card
numbers or private account logins they use for financial gain or to access your online
services for criminal purposes. Or they could want your computer’s resources, including
your Internet connection, to increase their bandwidth for infecting other computers. This
also allows them to hide their true location as they launch attacks. The more computers
a criminal hides behind, the harder it becomes for law enforcement to figure out where
the criminal is. If the criminal can’t be found, he can’t be stopped and prosecuted.

There are many different threats to your computer’s safety, as well as many different
ways a hacker could try to steal your data or infect your computer. Once on a computer,
the threat will tend to show little to no symptoms so it can survive for a prolonged period
undetected. Your online security and cybercrime prevention can be straightforward. In
general, online criminals are trying to make their money as quickly and easily as
possible. The more difficult you make their job, the more likely they are to leave you
alone and move on to an easier target.

1. Trojan. Trojan is one of the most complicated threats among all. Most of the popular
banking threats come from the Trojan family such as Zeus and SpyEye. It has the ability
to hide itself from antivirus detection and steal important banking data to compromise

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your bank account. If the Trojan is really powerful, it can take over your entire security
system as well. As a result, a Trojan can cause many types of damage starting from
your own computer to your online account.

2. Virus. Looking at the technology 10 years back, Virus is something really popular. It
is a malicious program where it replicates itself and aim to only destroy a computer. The
ultimate goal of a virus is to ensure that the victim’s computer will never be able to
operate properly or even at all. It is not so popular today because Malware today is
designed to earn money over destruction. As a result, Virus is only available for people
who want to use it for some sort of revenge purpose.

3. Worms. One of the most harmless threats where it is program designed only to
spread. It does not alter your system to cause you to have a nightmare with your
computer, but it can spread from one computer to another computer within a network or
even the internet. The computer security risk here is, it will use up your computer hard
disk space due to the replication and took up most of your bandwidth due to the spread.

4. Spyware. Is a Malware which is designed to spy on the victim’s computer. If you are
infected with it, probably your daily activity or certain activity will be spied by the
spyware and it will find itself a way to contact the host of this malware. Mostly, the use
of this spyware is to know what your daily activity is so that the attacker can make use
of your information. Such as if you browse on sex toys for a week every day, the
attacker will try to come out with a sex toy scam to cheat on your money.

5. Scareware. Scareware is something that plant into your system and immediately
inform you that you have hundreds of infections which you don’t have. The idea here is
to trick you into purchasing a bogus anti-malware where it claims to remove those
threats. It is all about cheating your money but the approach is a little different here
because it scares you so that you will buy.

6. Keylogger. Something that keeps a record of every keystroke you made on your
keyboard. Keylogger is a very powerful threat to steal people’s login credential such as
username and password. It is also usually a sub-function of a powerful Trojan.

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7. Adware. Is a form of threat where your computer will start popping out a lot of
advertisement. It can be from non-adult materials to adult materials because any ads
will make the host some money. It is not really harmful threat but can be pretty
annoying.

8. Backdoor. Backdoor is not really a Malware, but it is a form of method where once a
system is vulnerable to this method, attacker will be able to bypass all the regular
authentication service. It is usually installed before any virus or Trojan infection because
having a backdoor installed will ease the transfer effort of those threats.

9. Wabbits. Is another a self-replicating threat but it does not work like a Virus or
Worms. It does not harm your system like a Virus and it does not replicate via your LAN
network like a Worms. An example of Wabbit’s attack is the fork bomb, a form of DDoS
attack.

10. Exploit. Exploit is a form of software which is programmed specifically to attack

certain vulnerability. For instance if your web browser is vulnerable to some out-dated
vulnerable flash plugin, an exploit will work only on your web browser and plugin. The
way to avoid hitting into exploit is to always patch your stuff because software patches
are there to fix vulnerabilities.

11. Botnet. Botnet is something which is installed by a BotMaster to take control of all
the computer bots via the Botnet infection. It mostly infects through drive-by downloads
or even Trojan infection. The result of this threat is the victim’s computer, which is the
bot will be used for a large scale attack like DDoS.

12. Dialer. This threat is no longer popular today but looking at the technology 10 years
back or more where we still access the internet using a dial-up modem, it is quite a
popular threat. What it does is it will make use of your internet modem to dial
international numbers which are pretty costly. Today, this type of threat is more popular
on Android because it can make use of the phone call to send SMS to premium
numbers.

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13. Dropper. Looking at the name, a Dropper is designed to drop into a computer and
install something useful to the attacker such as Malware or Backdoor. There are two
types of Dropper where one is to immediately drop and install to avoid Antivirus
detection. Another type of Dropper is it will only drop a small file where this small file will
auto trigger a download process to download the Malware.

14. Fake AV. Fake Antivirus threat is a very popular threat among Mac user about 10
months ago. Due to the reason that Mac user seldom faces a virus infection, scaring
them with message which tells them that their computer is infected with virus is pretty
useful where it results them into purchasing a bogus antivirus which does nothing.

15. Phishing. A fake website which is designed to look almost like the actual website is
a form of phishing attack. The idea of this attack is to trick the user into entering their
username and password into the fake login form which serves the purpose of stealing
the identity of the victim. Every form sent out from the phishing site will not go to the
actual server, but the attacker controlled server.

16. Cookies. Cookies is not really a Malware. It is just something used by most
websites to store something into your computer. It is here because it has the ability to
store things into your computer and track your activities within the site. If you really don’t
like the existence of cookies, you can choose to reject using cookies for some of the
sites which you do not know.

17. Bluesnarfing. Bluesnarfing is all about having an unauthorized access to a specific

mobile phones, laptop, or Smart Phones via Bluetooth connection. By having such
unauthorized access, personal stuff such as photos, calendar, contacts and SMS will all
be revealed and probably even stolen.

18. Bluejacking. Bluejacking is also uses the Bluetooth technology but it is not as
serious as Bluesnarfing. What it does is it will connect to your Bluetooth device and
send some message to another Bluetooth device. It is not something damaging to your
privacy or device system compared to the Bluesnarfing threat.

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19. DDoS. One of the most famous thing done by Anonymous, which is to send millions
of traffic to a single server to cause the system to down with certain security feature
disable so that they can do their data stealing. This kind of trick which is to send a lot of
traffic to a machine is known as Distributed Denial of Service, also known as DDoS.

20. Boot Sector Virus. It is a virus that places its own codes into computer DOS boot
sector or also known as the Master Boot Record. It will only start if there it is injected
during the boot up period where the damage is high but difficult to infect. All the victim
need to do if they realize there is a boot sector virus is to remove all the bootable drive
so that this particular virus will not be able to boot.

21. Browser Hijackers. A browser hijacker uses the Trojan Malware to take control of
the victim’s web browsing session. It is extremely dangerous especially when the victim
is trying to send some money via online banking because that is the best time for the
hijacker to alter the destination of the bank account and even amount.

22. Chain Letters. When I was small, I got tricked with chain letters written by my
friend. But chain letters does not stop at that era. It brings to adult life as well where
people like to send chain letter such as Facebook account delete letter. It usually says if
you don’t forward that particular message or email to 20 people or more, your account
will be deleted and people really believe that.

23. Virus Document. Virus today can be spread through document file as well
especially PDF documents. Last time, people will only advice you not to simply execute
an EXE file but in today’s world with today’s technology, document file should also be
avoided. It is best if you use an online virus scanner to scan first before opening any
single file which you feel it is suspicious.

24. Mousetrapping. I am not too sure whether you had encountered a Mousetrapping
Malware before where what it does is it will trap your web browser to a particular
website only. If you try to type another website, it will automatically redirect you back. If
you try clicking forward/backward of the navigation button, it will also redirect you back.

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If you try to close your browser and re-open it, it will set the homepage to that website
and you can never get out of this threat unless you remove it.

25. Obfuscated Spam. To be really honest, obfuscated Spam is a spam mail. It is

obfuscated in the way that it does not look like any spamming message so that it can
trick the potential victim into clicking it. Spam mail today looks very genuine and if you
are not careful, you might just fall for what they are offering.

26. Pharming. Pharming works more or less like phishing but it is a little tricky here.
There are two types of pharming where one of it is DNS poisoning where your DNS is
being compromised and all your traffic will be redirected to the attacker’s DNS. The
other type of pharming is to edit your HOST file where even if you typed
www.google.com on your web browser, it will still redirect you to another site. One thing
similar is that both are equally dangerous.

27. Crimeware. Crimeware is a form of Malware where it takes control of your computer
to commit a computer crime. Instead of the hacker himself committing the crime, it
plants a Trojan or whatever the Malware is called to order you to commit a crime
instead. This will make the hacker himself clean from whatever crime that he had done.

28. SQL Injection. SQL injection does not infect the end users directly. It is more
towards infecting a website which is vulnerable to this attack. What it does is it will gain
unauthorized access to the database and the attacker can retrieve all the valuable
information stored in the database.

OTHER COMPUTER THREATS AND SOLUTIONS TO CURB THESE THREATS

Vulnerabilities
Vulnerabilities are flaws in computer software that create weaknesses in your computer
or network’s overall security. Vulnerabilities can also be created by improper computer
or security configurations. Threats exploit the weaknesses of vulnerabilities, resulting in
potential damage to the computer or its data.

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Companies announce vulnerabilities as they are discovered and quickly work to fix them
with software and security "patches."

Solution

a) Keep software and security patches up to date.

b) Configure security settings for your operating system, Internet browser and
security software.
c) Companies should develop personal security policies for online behavior, and
individuals should be sure to adopt their own policies to promote online safety.
d) Install a proactive security solution like Norton Internet Security to block threats
targeting vulnerabilities.

Spyware

Spyware can be downloaded from Web sites, email messages, instant messages and
direct file-sharing connections. Additionally, a user may unknowingly receive spyware
by accepting an End User License Agreement from a software program.
Spyware frequently attempts to remain unnoticed, either by actively hiding or simply not
making its presence on a system known to the user.

Solution

a) Use a reputable Internet security program to proactively protect from spyware and
other security risks.
b) Configure the firewall in the reputable Internet security program to block unsolicited
requests for outbound communication.
c) Do not accept or open suspicious error dialogs from within the browser.
d) Spyware may come as part of a "free deal" offer -- do not accept free deals.
e) Always carefully read the End User License agreement at Install time and cancel if
other “programs” are being installed as part of the desired program.
f) Keep software and security patches up to date.

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Spam

Email spam is the electronic version of junk mail. It involves sending unwanted
messages, often unsolicited advertising, to a large number of recipients. Spam is a
serious security concern, as it can be used to deliver email that could contain Trojan
horses, viruses, worms, spyware and targeted attacks aimed at obtaining sensitive,
personal identification information.
Messages that do not include your email address in the TO or CC fields are common
forms of spam. Some spam can contain offensive language or links to Web sites with
inappropriate content. Also, some spam may include hidden text that only becomes
visible if you highlight the content -- a common trick spammers use to get their email to
pass through spam filters without detection.

Solution

a) Install Spam filtering/blocking software.

b) If you suspect an email is spam, do not respond -- just delete it.
c) Consider disabling your email’s preview pane and reading emails in plain text.
d) Reject all Instant Messages from people who are not on your Buddy list.
e) Do not click on URL links within IM unless they are from a known source and
expected.
f) Keep software and security patches up to date.

Malware
Malware is a category of malicious code that includes viruses, worms and Trojan
horses. Destructive malware will use popular communication tools to spread, including
worms sent through email and instant messages, Trojan horses dropped from Web
sites and virus-infected files downloaded from peer-to-peer connections. Malware will
also seek to exploit existing vulnerabilities on systems making their entry quiet and
easy.

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Malware works to remain unnoticed, either by actively hiding or by simply not making its
presence on a system known to the user. You might notice your system is processing at
a slower rate than what you are used to.

Solution

a) Only open email or IM attachments that come from trusted sources and are expected.
b) Have email attachments scanned by a reputable Internet security program prior to
opening.
c) Delete all unwanted messages without opening.
d) Do not click on Web links sent by someone you do not know.
e) If a person on your Buddy list is sending strange messages, files or Web site links,
terminate your IM session.
f) Scan all files with a reputable Internet security program before transferring them to
your system.
g) Only transfer files from well-known sources.
h) Use a reputable Internet security program to block all unsolicited outbound
communication.
i) Keep security patches up to date.

Phishing

Phishing is essentially an online con game, and phishers are nothing more than tech-
savvy con artists and identity thieves. They use spam, malicious Web sites, email
messages and instant messages to trick people into divulging sensitive information,
such as bank and credit card information or access to personal accounts..

Here are four ways to identify phishing scams:

 Phishers, pretending to be legitimate companies, may use email to request personal

information and instruct recipients to respond through malicious Web sites. They may

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also claim that an urgent action is needed to lure recipients into downloading
malicious programs onto their computers.
 Phishers tend to use emotional language like scare tactics or urgent requests to
entice recipients to respond.
 Phish sites can look remarkably like legitimate sites, because the criminals tend to
use the copyrighted images from genuine sites.
 Requests for confidential information via email or Instant Message tend to not be
legitimate.
After you open and run an infected program or attachment, you might not notice the
impacts to your computer right away. Here are a few indicators that might indicate
your computer has been infected:

Measures to curb

If you believe you received a phishing email, were lured to click on the link or download
a program and are concerned you may have some type of malicious program installed
on your computer, here are some things you may want to check:

a) Is your virus scan running?

b) Are your virus definitions up to date (less than a week old)?
c) Did you perform full disk/memory virus scan.
d) Are you running anti-spyware programs such as Adaware and/or SpybotSD?
e) Once you run your scans and have positive results or remove programs,
ensure your online accounts are secure -- modify your account passwords.
f) Make sure that you have enabled your Phishing Filter, a feature of Windows
Internet Explorer 7.
g) Contact your anti-spyware/virus vendor to find out other steps you can take.

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CARING FOR A COMPUTER

1. Back up your data.

When was the last time that you backed up your data? Not 'when was the last time you
thought about it', or 'when was the last time you told someone how important it is', but
when was the last time you actually backed up your data? And how much will you lose if
your current hard drive fails right now and you have to rely on that backup?
Back up can either be local or online , local on secondary storage devices and online
using the internet and google drive or dropbox or Microsoft one drive

Another decent solution is to use a program like Foldershare to synchronise your files
between two computers (even better, two locations).

If you have the opportunity, make a full disk image (a 'snapshot' of your entire hard
drive) immediately after reloading the OS and all your programs. This gives you a clean
starting point to go back to if you need to reload everything again, and will be much
faster than redoing everything manually.

2. Clean dust from your computer.

Computers are some of the most efficient dust collectors known to man. Aside from
looking gross and possibly being an allergy hazard, a dusty computer will trap heat,
which can reduce its performance and lifespan. The easiest way to clean it is with
compressed air - open up the case, take it outside, and blow the dust out. The exterior
of the case can be wiped down with a damp cloth. Be careful about using household
cleaners, as they can easily destroy circuit boards. For most computers, cleaning once
every year or eighteen months should be adequate.

Beyond just getting the dust out, here are some other steps to consider: Dust often
collects inside the CPU and video card heatsinks, consider disassembling and cleaning
them if you're comfortable doing so, or at least using compressed air to specifically blow
them out. While the case is open, plug in the computer and turn it on long enough to
make sure all the fans are still spinning. Replace any that are dead or noisy (a common

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sign of a worn-out fan). If there is sticky residue or dirt on the circuit boards, it can be
removed with a cotton swab dipped in rubbing alcohol, which will evaporate cleanly.
(Make sure the computer is unplugged first!) If you're not comfortable with working
inside your computer or suspect your computer has chronic overheating issues, Puget
Systems or another professional repair service can help you out.

3. Clean up your cabling, and everything else too.

There are probably two things behind your computer: a mess of cables, and dust
bunnies. If you're moving your computer, take the opportunity to clean your desk and
floor as well. While I can't claim that a clean work area will improve your computer's
performance or lifespan, it will certainly improve your peace of mind, and clean cabling
will help prevent snags and stresses on your computer ports. If you have a lot of
peripherals, consider using cable management of some type. Twist ties work fine, or
make a trip to any large office supply store. You can use a full out cable solution, but
even a five dollar cable wrap can neaten up your desk considerably.

a) While you're wiping down your desk, wipe down the monitor too. CRT screens
can be cleaned with any mild glass cleaner, but LCD screens can't tolerate it.
Use a dampened cloth or a product specifically made for LCD screens.
b) assembly cleaned with compressed air. There are some good step-by-step
guides available on Lifehacker. Take a picture first so you can put the keys back
in the right place! If you're feeling adventurous (or just have a really disgusting
keyboard), some people advocate running it through the dishwasher.
c) This is a good time to take a look at where your computer is located. Is there
adequate ventilation? Is the computer out of direct sunlight, and away from heat
sources? What is it plugged in to? There's no excuse for not having a good surge
protector (not just a plastic power strip!), and battery backup units have become
affordable for most users. This will affect the lifespan of your computer.
d) Smoking will make a mess of a computer faster than anything else I know of.
While we at Puget Systems have never seen one quite this bad, we can always

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identify a smoker's computer as soon as we unbox it. Electronics absorb the

smell very easily, and even an all-metal case will retain the odor after all the
components have been removed. Plus, there's usually a layer of dust and tar on
the circuitry that tends to be a giveaway as well. Please, if I can't convince you to
quit smoking all together, at least take it somewhere away from the computer!

4. Organize your installation disks

Keep software, peripheral, and driver disks in a single location, preferably close to the
computer. A shoebox works fine. Make sure you have them handy before attempting
computer maintenance or repairs - it's amazing what can become necessary in the
middle of a lengthy troubleshooting session, and it is common to not know what you're
missing until you need it!

5. Run antivirus and spyware scans regularly.

This item should go without saying, but I'll say it anyway. Any
computer that is connected to the internet needs to have some sort of
antivirus software. There is a tremendous variety available, everything
from AVG Free to enterprise-level solutions. Use whichever you like
best. Most antivirus software will monitor the system for threats in real
time, so a full daily scan probably isn't necessary, but do make time to
run a full scan every month at the least.

Some antivirus programs also protect against adware and spyware, but not all. If yours
doesn't, or if you just want an extra layer of security, AdAware and SpyBot are two of
the best known (and free!) products available. While they may not be as destructive as
viruses, adware and spyware will compromise privacy and slow your computer
drastically. Run scans for them at the same time as your antivirus.

6. Clean up your software.

Every few months, look through the 'Add or Remove Programs' interface that is found in
the control panel. If there's software on there that you don't use any more, remove it.
This goes triple for browser toolbars, free games, and other resource-eating bits of fluff.

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Be a little cautious, though - some system drivers appear in this list, and can cause
hardware to stop working if you remove them.

There's an excellent scanning utility on Steffen Gerlach's website that gives a graphical
representation of the data stored on your hard drive. This will give you a good idea of
just how much room your music collection really takes, or how much space is going to
old games.

7. Clean up your OS

Windows is not the most efficient operating system, and sometimes needs attention
itself. It saves a large amount of unnecessary information, mostly in the form of
'temporary' files (which never get deleted) lists of recently performed searches, and the
like. There's an excellent program called CCleaner, which will clear out most of the
unneeded data automatically. If you're interested in further optimizing your OS, there's a
wealth of information available online, including an article on improving XP
performance available here on Puget's website.

8. Update everything

Check for updates for your hardware and software. This includes
running Windows Updates, checking for updated drivers, and checking for
software patches. The easiest way to find these is to go to the
manufacturer's website, to their support section, and then look for a
'downloads' section or search for your product's name. If you've been
having problems with a piece of hardware or software, be sure to check for patches or
updates - if other people have been having similar problems, it's likely the manufacturer
has released a fix for it.

The exception to this is motherboard BIOS updates. Flashing a BIOS can be difficult,
and if it's done incorrectly you may need to send the computer for professional repair to
get it working again. If the update was specifically released to address problems that
you've been dealing with, it's probably worth it. Follow the manufacturer's directions
carefully! Otherwise, leave it alone.

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9. Defragment

Once your hard drive has been cleaned up, it's a good time to defragment. This
organizes your files, leading to faster disk access times and improved system
performance. The Windows defragmenting tool (Start > All Programs > Accessories >
System Tools > Disk Defragmenter) works well, or there's a list of open source and
commercial defragmenting software available on Wikipedia if you'd rather use
something else.

NETWORKS AND INTERNET

DEFINITION:

“A computer network is a group of computers which are connected together to allow

communication between them.”

TYPES OF NETWORKS

There are two main types of network :

 LAN
 WAN

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) :

Definition: “A network which is located entirely on one site

such as an office, school or within a group of buildings that are
in close proximity, that are connected together.”

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WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) :

“A network which connects

together computers on a
number of sites in different
areas”.

A WAN or Wide Area Network

is a group of widely dispersed
computers that are connected
together. These could be across
the same town, or across a country or even across the world”.

Apart from distance, the other feature that distinguishes as WAN from a LAN is that the
WAN would make use of a range of communication technologies such as telephone,
microwave and satellite links.

Using a WAN, schools in Uganda can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter
of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated.

ADVANTAGES OF NETWORK

SPEED.

Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to memory cards or discs, then carrying or
sending the discs from one computer to another. This method of transferring files can
be very time-consuming.

COST.

Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable

savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.

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SECURITY.

Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not
have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for
specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.

CENTRALIZED SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT.

One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a school is the fact that all of the
software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to
spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers
throughout the building.

RESOURCE SHARING.

Sharing resources is another advantage of school networks. Most organizations cannot

afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD players for
each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they
can be shared by many users.

ELECTRONIC MAIL.

The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an e-mail system.
E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all personnel, and it
facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire staff. Electronic mail on
a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and peers at their own
institute. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, we can communicate with others
throughout the world.

FLEXIBLE ACCESS.

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Networks allow users to access their files from computers throughout the institute. Like
Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access
area of the network, then go to the media center after school to finish their work.
Students can also work cooperatively through the network.

WORKGROUP COMPUTING.

Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about
new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or website.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology refers to the layout used to wire the computers together. Also refers
to the arrangement of networks.

TYPES OF TOPOLOGY

There are four main topologies that are used.

1. BUS
2. STAR
3. RING
4. Hybrid topology.

BUS TOPOLOGY

Each computer is connected to a single cable which

connects all of the computers. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear
cable.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

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 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

STAR TOPOLOGY

“All communication takes place via a central computer or HUB

device.” A star topology is designed with each node connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a
star network passes through the hub, switch before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls
all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than bus topologies because of the cost of the HUB device.

RING TOPOLOGY

Each computer is connected to the two computers on either side of

it. The last computer is linked to the first to form a ring.

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Advantages of a Ring Topology

• Easy to install and wire.

• Equal Access to devices no one computer will use all the bandwidth
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Ring Topology
• Slow since signals goes in sequential order
• If the concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• Single break in cable can disrupt the flow of network.

Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology combines two or more topologies and is meant to reap their
advantages. Obviously, the advantages and disadvantages of a hybrid topology are a
combination of the merits and demerits of the topologies used to structure it.

INTERNET TERMINOLOGIES

The internet is a vast interconnection of computer networks comprised of millions of

computing devices. Desktop computers, mainframes, smartphones, tablets, GPS units,
video game consoles and smart devices all connect to the internet.

Browser

A browser is a free software package or mobile app that lets you view web pages,
graphics, and most online content. The most popular web browsers include Chrome,
Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Safari, but there are many others.

Browser software is specifically designed to convert HTML and XML computer code into
human-readable documents.

Browsers display web pages. Each webpage has a unique address called a URL.

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Webpage

A webpage is what you see in your browser when you are on the internet. Think of the
webpage as a page in a magazine. You may see text, photos, images, diagrams, links,
advertisements and more on any page you view.

Often, you click or tap on a specific area of a webpage to expand the information or
move to a related web page. Clicking on a link—a snippet of text that appears in color
different from the rest of the text—takes you to a different webpage. If you want to go
back, you use the arrows provided for that purpose in just about every browser.

Several web pages on a related subject make a website.

URL

Uniform Resource Locators—URLs— are the web browser addresses of internet

pages and files. With a URL, you can locate and bookmark specific pages and files for
your web browser. URLs can be found all around us. They may be listed at the bottom
of business cards, on TV screens during commercial breaks, linked in documents you
read on the internet or delivered by one of the internet search engines. The format of a
URL resembles this:

 http://www.examplewebsite.com/mypage which is frequently shortened to this:

 www.examplewebsite.com/mypage

Sometimes they are longer and more complicated, but they all follow acknowledged
rules for naming URLs.

URLs consist of three parts to address a page or file:

 The protocol is the portion ending in //: Most web pages use the protocol http or
https, but there are other protocols.
 The host or top-level domain, which frequently ends in .com, .net, .edu or .org
but can also end in one of many others that have been officially recognized.
 The filename or page name itself.

HTTP and HTTPS

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HTTP is the acronym for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol," the data communication
standard of web pages. When a web page has this prefix, the links, text, and pictures
should work properly in your web browser.

HTTPS is the acronym for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure." This indicates that the
webpage has a special layer of encryption added to hide your personal information and
passwords from others.

HTML and XML

Hypertext Markup Language is the programming language of

webpages. HTMLcommands your web browser to display text and graphics in a specific
fashion. Beginning internet users don't need to know HTML coding to enjoy the
webpages the programming language delivers to browsers.

XML is eXtensible Markup Language, a cousin to HTML. XML focuses on cataloging

and databasing the text content of a web page.

XHTML is a combination of HTML and XML.

IP Address

Your computer and every device that connects to the internet uses an Internet
Protocol address for identification. In most cases, IP addresses are assigned
automatically. Beginners don't usually need to assign an IP address. An IP address can
look something like this:

 202.3.104.55

or like this

 21DA:D3:0:2F3B:2AA:FF:FE28:9C5A

Every computer, cell phone and mobile device that accesses the internet is assigned an
IP address for tracking purposes. It may be a permanently assigned IP address, or the
IP address may change occasionally, but it is always a unique identifier.

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Wherever you browse, whenever you send an email or instant message, and whenever
you download a file, your IP address serves as the equivalent of an automobile license
plate to enforce accountability and traceability.

ISP

You need an Internet Service Provider to get to the internet. You may access a
free ISP at school, a library or work, or you may pay a private ISP at home. An ISP is
the company or government organization that plugs you into the vast internet.

An ISP offers a variety of services for a variety of prices: web page access, email, web
page hosting and so on. Most ISPs offer various internet connection speeds for a
monthly fee. You may choose to pay more for high-speed internet connection if you like
to stream movies or select a less expensive package if you use the internet mostly for
light browsing and email.

Router

A router or router-modem combination is the hardware device that acts as the traffic cop
for network signals arriving at your home or business from your ISP. A router can be
wired or wireless or both.

Your router provides a defense against hackers and directs content to the specific
computer, device, streaming device or printer that should receive it.

Often your ISP provides the network router it prefers for your internet service. When it
does, the router is configured appropriately. If you choose to use a different router, you
may need to enter information into it.

Email

Email is electronic mail. It is the sending and receiving of typewritten messages from
one screen to another. Email is usually handled by a webmail service—Gmail or Yahoo
Mail, for example, or an installed software package such as Microsoft Outlook or Apple
Mail.

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Beginners start by creating one email address that they give to their family and friends.
However, you aren't limited to one address or email service. You may choose to add
other email addresses for online shopping, business or social networking purposes.

Email Spam and Filters

Spam is the jargon name of unwanted and unsolicited email. Spam email comes in two
main categories: high-volume advertising, which is annoying, and hackers attempting to
lure you into divulging your passwords, which is dangerous.

Filtering is the popular-but-imperfect defense against spam. Filtering is built-in to many

email clients. Filtering uses software that reads your incoming email for keyword
combinations and then either deletes or quarantines messages that appear to be spam.
Look for a spam or junk folder in your mailbox to see your quarantined or filtered email.

Social Media

Social media is the broad term for any online tool that enables users to interact with
thousands of other users. Facebook and Twitter are among the largest social
networking sites. LinkedIn is a combination social and professional site. Other popular
sites include YouTube, Google+, Instagram, Pinterest, Snapchat, Tumblr, and Reddit.

Social media sites offer free accounts to everyone. When selecting the ones that
interest you, ask your friends and family which ones they belong to. That way you can
join a group where you already know people.

As with all things internet related, protect your personal information when you sign up
for sites. Most of them offer a privacy section where you can choose what to reveal to
other users of the site.

E-Commerce

E-commerce is electronic commerce—the transaction of business selling and buying

online. Every day, billions of dollars exchange hands through the internet and World
Wide Web.

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Internet shopping has exploded in popularity with internet users, to the detriment of
traditional brick-and-mortar stores and malls. Every well-known retailer has a website
that showcases and sells its products. Joining them are dozens of small sites that sell
products and enormous sites that sell just about everything.

E-commerce works because reasonable privacy can be assured through HTTPS secure
web pages that encrypt personal information and because reliable businesses value the
internet as a transaction medium and make the process simple and safe.

When shopping on the internet, you are asked to enter a credit card, PayPal information
or other payment information.

Encryption and Authentication

Encryption is the mathematical scrambling of data so that it is hidden from

eavesdroppers. Encryption uses complex math formulas to turn private data into
meaningless gobbledygook that only trusted readers can unscramble.

Encryption is the basis for how we use the internet as a pipeline to conduct trusted
business, like online banking and online credit card purchasing. When reliable
encryption is in place, your banking information and credit card numbers are kept
private.

Authentication is directly related to encryption. Authentication is the complex way that

computer systems verify that you are who you say you are.

Downloading

Downloading is a broad term that describes transferring something you find on the
internet or World Wide Web to your computer or other device. Commonly, downloading
is associated with songs, music and software files. For example, you might want to:

 Download a new musical ringtone for your cellphone

 Download a trial copy of Microsoft Office.

The larger the file you are copying, the longer the download takes to transfer to your
computer. Some downloads take seconds; some take minutes or longer depending on
your internet speed.

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Webpages that offer material that can be downloaded are usually clearly marked with a
Download button (or something similar).

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing began as a term to describe software that was online and borrowed,
instead of purchased and installed on your computer. Web-based email is one example
of cloud computing. The user's email is all stored and accessed in the cloud of the
internet.

The cloud is the modern version of the 1970s mainframe computing model. As part of
the cloud computing model, software as a service is a business model that assumes
people would rather rent software than own it. With their web browsers, users access
the cloud on the internet and log in to their online rented copies of their cloud-based
software.

Increasingly, services offer cloud storage of files to facilitate the ability to access your
files from more than one device. It is possible to save files, photos, and images in the
cloud and then access them from a laptop, cell phone, tablet or another device. Cloud
computing makes collaboration among individuals on the same files in the cloud
possible.

Firewall

Firewall is a generic term to describe a barrier against destruction. In the case of

computing, a firewall consists of software or hardware that protects your computer from
hackers and viruses.

Computing firewalls range from small antivirus software packages to complex and
expensive software and hardware solutions. Some firewalls are free. Many computers
ship with a firewall you can activate. All the many kinds of computer firewalls offer some
kind of safeguard against hackers vandalizing or taking over your computer system.

Malware

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Malware is the broad term to describe any malicious software designed by hackers.
Malware includes viruses, trojans, keyloggers, zombie programs and any other software
that seeks to do one of four things:

 Vandalize your computer in some way

 Steal your private information
 Take remote control of your computer (zombie your computer) for other ends
 Manipulate you into purchasing something

Malware programs are the time bombs and wicked minions of dishonest programmers.
Protect yourself with a firewall and knowledge of how to prevent these programs from
reaching your computer

Trojan

A trojan is a special kind of hacker program that relies on the user to welcome it and
activate it. Named after the famous Trojan horse tale, a trojan program masquerades as
a legitimate file or software program.

Sometimes it is an innocent-looking movie file or an installer that pretends to be

actual anti-hacker software. The power of the trojan attack comes from users naively
downloading and running the trojan file.

Protect yourself by not downloading files that are sent to you in emails or that you see
on unfamiliar websites.

Phishing

Phishing is the use of convincing-looking emails and web pages to lure you into typing
your account numbers and passwords/PINs. Often in the form of fake PayPal warning
messages or fake bank login screens, phishing attacks can be convincing to anyone
who is not trained to watch for the subtle clues. As a rule, smart users—beginners and
long-time users alike—should distrust any email link that says "you should log in and
confirm this."

Blogs

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A blog is a modern online writer's column. Amateur and professional writers publish
blogs on most every kind of topic: their hobby interests in paintball and tennis, their
opinions on healthcare, their commentaries on celebrity gossip, photo blogs of favorite
pictures or tech tips on using Microsoft Office. Absolutely anyone can start a blog.

Blogs are usually arranged chronologically and with less formality than a website. Many
of them accept and respond to comments. Blogs vary in quality from amateurish to
professional. Some savvy bloggers earn reasonable incomes by selling advertising on
their blog pages.

Advantages / Merits / Uses / Benefits of Internet

Online Shopping
Now today’s the trend of online shopping is growing up very fast. Users have now the
facility of shop everything what they want without going outside to stores and super
markets.
Benefits for Students Studies/ Research
You are a student and you miss the lecture. Don’t worry internet helps students to find
notes, essay, lectures, guidelines and more than points related to your subject are
available in your books.
Book Tickets online
In the race of technology and companies are giving best services to their users. And
almost all the airlines are providing advantages to their customer to buy the tickets
online on internet. So people are no need to go to the agency or airline office.
Learn Online From Videos / Tutorials
Internet is the solution of many problems. If you face any problem in your mobile,
laptop, cars, television etc. You can easily find the solution on the screen with the help
of video providing website. Mostly used websites for videos upload and download are
YouTube, Dailymotion, tunepk, viemo and etc.
Play Online Games/ Entertainment
People fond of video games are easily access to download multiple games. Also can
play online games with the help of internet connection. Without it you can’t play online
either can’t download.
Entertainment

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Every day new movies and music lunched in every country almost. People how are fond
to watch movies or listen music. They can easily find latest music and movies on
Internet and can download it and also watch it online.
E-mailing / Ease Communication
Government Departments, Private Organization, Businesses, NGOs, School, Colleges
and Universities etc. And many other departments and peoples are using the e-mail
services. And I’ll say that without e-mail conversation half of word would be stop work.
Because big projects, secret information and files are shared through e-mails and this
service is not possible without Internet Connection.
Results and Roll No
Students of Universities and Colleges now even the students of Schools are easily see
their results on internet. To access to the result you must need to put the right roll no in
the search bar of school or college website.
Company Profile
Pizza Hut, Five Star Hotels, Toyota Company., Honda Company, Government
Departments, NGOs., Private Companies and many of other departments and
companies like this. The information about these are easily available on Websites and
we can visit these websites easily with the help of Net Connection.
Jobs / Employment Opportunities
Hundreds of mobile applications, and thousands of website in every country. In their
national language provide the services to the jobless peoples to find the jobs on Internet
related to their experience and criteria.
Bank Accounts / E-banking
Money in your bank account is now same like money in your pocket. Yes you can login
to your account and make online transactions either bank is open or close.
Buy and Sell
If you have second hand or new bike, car, clothes, shoes, jewelry, mobile or laptop etc.
You can place an add to website and easily can sell on reasonable price as compare to
market. You can also buy same like this by contacting the selling person.
Earn Money On Internet

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Create a professional website or create a channel on video website. Run for little time
and place an advertisement on your website or channel and earn money through net.
You can also earn money by affiliate marketing.
Hire Peoples for Work
Hire online people to get advantages to complete your assignments, petty works,
designs, data entry works etc. there are several famous website where you can easily
hire a person for your work. Fiver and Upwork are good example of it.

Disadvantages / Demerits / Drawbacks / Misuse of Internet

Shopping Quality
When you shop online on internet. The things you buy sometime the quality of these
things are very bad and will give you loss. Because you cannot see and touch the things
properly during online shopping.
Loss of Studies
Mostly students use the net for wrong purposes. Which are the cause of loss and big
disadvantage for student’s studies. Because they spend more time while using online
activates.
Loss of Money
In advantages of we read that we can play online games. Indisadvantages of
internet we are talking about the people who are playing online games and spend
money on these games. Once or two time you may win but not every time. People can
loss their money online by playing games and also on other activates.
Health Disadvantages
Before hundred years ago there was no any concept of Internet and computers etc.
Now every third person uses these things. Because of it they all the day in the home
and face many health problems and diseases.
Viruses & Malware
During browsing the different websites in your browsers. Some scripts are automatically
download and install itself automatically. Some of them are viruses and these viruses
can damage your computer, laptop and mobiles very badly.

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Accounts Hacking
Using of your account online may be chances of Hacking. Yes if you are using your
account in mobile application and let suppose you lose mobile. The other person can
easily transfer your money to any other account.
Data Stolen Chances
If your computer is connected to the net, in this case hacker can come and steal your
file easily from your device.
Frauds
Many peoples and website on Internet that are not real and not trusted. These are fake
and can fraud you for money and other things.
.Governments Data and Files can be hacked
Enemy countries hire special hackers to steal the secrets file of government. These files
may be the atomic codes, arms modules, drone designs and many other files like that
are not secure in the presence of Internet.
Wrong News
Some fake channels and website publish wrong news on net to get more views to
become famous. So always use and watch the secure and trusted websites and
channels.
Wasting Time
More and wrong use of net is just like people are waste their time. And they are far from
sports activities. Because of it now today’s people becomes dull and face many
diseases.

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