GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KANNUR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

LAB RECORD

SEMESTER 7 - B.TECH
ECL 411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB

Name of Student :
Register No. :
Class :
ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 1

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GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KANNUR

Mangattuparamba Parassinikadavu P.O, Kannur - 670563, Kerala, India

Vision
A globally renowned institution of excellence in engineering, education,
research and consultancy.

Mission
To contribute to the society by providing quality education and training,
leading to innovation, entrepreneurship and sustainable growth.

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KANNUR
Mangattuparamba Parassinikadavu P.O, Kannur - 670563, Kerala, India

Department Vision

A supreme center for quality education, research and consultancy in

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department Mission

To impart knowledge in the field of Electronics and its related

areas with a focus on developing the required competencies and
virtues for the sustainable development of the society

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION SEMESTER 7

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

LABORATORY WORK RECORD

CERTIFICATE

Of work done
This is to Certified that this is the bonafide record of the work done by
Mr./Ms. ……………………………………………………………………………….
Register No.…………………….…. for the partial fulfillment of B .Tech in
Electronics & Communication Engineering at Government College of
Engineering Kannur during the academic year 2022-23.

Department Seal Faculty in Charge

(Sign & Seal)

Internal Examiner External Examiner

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl. No. Experiments Date Page Remarks

PART A

Familiarization of Microwave
1 10
Components

2 Gunn Diode Characteristics 20

Mode Characteristics of
3 24
Reflex Klystron

Frequency and Wavelength

4 30
Measurements

5 Antenna Measurements 36

Measurement of Isolation of
6 40
E, H Plane and Magic Tee

Measurement of
7 44
Directional Coupler

PART B

Measurement of
1 48
Numerical Aperture

V-I Characteristics of
2 52
Photo Diode

V-I Characteristics of
3 56
LED

V-I Characteristics of
4 60
Laser Diode

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Set up for microwave measurement

VSWR Meter

Klystron
Detector Mount
Power Supply

Variable Matched
Klystron Frequency Slotted wave
Mount Isolator Attenuator Termination
Meter Guide section

Microwave Test Bench

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PART A
EXP. No. 1 Familiarization of Microwave
DATE:
Components

Aim:

To familiarize with the important microwave components and equipment used in

the laboratory.

Theory

A microwave test bench is an experimental set up consisting of various microwave

components and instruments such as microwave source, waveguides, waveguide
Tees, frequency meter, variable attenuator, horn antenna, power supply for the
microwave sources, VSWR meter, etc.
Waveguides:
Waveguides are rectangular or circular shaped metallic tubes used to guide
electromagnetic waves in microwave frequencies. It confines the electric and
magnetic fields within the space of waveguide. Each waveguide has a definite cut
off frequency, the lowest of which is called dominant mode. The cut off frequency
of a rectangular waveguide is given by

Where m and n modes of wave propagation and a and b are waveguide

dimensions.
Waveguide Tees: Tees are used to connect waveguides for branching out the
microwave signals. Commonly used microwave junctions are E-plane Tee, H-plane
Tee, Magic Tee (hybrid Tee) directional coupler and circulator.
E-plane Tee: It is a T-shaped waveguide in which the axis of its side arm is parallel
to the electric field of the main branch. A rectangular slot is made on the broader
dimension of a waveguide and a side arm is attached Port 1 and Port 2 are

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E-plane Tee

H-plane Tee

Magic Tee

Directional Coupler

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collinear arms and Port 3 is the side arm. E arm is also called series arm.
H-plane Tee: The side arm of H-plane Tee is parallel to H-field of the main arm. All
the three arms of H-plane Tee lie in the plane of magnetic field. H-arm is also
called parallel arm. Waves enter through the side arms split into two and leave
through main arm with equal magnitude and phase. If two input waves in phase
are fed into main arm ports, the waves leave the side arm will be additive and in
phase.
Magic Tee: A magic Tee (hybrid Tee) is a combination of E-plane Tee and H-plane
Tee. It has a series arm and a parallel arm. Rectangular slots are cut both along
the width and breadth of a long waveguide and side arms are attached as shown
in Figure. Port 1 and Port 2 are collinear arms, Port 3 is the H-arm (parallel arm)
and Port 4 is the E-arm (series arm). This four-port hybrid Tee junction combines
the properties of both H-plane Tee and E-plane Tee.

When power enters through the Port 1 and Port 2, the field leaving the parallel
arm is proportional to the phasor sum of two input fields and field leaving the
series arm is proportional to phasor difference of two input fields. When waves of
equal amplitude and phase enter parallel and series arms, the E-field gets
canceled in one of the collinear arms and gets added in the other arm. The energy
applied to parallel arm gets divided equally between Port 1 and Port 2 in phase.
Energy applied to series arm gets divided between Port 1 and Port 2 but in
opposite phase. There is no direct transmission between series and parallel arms
since they are symmetrical and perpendicular to each other.

Directional coupler: A directional coupler is a hybrid waveguide which couples

power in an auxiliary waveguide in one direction. It is a four-port device with one
port terminated with a matched load.

Directivity of the directional coupler is defined as the ratio, expressed in dB, of the
power output in the coupled auxiliary arm to the power flowing through the
uncoupled auxiliary arm. Ideally, directivity is infinite since the power in the
uncoupled auxiliary arm should be zero.
Coupling factor is defined as the ratio, expressed in dB, of the power entering the
main arm to the power coupled in the auxiliary arm.

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Directional Couple Slotted Waveguide Section

Frequency Meter with Micrometer Direct reading type Frequency Meter

Variable Attenuator Matched Termination

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Circulator: It is a multi-port waveguide junction in which power may flow from Nth
port to (N + 1)th port in one direction. Although there is no restriction on the
number of ports, microwave circulators with four ports are commonly used. Main
application of circulator is as a duplexer to isolate transmission and receiver
sections in radar. Circulator can be used as an isolator by connecting external
termination. Isolator is a device used to isolate the microwave source from the
rest of the circuitry. The wanes kept inside it manage the transmission of the
waves only in one direction.

Slotted waveguide section: It is used to sample the standing wave in the

waveguide. A narrow longitudinal slot with ends tapered provides smoother
impedance transformation. The slot is usually of several long wavelengths. The
location of the slot is such that it does not disturb the field in the waveguide.

A probe is inserted in the holder mounted on a movable carriage on the section. A

scale is attached to the slotted section to measure the distance moved by the
probe.

Frequency meter: A frequency meter is used to measure the frequency of the

microwave inside the waveguide. It consists of a calibrated tunable cavity. The
calibration of frequency is done in two ways. In one type of frequency meter,
frequency can be read directly since the meter is calibrated in frequency while in
other type it is calibrated in micromete. From the chart supplied by the
manufacturer, the frequency can be determined.

Attenuator and matched termination: The attenuators are passive devices which
control power levels in microwave system by absorption of the signal and to
isolate source from the rest of the equipment. Fixed and variable attenuators are
used in microwave circuitry. The attenuator is calibrated to read the attenuation
level.
Matched termination is used to terminate waveguide transmission line operating
at low average power. Matched load is used in the measurement of reflection
coefficient and VSWR.

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Bend Twist

Tunable Detector Mount PIN Modulator

Slide Screw Tuner Pyramidal Horn Antenna

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Phase shifter:
Phase shifter consists of a piece of waveguide and a dielectric material placed
inside the waveguide parallel to electric vector of TE mode. When the piece of
dielectric material moves from edge of waveguide towards the centre of the
waveguide, phase of the field changes.

Waveguide bends and twists: The direction of waveguide is changed using bends
and twists. If the bend is in the broader dimension, it affects H-field. Otherwise it
affects E-field.

Tunable detector mount: A detector mount is a simple and easy to use instrument
for detecting microwave power with the help of a suitable detector. It consists of a
crystal detector mounted on a section of a waveguide and shorting plunger for
matching purpose. The output from the crystal is given to a measuring
instrument.

Tunable probe: A tunable probe is meant for exploring the energy of the
electromagnetic field in a suitably fabricated section of waveguide. The depth of
penetration into a waveguide section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The
tip picks up the RF power from the line and it is rectified by crystal detector, which
is then fed to the VSWR meter or indicating instrument.

Slide screw tuner: A slide screw tuner is used for changing the penetration and
position of a screw in the slot provided in the centre of the waveguide. This
consists of a section of waveguide flanged on both ends and a thin slot is
provided in the broad wall of the waveguide. A carriage carrying the screw is
provided over the slot.

PIN modulators: PIN modulators are designed to modulate the continuous wave
output of Gunn oscillators. It is operated by the square pulses derived from the
UHF connector of the Gunn power supply. These consist of a PIN diode mounted
inside a section of waveguide flanged on its both ends. A fixed attenuation vane is
mounted inside at the input to protect the oscillator.

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Waveguide to Coaxial Adapter Tunable Probe

Gunn Power Supply

VSWR Meter

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Antennas: A microwave pyramidal horn antenna is an antenna that consists of a

flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct radio waves in a beam. Horns
are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave frequencies, above 300 MHz.
Waveguide horns are used as feed horns as radiators for reflectors and lenses
and as a pickup antenna for receiving microwave power.

Waveguide to coaxial adapter: In certain situations, electromagnetic wave needs

to be tapped from the waveguides for measurement or transmission using coaxial
cables. Waveguide to coaxial adapter is used for that purpose.

Klystron and Gunn power supplies: The power supplies are specially designed to
energize the klystron tube and Gunn oscillator. It provides highly stabilized bias
voltages to the electrodes of the tube since the variation in the bias voltages will
affect the frequency of operation.

VSWR meter: VSWR meter measures the standing wave ratio in a transmission
line. It is a low noise tuned amplifier voltmeter calibrated in dB. A square wave
modulated output is needed to use VSWR meter as the metering device.

Result:
Familiarized with various microwave components and equipment.

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Experimental Set up

Gunn Power
VSWR Meter
Supply

Variable Frequency
Gunn Oscillator Isolator PIN Modulator Attenuator Detector Mount
Meter

CRO

Tabular column

Sl No. Voltage (Volts) Current (Ampere)

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PART A
EXP. No. 2
Gunn Diode Characteristics
DATE:

Aim
To study Gunn oscillator and to plot V-1 characteristics and hence measure VT & IP

Theory:
Gunn effect is the periodic fluctuations of current passing through the N-type
GaAs specimen when the applied voltage exceeds a certain critical value (typically,
2 to 4 kV/cm). Basic mechanism involved in the operation of bulk N-type GaAs
devices is the transfer of electrons from the lower conduction valley (L-valley) to
upper subsidiary valley (U-valley). The current becomes a fluctuating function of
time whose period of oscillation is inversely proportional to the specimen length
and closely equal to the terminal time of electrons between the electrodes.

Depending on the material parameters and operating conditions, a Gunn

oscillator can be made to oscillate in any of the four frequency modes.

1. Domain mode = 107 can/s)

2. Delayed domain mode (106 cm/s << 107 cm/s)
3. Quenched domain mode (fL> 2 x 107 cm/s)
4. Limited space charge accumulator (LSA) mode

Limited space charge accumulator (LSA) mode: This is the most important mode
of operation for Gunn oscillator and this mode gives high power with high
efficiency. The RF frequency and RF voltage are so chosen that the domains do
not have sufficient time to form while the field is above threshold. As a result,
most of the the domains are maintained in the negative conductance state during
a large part of the voltage cycle. Frequency of operation is upto 100 GHz.
Operation depends on external circuit (high Q-resonator is required for LSA
mode).

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Paste the Graph Here

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Procedure
1. Set the components and equipment as shown.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3. Keep the following arrangement in Gunn power supply.
(a) Gunn bias knob-fully anti-clockwise.
(b) PIN bias knob-fully anti-clockwise.
(c) Meter switch - OFF
4. Switch ON Gunn power supply and cooling fan.
5. Turn the meter switch of Gunn power supply to voltage position.
6. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various voltage controlled
by Gunn bias knob through the panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the
bias voltage above 10 V.
7. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.
8. Measure the threshold voltage. Never keep the Gunn bias knob position at
threshold position more than 10 Sec. Take reading as fast as possible.

Result
Studied the V-I Characteristics of Gunn oscillator.

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Experimental Set up

Klystron CRO VSWR Meter Multimeter

Power Supply

Klystron Variable Frequency Matched

Mount Isolator Attenuator Detector Mount
Meter Termination

Tabular column

Mode Ripple Voltage Frequency Power (dB) Power (mW)

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PART A
EXP. No. 3 Mode Characteristics of
Reflex Klystron
DATE:

Aim:
To study the characteristics of a reflex klystron, plot mode characteristics and
hence compute ETR & ESR.

Equipment required:
Klystron power supply, klystron mount, isolator, frequency meter, variable
attenuator, detector mount, matched load, VSWR meter, multimeter, CRO, cables.

Theory:
Reflex klystron is a low power microwave oscillator. It has an electron gun
consisting of a filament surrounded by a cathode and a focusing electrode.

Reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous

electron beam into microwave power. Electron beam is accelerated towards the
resonator cavity which has high positive voltage applied to it. Resonator acts as
the anode. Electrons further move towards the repeller electrode which is at high
negative potential. Because of negative, potential electrons never reach the
repeller electrodes and get repelled back to the resonator. If conditions are all
well, returning electrons give more energy to the gap than they take it and thus
oscillations get sustained. The RF potential existing in the resonator either due to
input frequency or cavity resonance, controls the velocity of electrons leaving the
cavity to repeller. Fast electrons come closer to the repeller than slow ones and
take longer time to return to resonator gap. The slower ones do not go closer to
the repeller and hence they may catch up the faster ones on return journey. As a
result, returning electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches
pass through resonator, they interact with voltage at resonator grids.

The frequency is primarily determined by the dimension of resonator cavity.

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Observations

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method changing frequency is called mechanical tuning. Frequency can be varied

Hence by changing the volume of resonator, frequency can be varied. This by
adjusting repeller voltage also. This method is called electronic tuning.
If the bunches pass the grid at such time that the electrons are slowed down by
the voltage, energy delivered to the resonator, bunches will give maximum energy
to the cavity and thus the klystron will oscillate. Maximum retardation happens
when gap voltage is positive maximum. The transit time of the electrons in
repeller space is T = n + 3/4 where n is any integer, n determines the mode of
klystron.
Mode characteristics: Output power depends on the repeller voltage. Lower the
mode number, higher is the power output. Maximum power for any mode will be
obtained if the repeller voltage gives the required value of transit time. On either
side of optimum value of repeller voltage, power output falls. The variations of the
output with respect to repeller voltage give the mode characteristics.
Procedure:
1. Switch ON the cooling fan for klystron tube.
2. Arrange the microwave bench set up as shown in Figure.
3. Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
4. Set the beam voltage at minimum and repeller voltage at maximum position.
5. Switch ON the power supply.
6. Switch ON the HT.
7. Switch the mode selection HT to current mode.
8. Wait for 10 mA in the indication.
9. Set the modulation to CW mode.
10. Switch the mode selection knob to beam voltage and set the beam voltage.
11. Switch the mode selection knob to repeller voltage.
12. Take the probe connection from the detector mount and connect it to the
CRO. 13. Reduce the repeller voltage and obtain first mode on CRO.
14. Obtain the frequency corresponds to the mode by tuning the frequency
meter.
15. Measure the power of each mode using VSWR meter.
16. Vary the repeller voltage to obtain other models. Normally 3 to 4 modes are
obtainable with the available range of reflector voltage with the klystron power
supply.

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17. Repeat Step 14 and Step 15 for getting mode 2 and mode 3.
18. Plot the mode characteristics on a graph sheet with mod of reflector voltage,
VR along x-axis and frequency in GHz along y-axis.
19. Plot other set of characteristics with mod of reflector voltage, |VR| along x-
axis and power output in mW along y-axis.
20. Before switching OFF the supply, keep the beam voltage at minimum position
and repeller voltage at maximum position.

Result:
Studied the characteristics of a reflex klystron.
1. ESR
2. ETR

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Experimental Set up

VSWR Meter

Klystron
Detector Mount
Power Supply

Variable Matched
Klystron Frequency Slotted wave
Mount Isolator Attenuator Termination
Meter Guide section

Tabular column

Sl No. fo (GHz) 1/ λo
2
λg fo

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PART A
EXP. No. 4 Frequency and Wavelength
Measurements
DATE:

Aim:
To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide and to
verify the relation between λo, λg and λc .

Equipment required:

Gunn oscillator, isolator, PIN modulator, frequency meter, variable attenuator, matched
termination, Gunn power supply, VSWR meter, slotted waveguide section, detector
mount, cables and accessories.

Theory:
The following relationships are important for rectangular waveguides.

C = velocity of light
f = frequency
λo =wavelength in free space

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Observations

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λg = wavelength in waveguide
λc = cut off wavelength in waveguide
a = broader dimension in the cross-section of waveguide
b = smaller dimension in the cross-section of waveguide

For TE10 mode, by substituting the values of m and n

The guide wavelength can be measured as twice the distance between two successive
maxima or minima in the standing wave pattern.

1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in Figure.

2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum position.
3. Set the Gunn power supply at 5 V.
4. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as follows:
(a) Gain (coarse and fine)-Mid position.
(b) Range (dB) - 50 dB position.
(c) Meter switch - Normal position.
5. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
6. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip on the VSWR scale and note down the
frequency fo. Calculate 1/ λo2 and enter it in tabular form.

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7. Replace the termination with a movable short and detune the frequency meter.
8. Move probe along with slotted line, the deflection in VSWR meter will vary.
9. Move the probe to get minimum deflection position.
10. Record the probe position from the slotted line (d1).
11. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position against (d2).
12. Calculate guide wavelength λg = 2(d2 – d1) and enter it in Table.
13. Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension a and calculate λc, = 2a.
14. Calculate the frequency fo, as given in the following equation and enter it in Table.

15. Compare this with the frequency that is obtained by directly reading from the
VSWR meter

Result:
Experimentally measured the frequency and wavelength of microwave signal in a
waveguide.

1. Mean Frequency
2. Calculated Frequency

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Experimental Set up

Klystron

Power Supply

Transmitter Receiver
Antenna Antenna
Klystron Variable Detector VSWR
Frequency
Isolator Attenuator Mount Meter
Mount Meter
15 cm

Radiation Pattern

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PART A
EXP. No. 4
Antenna Measurements
DATE:

Aim:
To measure and plot the radiation polar pattern and to measure the gain of the
antenna and beam width.

Equipment required:
Test tone generator, RF generator, PIN modulator, directional coupler, detector,
horn antennas, function generator and accessories.

Theory:
Though an open ended waveguide is capable of radiating like an antenna, into
open space, it suffers from many deficiencies such as reflected waves existing due
to poor matching of impedance and non-directional radiation pattern. These are
overcome if the walls of the waveguide at the mouth are flared so that it takes the
shape of a horn. Many horn configurations are possible by flaring out the walls in
E-plane or H-plane or in both the planes.

The radiation pattern is the graph of the field strength versus aspect angle at a
constant distance from the radiating antenna. Though the antenna radiation
pattern is three-dimensional, it is presented in two-dimension on a graph
practically. An antenna pattern consists of major lobes and minor lobes. Gain of
the antenna is defined as the ratio of power intensity at the maximum of the
major lobe to the power intensity achieved from an imaginary omnidirectional
antenna at that point. Beam width of the main lobe is the angle between two
points on a main lobe where the power intensity is half the maximum intensity. In
order to get the far field radiation pattern, transmitting and receiving antennas
must be kept at minimum distance of R = 2D2/λo, where D is the broader
dimension of the horn.

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Observations

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To measure the required pattern, the receiving antenna must be kept at a

minimum distance of 2D where D is the dimension of the broader wall of the horn
aperture.

The received power =

Where Pt = Transmitted power

λo = Free space wavelength
G1 and G2 = Gains of transmitting and receiving antennas
S = Distance between two antennas

Then

√
From this, G=
√

It can be seen from the above expression that values of P, and P, are not
necessary, but the ratio only is required which can be measured using VSWR
meter.
Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in Figure.
2. Use same type of transmitting and receiving antennas (horn antenna), keeping
the axis of both the antennas in same axial line and maintain 15 cm distance
between antennas at the beginning.
3. The variable attenuator is set accordingly for maximum deflection in VSWR
meter.
4. The amplifier is set for maximum sensitivity.
5. Align the antennas at 0° direction.
6. Attenuator is adjusted for maximum deflection.
7. Obtain the received power from the VSWR meter.
8. Turn the receiving antenna till 90° both directions in steps of 10° and take
corresponding
VSWR meter reading.
9. Draw the radiation pattern and measure 3 dB beam width..

Result:
Plotted the radiation pattern of horn antenna.

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 39

E Plane Tee

H Plane Tee

Magic Tee

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 40

.PART A
EXP. No. 5 Measurement of Isolation of
E, H Plane and Magic Tee
DATE:

Aim:
To measure the isolation of E, H Plane and Magic Tee.
Compute 1. Isolation Coefficient 2. Coupling Coefficient.

Equipment required:
Microwave Source, Gunn Power Supply, PIN Modulator, VSWR Meter, E Plane, H
Plane Tee and Magic Tee.

Theory:
E Plane Tee fix a linearly polarized antenna is the plane continuing the electrical
vectors and the direction of maximum radiation. The electric field or E plane
determine the polarization or orientation of the radio wave. For vertically
polarized antenna, the E plane usually coincides with the vertical plane, For a
horizontally polarized antenna, the E plane usually coincide with the horizontal
plane. E plane and H Plane should be 900 apart.

H plane tee for a linearly polarized antenna is the plane containing the magnetic
field vector and the direction of maximum radiation. For vertically polarized
antenna, the H plane usually coincides with the horizontal plane.

Magic Tee is a combination of E planes Tee and H plane Tee. The arm 3 is H arm
and arm 4 is E arm. If the power is fed from arm 4, it divides equally among the
arm 1 and arm 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3. Further if power is fed
into arm 1 and 2 simultaneously, it is added in arm 3 and subtracted in arm 4.
The basic parameter to be measured for magic tee is defined below.

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 41

Experimental Set up

VSWR Meter

Klystron
Power Supply Detector Mount

Klystron Variable Frequency Matched

Mount Isolator Attenuator H/E Plane Tee
Meter Termination

Observations

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 42

1. Input VSWR – It is the value of VSWR corresponding to each part as the load
to the line while other parts are terminated in matched load.
2. Isolation – The isolation between E and H arm is defined as the ratio of the
power supplied by the generator connected to the arm E to the power
3. deflected at parallel arm when side arm 1 and 2 are terminated with
matched load.
Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 (P4/P3)
Similarly isolation between other parts may be also defined.
4. Coupling Coefficient – It is defined as Cij = 10 α-/10
Where α = Attenuation (dB)
i = i/p arm
j = o/p arm
α = 10 log10|Pi/Pj|
Where Pi = Power derived to arm i
Pj = Power derived to arm j
Procedure:
1. Connect the unit as shown in figure.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operatiuon and
adjust its detector for maximum output.
3. Set any power level and measure it without changing the settings.
4. Now place the H tee without changing the settings.
5. Place matched load at port 3 and find Pi. Then place the matched load at
Port 2 and find Pi.
6. Repeat the above steps for E plane, H plane and Magic Tee.

Result:
Measured the isolation of E plane, H plane and Magic Tee.

Coupling coefficient
E plane Tee =
H plane Tee =
Magic Tee =
Isolation =

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Directional Coupler with ports marked

Klystron

Power Supply

Klystron Variable
Isolator Detector Mount VSWR Meter
Mount Attenuator

Set up without connecting directional coupler to measure input power

Klystron Matched
Termination
Power Supply

P3
Klystron Variable
Isolator Detector Mount VSWR Meter
Mount Attenuator
P1 P2

Set up with directional coupler to measure insertion loss

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 44

PART A
EXP. No. 6 Measurement of
Directional Coupler
DATE:
Aim:
Set up an arrangement for to measure the 1. Directivity, 2. Coupling Coefficient,
3. Isolation Coefficient of a given Directional Coupler.

Equipment required:
Microwave Source, Gunn Power Supply, PIN Modulator, VSWR Meter, E Plane, H
Plane Tee and Magic Tee.

Theory:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident
and reflected waves separately. It consists of two transmission lines, the main
arm and auxiliary arm are electromagnetically coupled to each other as shown in
Figure.

Power entering through Port 1 gets divided between Port 2 (through port) and
Port 3 (coupled port) and almost no power comes out in Port 4 (isolated port)
(Figure 4.30). Power entering Port 2 is divided between Port 1 and Port 4.

Following quantities are used to characterize a directional coupler.

Coupling factor C = 10 log10 P1/P3 (dB)

Directivity D = 10 log10 P3/P4 (dB)
Isolation = 10 log10 P1/P4(dB)
Insertion loss = 10 log10 P1/P2
Coupling factor indicates the fraction of the input power that is coupled to the
output port. Directivity is the measure of isolation between forward and backward
waves. In this experiment isolation factor is not measured since the Port 4 of the
directional coupler is permanently terminated with a matched load. Insertion loss
is the measure of loss in the power while inserting the directional coupler.

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 45

VSWR Meter

Klystron
Detector Mount
Power Supply

Supply
P3
Klystron
Variable Matched
Mount Isolator Attenuator Termination
P1 P2

Set up to measure coupling factor

VSWR Meter

Klystron
Detector Mount
Power Supply

P3
Klystron
Variable Matched
Mount Isolator Attenuator Termination
P2 P1

Set up to measure directivity

Observations

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 46

Procedure:
Measurement of insertion loss:
1. Set up the microwave test bench without connecting the directional
coupler as shown in Figure.
2. Measure input power using the power meter. Let it be P1 (dB).
3. Without changing the Gunn bias, connect the directional coupler.
4. Connect the matched load to auxiliary arm P3, as shown in Figure.
5. Measure the line output power P2 (dB).
6. Insertion loss L = P1 - P2 (dB).
Measurement of coupling factor:
1. Measure P1 as before.
2. Without changing the Gunn bias, connect the directional coupler as
shown in Figure. Now matched load is connected to Port P2 and power
meter to Port P3.
3. Measure the auxiliary line output power P3 (dB).
4. Calculate coupling factor using the expression
C = 10 log10P1/P2(dB)
Measurement of directivity:
1. Set up the test bench as shown in Figure.
2. Apply input to Port 1 and measure the output at Port 3. Measure the
power output as P13. Reverse Port 1 and Port 2 of the directional
coupler as shown in Figure.
3. Apply input at Port 2 and measure power at Port 3. Measure the power
output as P23
4. Calculate directivity using the expression

D = 10 log10P13/P23(dB)
Result:
Studied the characteristics of directional coupler.
Coupling factor C =
Directivity D =
Isolation =
Insertion loss =

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 47

Experimental Set up:

y
B

D E

A
2r
x
Set up to measure nuemerical aperture Pattern disply on graph

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 48

PART B
EXP. No. 1 Measurement of
Numerical Aperture
DATE:

Aim:
To measure the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of a given optical fiber
cable.

Components required:
Source, optical fiber, measuring stand, steel ruler and power supply.

Theory:
Numerical Aperture (NA) implies how much light is collected (gathered) by an
optical fiber when it is coupled to a light source. The light rays entering the fiber
within a certain angle will be accepted and propagated. The maximum angle
within which light enters the fiber so that it will be propagated by total internal
reflection is called acceptance angle, θa.
Sine of acceptance angle is called numerical aperture.
NA = sin θa
Numerical aperture is measured from the far field pattern by trigonometric
means. This is a less precise technique. Light is launched into the fiber under test
and the far field pattern from the fiber is displayed on a screen which is
positioned at a known distance d from the fiber output end face. The radius of the
pattern r is measured. Numerical aperture can be obtained from the expression

Numerical aperture sin θa

√
Procedure:
1. Connect one end of the fiber to the optical source Figure.
2. Insert other end of the fiber in the measuring stand. Energize the optical
source.
3. Keep a minimum distance of about 10 mm between fiber tip and the graph
plane.

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Tabular Column

r (mm) DE (mm) BC (mm) d (mm) θ

√

Calculations

Average NA :
θ :

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 50

4. Now a circular red color spot is observed on the graph. Measure its radius. If
the spot is elliptical in shape, instead of circle, measure its diameter horizontally
and vertically and find out mean radius of the spot as

5. Find the value of numerical aperture sin θa

√
6. Repeat the experiment three or four times and take the average value of NA.

Result:
Numerical aperture of a fiber cable is measured.
1. Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber =
2. Acceptance angle =

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Experimental Set up:

10 KΩ

Tabular Column

Normal Light Bright Light Dark

Applied Voltage
V (Volts) I (mA) V (Volts) I (mA) V (Volts) I (mA)

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 52

PART B
EXP. No. 2 V-I Characteristics of
Photo Diode
DATE:
Aim:
To plot the V-I Characteristics of photo diode.

Components required:
Photo Diode, DC Power supply, resistor, voltmeter, ammeter.

Theory:
If a photon having adequate energy [should be greater than the band gap] is
absorbed by a p-n junction, an electron will be transferred to the conduction
band, thereby forming a hole in the valence band. As a result, an open circuit
voltage is created and a current will flow, provided the circuit is closed through a
load resistor. In case of reverse bias p-n junction, the transit time can
be made small and it will produce current linearly proportional to the incident
photon energy. The frequency response can be improved if the p-n junction is
separated by an intrinsic region. The introduction of the intrinsic region decreases
the junction capacitance. This is called ‘Positive Intrinsic Negative’[PIN] photo
diode. For high frequency operation, the PIN diode can be made as small as
practical, to match the size of the spot of the optical beam.

Procedure:
1. Set the experimental set up as shown in Figure.
2. Plug in the LED source.
3. Connect the photodiode to optical power source and connect the bias supply.
4. Increase the bias voltage Vg in steps of 0.5 V. Measure voltage across

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 53

Paste the graph here

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 54

photodiode VD and current I.

5. Repeat the above steps for different intensities of input light power.
6. Plot the V-I characteristics with VD along x-axis and current I along y-axis.

Result:
Studied the V-I Characteristics of a Photo diode.

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 55

Experimental Set up:

1.5 KΩ

Tabular Column

Applied Voltage Voltage across Diode VD Current A

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 56

PART B
EXP. No. 3 V-I Characteristics of
LED
DATE:
Aim:
To plot the V-I Characteristics of LED and find the Cut in voltage.

Components required:
LED, DC Power supply, resistor, voltmeter, ammeter.

Theory:
Light emitting diode is a PN junction diode which emits light when forward biased.
The amount of light emitted depends on the forward current. When a light
emitting diode is forward biased, the barrier potential is lowered. The electrons
and holes move towards the junction and recombination takes place. After
recombination, the electrons lying in the conduction band of N-region fall into the
valence band of P-region. The difference of energy between the conduction band
and valence band is radiated in the form of light.

For an LED, the colour of the emitted light depends on the type of semicon used.
Gallium arsenide LED emits infrared radiations, gallium arsenide phosphide either
red or yellow light, gallium phosphide emits red or green light and galli produces
blue light.

LEDs operate at low voltages (from 1.5 V to 2.5 V). They are fast in in size,
consume little power and have long life.

Procedure:
1. Set the experimental set up as shown in Figure.
2. Plug in the LED source.
3. Connect the photodiode to optical power source and connect the bias supply.
4. Increase the bias voltage Vg in steps of 0.5 V. Measure voltage across
photodiode VD and current I.

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Paste the graph here

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5. Plot the V-I characteristics with VD along x-axis and current I along y-axis.

Result:
Studied the V-I Characteristics of a LED.
Cut in voltage =

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 59

Experimental Set up:

1.5 KΩ

Tabular Column

Applied Voltage Voltage across Diode VD Current A

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ECL411 - ELECTROMAGNETICS LAB DOCUMENTATION 60

PART B
EXP. No. 4 V-I Characteristics of
Laser Diode
DATE:

Aim:
To plot the V-I Characteristics of Laser Diode find the Cut in voltage.

Components required:
Laser Diode, DC Power supply, resistor, voltmeter, ammeter.

Theory:
The Laser Diode (LD) is the most common type of laser produced with a wide
range of applications that include fiber optic communications, barcode readers,
laser pointers, CD/ DVD/Blu-ray disc reading and recording, laser printing, laser
scanning and increasingly directional lighting sources.

A laser diode is an optoelectronic device, which converts electrical energy into

light energy to produce high-intensity coherent light. The working of the laser
diode is almost similar to the Light Emitting Diode (LED). The major difference
between the LED and laser diode is that the LED emits incoherent light whereas
the laser diode emits coherent light.

The laser diode is made of two doped gallium arsenide (GaAs) layers. One doped
GaAs layer will produce an N-type semiconductor whereas another doped GaAs
layer will produce a P-type semiconductor. When this structure is forward biased,
holes from the P-region are injected into the N-region, where electrons are the
majority carriers. Similarly, electrons from the N-region are injected into the P-
region, where holes are the majority carriers. When an electron and a hole are
present in the same region, they may recombine by spontaneous emission. That
is, the electron may reoccupy the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with
energy equal to the difference between the electron and hole states involved.
These injected electrons and holes represent the injection current of the diode.

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Paste the graph here

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Procedure:

1. Set the experimental set up as shown in Figure.

2. Plug in the Laser Diode source.
3. Connect the photodiode to optical power source and connect the bias supply.
4. Increase the bias voltage Vg in steps of 0.5 V. Measure voltage across
photodiode VD and current I.
5. Plot the V-I characteristics with VD along x-axis and current I along y-axis.

Result:
Studied the V-I Characteristics of a Laser Diode.
Cut in voltage =

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