Module 3

1. Mobile Communication Engineering

Advantages Of Wireless Communications

There are many advantages of wireless communications, using wireless communications technology
and wireless networking, as compared to wired communications and networks. Some of the major
advantages include mobility, increased reliability, ease of installation, rapid disaster recovery and above
all lower cost.

 Mobility The primary advantage of wireless communications is to offer the user freedom to move
about while remaining connected with the network within its coverage area. Many business
categories, such as the police department, require its workforce to be mobile instead of fixed at
one location. Wireless technology enables many industries to shift toward an increasingly mobile
workforce, whether they are in meetings or working on a factory floor or conducting research.
 Increased Reliability The most common source of network problems is the failure or damage of
network cables due to environment conditions or erosion of metallic conductors. A cable splice
that is done incorrectly can cause unexplainable errors and is very difficult to identify. Using
wireless technology not only eliminates these types of cable failures, but also increases the
overall reliability of the network.
 Ease of Installation Wireless communications and networks make it easier for any office to be
modified with new cubicles or furniture, without worrying about providing network connectivity
through cables. There is no need to first consider the location of the computer jack in the wall
when relocating furniture. Instead, the focus can be on creating the most effective work
environment without any delay and hassles. The time required to install network cabling may
take days or even weeks to complete, thereby disrupting the whole work. Using a wireless LAN
eliminates such disruption.
 Rapid Disaster Recovery Accidents may happen due to fires, tornados, and floods at any possible
location, and that too without any prior warning. Any organisation that is not prepared to recover
from such natural disasters will find itself quickly out of business. Since the computer network is
a vital part of the daily operation of a business, the ability to have the network up and
immediately working after a disaster is critical. A documented disaster recovery plan is a must.
 Lower Cost Of course, eliminating the need to install cabling and using wireless communications
results in significant cost savings. Installing network cabling in older buildings can be an
extremely difficult, slow, and costly task. Facilities constructed prior to the mid-1980s were built
without any thought given to running computer wiring in each room. In such cases a wireless
LAN is the ideal solution. Historical buildings would be preserved, harmful asbestos would not
be disturbed, and difficult drilling could be avoided by using a wireless system.

Disadvantages Of Wireless Communications

Along with the many advantages of wireless communications and technology, there are some
disadvantages and concerns. The most prominent of them are radio signal interference, security issues,
and health hazards.
  Radio Signal Interference Signals from other wireless devices can disrupt its radio
transmission, or a wireless device may itself be a source of interference for other wireless
devices. For example, several commonly used office wireless devices such as cordless
telephones, microwave ovens, elevator motors, and other heavy electrical manufacturing
machines, transmit radio signals that may interfere with a wireless LAN operation. These may
cause errors to occur in the transmission between a wireless device and an access point.
Similarly, Bluetooth and WLAN devices both operate in the same radio frequency, potentially
resulting in interference between such devices.
 Security A wireless communication device transmits radio signals over a wide open area, and
hence security becomes a major concern. It is possible for an intruder with a notebook computer
and wireless NIC to intercept the signals from a nearby wireless network. Because much of
business network traffic may contain sensitive information, this becomes a serious concern for
many users. Some wireless technologies can provide added levels of security with authorisation
features prior to gaining access to the network. Network administrators can also limit access for
approved wireless devices only. As further protection, data transmitted between the wireless
device and the access point can also be encrypted in such a way that only the intended recipient
can decode the message.
 Health Hazards High power levels of RF energy can produce biological damage. However, it is
not yet established accurately as to how much levels of RF can cause adverse health effects. But
continuous radiations even at lower levels can be harmful to sensitive body organs. Radio
transmitters in wireless communications devices emit radio frequency (RF) energy. Typically,
these wireless devices emit low levels of RF while being used. Although some research has been
done to address these issues, no clear facts of the biological effects of this type of radiations have
emerged to date. The safety of cordless phones, which have a base unit connected to the
telephone wiring in a house and which operate at far lower power levels and frequencies, has
never been questioned. It is always wise to be aware of the health concerns and to monitor
ongoing scientific research, even though the available science does not conclude either way about
the safety of wireless mobile devices.

1.1 Wireless Network Generations

The cellular systems have been classified into three distinct evolution of generations:
The first-generation (1G) analog cellular communication systems are voice-oriented analog
cellular systems using frequency division multiple access technique. The first-generation systems
used large cells and omni-directional antennas in the 800-MHz band. The AMPS and ETACS
systems use a seven-cell reuse pattern with provisions for cell-sectoring and cell-splitting to
increase capacity when needed. These systems provide satisfactory voice communication on the
move with limited traffic-handling capacity.

1.1.1 First-Generation Analog Cellular Systems

The first-generation cellular systems are based on analog transmission technology. The
most popular first generation cellular systems are AMPS (widely deployed in most parts of US,
South America, Australia, China), and ETACS (deployed throughout Europe). The systems
transmit speech signals employing FM, and important control information is transmitted in
digital form using FSK. The entire service area is divided into logical cells, and each cell is
allocated one specific band in the frequency spectrum. To explore a frequency reuse pattern, the
frequency spectrum is divided among seven cells, improving the voice quality as each subscriber
is given a larger bandwidth.

AMPS and ETACS cellular radio systems deploy cell-sites with tall towers that support
several receiving antennas and have transmitting antennas that typically radiate a few hundred
watts of effective radiated power. Each cell-site has one control channel transmitter that
broadcasts on the forward control channel, one control channel receiver that listens on the
reverse control channel for any mobile phone to set-up a call, and eight or more FM duplex voice
channels.

Table 1.1 shows the worldwide 1G analog cellular systems. All these systems use two separate
frequency bands for forward (from cell-site to mobile) and reverse (from mobile to cell-site) links. Such a
system is referred to as a frequency division duplex ( DD) scheme. The typical allocated overall band in
each direction, for example, for AMPS, and NMT-900, is 25 MHz in each direction. The dominant
spectra of operation for these systems are the 800-and 900-MHz bands. In an ideal situation, all countries
should use the same standard and the same frequency bands. However, in practice, as shown in Table 1.1,
a variety of frequencies and standards are adopted all over the world.

All the 1G cellular systems use analog frequency modulation (FM) for which the transmission
power requirement depends on the transmission bandwidth. On the other hand, power is also related to
the coverage and size of the cells. Therefore, one can compensate for the reduction in transmission
bandwidth per subscriber by reducing the size of a cell in a cellular network. Reduction in size of the cell
increases the number of cells and the cost of installation of the infrastructure. The channel spacing, or
bandwidth, allocated to each subscriber is either 30 kHz or 25 kHz or a fraction of either of them.
1.1.2 Second-Generation Digital Cellular Systems

First-generation analog cellular systems were followed by second-generation digital cellular

systems. The second generation (2G) cellular systems represent the set of wireless air interface standards
that rely on digital modulation and sophisticated digital signal processing in the handset and the base
station. Digital cellular technologies support a much larger number of mobile subscribers within a given
frequency allocation, thereby offering higher user capacity, providing superior security and voice quality,
and lay the foundation for value-added services (including data) that will continue to be developed and
enhanced in future. To have efficient use of the frequency spectrum, time division or code-division
multiple access technique is used in 2G digital cellular systems so that low-rate data along with voice can
be processed. Table 1.2 summarizes the major 2G digital cellular standards.

There are four major standards in this category: the North American Interim Standard (IS-54) that
later on improved into IS-136; GSM, the pan-European digital cellular; and Personal digital cellular
(PDC) — all of them using TDMA technology; and IS-95 in North America, which uses CDMA
technology. Like the 1G analog cellular systems, the 2G digital cellular systems are all FDD and mostly
operate in the 800- and 900-MHz bands. The carrier spacing of IS-54/136 and PDC is the same as the
carrier spacing of 1G analog cellular system in their respective regions, but GSM and IS-95 use multiple
analog channels to form one digital carrier.

The most popular 2G cellular standards include three TDMA standards and one CDMA standard.
Interim Standard 54 or 136 (IS-54 or IS-136), also known as US Digital Cellular (USDC), which supports
three time slotted mobile subscribers for each 30-kHz radio channel in both the cellular 800 MHz and
PCS 1900 MHz bands. Based on the analog AMPS cellular system, the TDMA system IS-54/136 was
developed in the US that adds digital traffic channels. IS-54/136 uses dual-mode mobile phones and
incorporates associated control channels, authentication procedures using encryption, and mobile assisted
handoff. The IS-136 includes digital control channels which enable to provide several additional services
such as identification, voice mail, SMS, call waiting, group calling, etc. The USDC systems share the
same frequency spectrum, frequency reuse plan, and cell-sites as that of AMPS.

Global System for Mobile (GSM), which supports eight time slotted mobile subscribers for each
200-kHz radio channel in both the cellular and PCS bands; and Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC), a Japanese
TDMA standard that is similar to IS-136, are the other two most popular TDMA based digital cellular
standards. The popular 2G CDMA standard (IS-95), also known as cdmaOne, can support up to 64
mobile subscribers that are orthogonally coded and simultaneously transmitted on each 1.25 MHz
channel.
 The speech-coding technique of all 2G systems operates at about 10 kbps. It is assumed that large
cell sizes and a large number of subscribers per cell are available, which necessitates lower speech-coding
rates. The peak transmission power of the mobile terminals can be between several hundreds of mW up to
1W, and on the average they consume about 100 mW. All of these systems employ centralised power
control, which reduces battery power consumption and helps in controlling the interference level. In
digital communications, information is transmitted in packets or frames. The duration of a packet/frame
in the air should be short enough, so that the channel does not change significantly during the
transmission, and long enough, so that the required time interval between packets is much smaller than
the length of the packet. A frame length of around 5 to 40 ms is typically used in 2G cellular networks.

GSM supports eight users in a 200-kHz band; IS-54 and JDC support three users in 30 and 25-
kHz bands, respectively. In other words, GSM uses 25 kHz for each user, IS-54 uses 10 kHz per user, and
JDC uses 8.33 kHz per user. Therefore, GSM supports 2.5 times less number of subscribers in the given
bandwidth. The number of users for CDMA depends on the acceptable quality of service; therefore, the
number of users in the 1,250 kHz CDMA channels cannot be theoretically fixed. But this number is large
enough to convince the standards organisation to adopt CDMA technology for next-generation 3G
systems.

1.1.3 Evolution from 2G to 3G Cellular Networks

There are two steps of 3G evolution paths from present 2G technologies based on GSM
and IS-95 CDMA respectively. An evolution path from second generation digital cellular GSM
network to third generation network is depicted in Fig. 1.1.

GSM is an open, digital cellular technology which supports voice calls and data transfer speeds of
up to 9.6 kbps, together with the transmission of SMS (Short Message Service). GSM operates in the 900
MHz and 1.8 GHz bands in Europe and the 850 MHz and 1.9 GHz bands in the US. GSM provides
international roaming capability that enables users to access the seamless services when travelling abroad.
HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data) enables data to be transferred more rapidly than the standard
GSM system by using multiple channels. GPRS is a very widely deployed wireless data service, available
now with most GSM networks. GPRS offers throughput rates of up to 53.6 kbps, so that users have a
similar access speed to a dial-up modem, but with the convenience of being able to connect from almost
anywhere. Further enhancements to GSM networks are provided by Enhanced Data rates for GSM
Evolution (EDGE) technology or EGPRS, which offers up to three times the data capacity of GPRS.
Various mobile data services such as multimedia messaging, high-speed Internet access and e-mail are
possible on the move. EDGE allows it to be overlaid directly onto an existing GSM network with simple
software-upgrade. WCDMA is the air interface for third-generation mobile communications systems. It
enables the continued support of voice, text and MMS services in addition to richer mobile multimedia
services. UMTS offers data speeds up to 384 kbps on the move and 2.048 Mbps stationary.

Besides GSM, CDMA is the most popular mobile communication standard. The initial evolution
of CDMA started in 1991 as IS-95A cdmaOne 2G digital cellular technology for voice communication as
well as data and multimedia services because it could allow multiple users to communicate within the
spectrum, avoiding interference or jamming among users. Code division ensures that each user’s signal
remains separate in the spectrum. An evolution path from second generation digital cellular CDMA
networks to third generation networks is depicted in Fig. 1.2.

IS-95A describes the structure of the wideband 1.25 MHz CDMA channels, power control, call
processing, hand-offs, and registration techniques for system operation. In addition to voice services,
many IS-95A operators provide circuit-switched data connections at 14.4 kbps. The IS-95B or cdmaOne,
categorized as a 2.5G technology, defines a compatibility standard for 1.8 to 2.0 GHz CDMA PCS
systems, offers up to 144 kbps packet-switched data, in addition to voice services. CDMA2000 Multi-
Carrier (MC) delivers improved system capacity and spectrum efficiency over 2G systems and it supports
data services at minimum transmission rates of 144 kbps in mobile (outdoor) and 2 Mbps in fixed
(indoor) environments.

1.1.4 Third-Generation Digital Cellular Systems

The fundamental purpose of the 3G mobile communications system is to provide a globally

integrated wireless communication system combining different incompatible network technologies
already deployed across the world. All 2G and 2.5G cellular communications systems and mobile phones
will eventually evolve towards a global standard, which is referred to IMT-2000. While no one common
standard for the air interface has been approved, the number of different standard specifications includes
one FDMA standard, one TDMA standard, and one CDMA standard with three variations. The IMT-2000
system incorporates three variations of CDMA. The modes differ in how duplexing is accomplished and
how many carriers are used. All variations operate in a 5-MHz channel, as compared to 1.25 MHz for
cdmaOne systems. Figure 1.3 illustrates how these different standards are evolved into one standard IMT-
2000.

The need for a capacity increase necessitates a greater spectrum allocation (1885 MHz–2025
MHz and 2110 MHz–2200 MHz) for 3G systems. The key features of the IMT-2000 system defining the
ITU’s view of 3G cellular network capabilities are as follows:

(a) High degree of worldwide commonality of design

(b) Compatibility of services with fixed networks and within IMT-2000
(c) More efficient use of the available spectrum
(d) Voice quality comparable to that of PSTN
(e) 144–kbps data rate available to users in high-speed vehicles over large areas
(f) 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas
(g) Support for 2-Mbps data rate for office use
(h) Symmetrical and asymmetrical data-transmission rates
(i) Support for both circuit-switched and packet-switched data services
(j) Support for wide variety of mobile phones for worldwide use including pico, micro, macro,
and global cellular/satellite cells
k) Worldwide roaming capability
(l) Capability for multimedia applications and a wide range of services (i) Flexibility to allow the
introduction of new services and technologies

The third generation aims to combine telephony, Internet, and multimedia into a single device. A
convergence of all these applications in IMT-2000 is depicted in Fig. 1.4. This entails an additional
requirement that it supports the Internet protocols and be based on a packet-switched network backbone
 To achieve the convergence of various services, IMT-2000 systems have been designed with six
broad classes of service in mind. Cellular service providers will be able to offer whatever data rates the
mobile users want up to a maximum 2 Mbps or so, and the mobile users will also have flexibility to
choose the required data-rate service. Three of the service classes are already present on 2G networks to
some extent, while three more service classes are new and involve mobile multimedia. In order of
increasing data rate requirements, these services are the following:
(a) Voice: 3G systems will offer speech quality at least as good as the fixed telephone network.
Voicemail will also be eventually integrated fully with email service through computerised voice
recognition and synthesis techniques.
(b) Switched data: This includes dial-up access to corporate networks or fax service or the Internet
access that doesn’t support a fully packet-switched network.
(c) Messaging This is an extension of paging, combined with Internet e-mail service. Unlike the text-only
messaging services built into some 2G systems, 3G systems will allow e-mail attachments. It can also be
used for payment and electronic ticketing.
(d) Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) The MMS is designed to allow rich text, colour, icons and
logos, sound clips, photographs, animated graphics, and video clips. It works over the broadband wireless
channels in 3G networks.
(e) Immediate messaging MMS features push capability that enables the message to be delivered
instantly if the called mobile user is active. It avoids the need for collection from the server. This always-
on characteristic of the mobile users opens up the exciting possibility of multimedia chat in real time.
(f) Medium multimedia This is likely to be the most popular 3G service. Its downstream data rate is
ideal for web surfing, games, location-based maps, and collaborative group working.
(g) High multimedia This can be used for very high-speed Internet access, as well as for high-definition
video and CD-quality audio on demand. Another possible application is online shopping for intangible
products that can be delivered over the air such as a software program for a mobile computer.
(h) Interactive high multimedia This can be used for high-quality videophones, videoconferencing or a
combination of videoconferencing and collaborative working.
(i) Sending multimedia postcards A clip of a holiday video could be captured through the integral video
cam of a user’s mobile handset or uploaded via Bluetooth from a standard camcorder, then combined with
voice or text messages and mailed instantly to any other mobile user.

1.1.5 Wireless Networking Technologies

 The use of radio signals for data transmission during World War II by the US Army inspired a
group of researchers in 1971 at the University of Hawaii to create the first packet-based radio
communications network called ALOHAnet, the very first wireless local area network (WLAN). It
consisted of 7 computers that communicated in a bi-directional star topology. The first generation of
WLAN technology used an unlicensed ISM band of 902–928 MHz. To minimise the interference from
small appliances and industrial machinery, a spread spectrum was used which operated at a 500-kbps data
rate. In 1990, the IEEE 802 Executive Committee established the 802.11 Working Group to create the
WLAN standard. The standard specified an operating frequency in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. In 1997, the
group approved IEEE 802.11 as the world’s first WLAN standard with data rates of 1 and 2 Mbps. Like
cellphones, wireless-equipped laptops within range of a given access point have the ability to
communicate with the network. A single access point can communicate with multiple wirelessequipped
laptops. Many systems allow roaming between access points. Despite their limited range (up to 100 m)
and lower data rates (as compared to 1 Gbps offered by wired Ethernets), WLANs have become the
preferred Internet access method for e-mail and Web browsing applications, in many offices, homes,
campus environments, and public places.
A wireless personal area network (WPAN), such as Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1, enables wireless
communication between devices, ranging from computers and cell phones to keyboards and headphones,
and operates in ISM 2.4 GHz band. WiMAX (WMAN based on the IEEE 802.16 family of standards)
will soon offer wireless broadband Internet access to residences and businesses at relatively low cost.
COMPARISON OF WIRELESS SYSTEMS
Wireless communication systems primarily comprise of a fixed-base transceiver station and a
number of fixed/mobile subscriber transceiver equipments. The base station as well as the mobile
subscriber of various types of mobile or portable wireless communication systems can be compared for
the types of services, functionality (Transmitter Tx only or Receiver Rx only or Transceiver), operating
carrier frequency range, the level of infrastructure needed, configuration complexity, hardware cost, and
radio coverage range. Table 1.3 gives a brief account of the comparison of three most commonly used
household wireless communication systems, that is, paging systems, cordless phone systems, and cellular
telephone systems.

Virtually, all these wireless communication systems aim to connect a mobile subscriber (vehicle-installed
or handheld or portable) to a fixed wireless base transceiver system having antennas mounted at
reasonably high towers. The user expectations vary widely among the type of services needed. The
infrastructure costs are dependent upon the required coverage area. The radio link between the cordless
phone base station and the portable cordless handset is designed to behave identically to the coiled cord
connecting a traditional wired telephone handset to the telephone base. For example, cordless telephones
use fixed base stations so that they may be plugged into the existing standard telephone line.
Similarly, in case of low power, hand-held cellular phones, a large number of cell sites are required to
ensure that any mobile phone is in close range to a cell site within its service area. If cell sites area is not
within the radio coverage range, a high transmitter power would be required at the mobile phone which is
limited by the battery life.
Table 1.4 summarises the most common cellular systems standards used in North America, Europe, and
Japan. The first-generation analog cellular systems use frequency modulation scheme for speech
transmission.

Individual calls use different frequencies and share the available spectrum through frequency division
multiple access technique. The world’s earlier cellular systems include North America’s Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS) operating in the 800-MHz band (50 MHz allocated spectrum: 824–849
MHz uplink and 869–894 MHz downlink), with 832 full-duplex channels, having a one-way channel
bandwidth of 30 kHz for a total spectrum occupancy of 60 kHz for each duplex channel. The AMPS
system uses a seven-cell reuse pattern with provisions for three-sectoring per cell and cell splitting to
increase capacity when needed. The analog AMPS system requires that the received signal strength be at
least 18 dB above the co-channel interference to provide acceptable call quality.
APPLICATIONS OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
Today, more and more people use mobile phones than traditional fixed telephones. These trends
create everincreasing requirements for well-educated qualified telecom engineers and technocrats who
understand the developments and possibilities of wireless and mobile communications. Cellular
communication systems mainly rely on judicious frequency reuse planning and multiple access
techniques to maximise system capacity. Cellular systems have evolved from analog techniques to the
more flexible advanced digital techniques that are currently employed. Future developments are aimed at
further enhancing these digital techniques to integrate voice, messaging, and high-speed data.
Wireless networks can be made available where regular wired networks cannot. Wireless
applications, the use of wireless communications technologies in conducting day-to-day business
activities, can be found in every industry. Different standards for these systems have been developed for
operation in different regions of the world such as North America, Europe, and Japan at the same time.
The eventual goal of personal communication systems is to allow each individual user to have
one personal mobile phone and phone number which will take the place of home, office, vehicle, and
portable handheld phones. The third-generation personal cellular systems feature higher maximum data
rates, greater capacity for voice calls, and the ability to work with a wide range of cell sizes and types. It
is more standardised than the second generation. Technologically, the increased capacity is achieved by
using extra spectrum and new modulation techniques such as 8-PSK and spread-spectrum that squeeze
higher data rates from a given spectrum. The 3G standards are backward compatible so that mobile
phones can maintain a connection while moving between cells based on the earlier and the new
technologies. Global roaming will be possible with special multimode mobile phones. A fourthgeneration
(4G) or next-generation network, with data rates of 150 Mbps and more, is already under development.
The main areas of wireless applications can be broadly categorised as follows.
Office and Household Environments Typically, an office space is wired with computer cables for
network connections and telephone wires for telephones. With wireless technologies such as WLAN and
Bluetooth, that expensive cabling infrastructure is no longer necessary. This means that an office can be
created in a very short period of time with minimum down time and infrastructure at almost no additional
cost. During office renovations or reorganisation, employees can move to another location in the building
and can continue working as usual with immediate access to the wireless network. In addition to the
accessibility of networked data, wireless technologies allow businesses to create an office where the
traditional infrastructure doesn’t already exist.
Industrial Control In the construction industry, instant information from the job site including shortage
of man power or materials, could be relayed back to the main office for rescheduling of workers to other
sites to prevent idle time. Construction equipment such as bulldozers and earth graders are fitted with
wireless terminals and GPS which can provide accurate location information on a colour-coded map to
guide the operator as it digs. Implementing wireless technology is a key feature for many warehouse
operations. By equipping all of the warehouse’s machinery and personnel with wireless networking
devices, managers can use warehouse management system (WMS) software to manage all of the activities
from receiving through shipping. And since this network is connected into the front office computer
system, managers can have current stock statistics.
Many large suppliers implement RFID in all the products and some highly sophisticated
warehouses are operating with fully automated pallet machines and forklifts that can process the storing
and retrieving of products completely without human intervention. Because of their huge size and
complexity, large manufacturing facilities, such as automotive assembly plants, are using wireless remote
sensors called motes connected to a WLAN, which collect data and transmit it to a central location.
Technicians in a control room can monitor the status of every machine or device and take corrective
measures.
Education Sector Nowadays, most of the university and college campuses are equipped with Wi-Fi
technology. The instructors and students carry their notebooks and laptops with in-built wireless devices.
They can access the campus network wirelessly from almost any location on the campus. This wireless
education model makes computing resources available to students from anywhere (including hostel,
cafeteria) and at any time. An instructor can create a classroom presentation on the notebook computer at
his place and then carry it right into the classroom or lab. Without the need to plug or unplug any cables
to connect to the campus computer network, the notebook automatically gets connected to the classroom
network. Teachers can also distribute handouts directly to students who have brought their own wireless
devices to class. Wireless technology translates into cost savings for university and colleges as well.
There is no need to have traditional classrooms or computer labs with expensive wiring and
infrastructure.
Health Services Even telephones are connected to hospital WLANs, employing VoIP technology.
Doctors and nurses no longer have to be paged over the public address system. Doctors can also consult
with specialists (located somewhere else) while they are at a patient’s bedside. Cellular phones cannot be
used in health-care facilities, but handsets that can connect to WLAN and use VoIP are allowed, and these
improve efficiency of health care services in hospitals. Notebook computers on mobile carts or handheld
PDAs with bar code scanners or RFID tags and a wireless connection enable doctors and nurses on duty
to document a patient’s medication administration immediately in the computer as they move from one
place to another place. Nurses first identify themselves to the computer system by scanning their own
personal bar-coded ID badge. The patient’s bar-coded armband is then scanned and all medications that
are currently due for that particular patient are brought up on the screen. The medications to be
administered are sealed in bar-coded pouches. Nurses scan RFID tags before opening the package. An
alert immediately appears on the screen if the wrong medication or incorrect dose is identified. After
administration, the nurse indicates through the wireless network that the medication has been given,
essentially electronically signing the distribution form All hospital personnel have real-time access to the
latest medication and patient status information from their place of work. Government and Military
Operations Government offices deploy a broadband wireless network to enable their employees and
contractors at remote construction sites to access data stored in a central database. Police officers can both
download and upload streaming video to help them tackle road accidents and crime. Wireless technology
is being used to provide free Internet access to visitors and business people in public places. Using
cellular and satellite communications, military personnel can talk, access the Internet, and receive full-
motion video through their wireless handset. They can also connect with other wireless devices using the
Bluetooth wireless protocol, or to a WLAN for numerous defense applications in the field.
Event and Travel Management Several large public auditoriums, arenas and sports stadiums are now
equipped with wireless systems to facilitate the process of distribution of valid tickets and overall control
of events. Entry tickets are printed with a unique RFID tag that is scanned at the venue’s point of entry
using a handheld or integrated wireless device connected to a wireless network. The network instantly
validates the ticket and thus prevents the use of counterfeit or stolen tickets. In addition, wireless
technologies are changing the latest information and entertainment experience itself. For example,
wireless transmissions of in-progress game statistics are available to any one in the stadium with a
wireless device such as a notebook computer or PDA. Because wireless technology creates mobility, the
travel industry makes use of its advantages to plan and manage the itinerary. Wireless global positioning
systems (GPS) that tie into emergency roadside assistance services have become standard features.
Airport terminals transmit wireless signals that passengers can pick up on their wireless notebook
computers or PDAs while waiting for their flights. For a nominal fee, they can also surf the Internet or
read their e-mail. Even the airplanes themselves are being equipped with wireless data access, offering
wireless Internet capabilities to passengers on flights.
Home Entertainment FM radio, TV, and satellite radio serves the common man for news and
entertainment services uninterrupted day and night using wireless communications. Several large
computer manufacturers have introduced specialised media PCs that enable audio and movie enthusiasts
to download, distribute, and control all forms of digital entertainment from anywhere. These PCs are
equipped with wireless networking hardware and software to simplify the processing of sound, video, and
pictures. One can send music, movies, or pictures to a stereo receiver, portable device, or PC located
anywhere in the building. The files can be downloaded to digital media portable devices, such as MP3
and video players that can be used while roaming anywhere.
Environmental and Industrial Research Scientists are now using small, battery- or solar-cell-powered
WLAN transmitter-equipped wireless smart sensors in difficult places such as deep caves or on mountain
tops or at the tops of tall trees to monitor the effects on dense forests caused by ultraviolet rays due to the
holes in the ozone layer. The data recorders can be installed in electric power- or generator-operated
nearby locations, and can communicate with the sensors using wireless technology. This capability has
proven to be a major breakthrough in many different scientific fields and research. Wireless sensors are
capable of communicating using wireless technologies, and are widely used in large manufacturing
facilities to monitor equipment and for scientific research.

The Radio Paths

In general, a radio path is a path traveled by the radio signal in the wireless medium from the transmitter
to the receiver. The transmission path between the transmitter and the receiver can vary from a simple
line-of-sight to one that is severely obstructed by natural terrain, buildings, other nearby moving vehicles,
and the presence of heavy foliage (vegetation). Even the speed of the mobile unit impacts how rapidly the
signal level fades as it moves. In a mobile radio environment, the following types of radio paths are
generally considered.
Direct wave Path It is a radio signal path from the transmitter to the receiver that is clear from the terrain
contour.
Line-of-Sight (LOS) Path It is the shortest direct radio signal path between the transmitter and receiver,
a path clear from in-between buildings. In urban areas, the line-of-sight condition is generally not met
because buildings and other terrain features usually block the radio signal path.
Obstructive Path It is a radio signal path between the transmitter and receiver when the terrain contour
blocks the direct wave path. In indoor applications, walls, floors, and interior objects within buildings
obstruct lineof-sight communications. The signal strengths of radio signal paths depend on the distance
they have traveled, the obstacles they have reflected from or passed through, the location of the objects
surrounding the transmitter and the receiver, and the architecture of the wireless environment. The signals
may also encounter diffraction phenomenon resulting into shadow or diffraction loss in the received radio
signal.
When a mobile unit is nearer to the cellsite, a line-of-sight condition might be encountered. Under
this situation, the average received signal at the mobile unit is higher, although the 40-dB/decade path-
loss slope still exists. So the received signal at the mobile unit is a combination of a strong line-of-sight
path, a ground-reflected wave, plus many weak reflected waves from surrounding buildings. This results
into short-term Rician fading.
When a mobile unit is far away from the cell site, an out-of-sight condition is normally
encountered. Still, the 40-dB/decade path-loss slope remains, however, all reflected waves from
surroundings become dominant. The short-term received signal at the mobile unit observes the most
severe Rayleigh fading.

1.2 BASIC PROPAGATION MECHANISMS

With any communication system, the received signal always differs from the transmitted signal
due to various transmission impairments. Radio propagation in free space and without any obstacles is the
most ideal situation. But in mobile communication applications, the ideal situation is rarely achieved.
Radio signals with frequencies above 800 MHz have extremely small wavelengths compared with the
dimensions of buildings and other obstacles, so electromagnetic waves can be treated simply as optical
rays. In a wireless signalpropagation environment, apart from direct waves, the receiver will get a number
of reflected waves, diffracted waves and scattered waves. The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave
propagation are diverse, but can generally be attributed to mainly three basic radio propagation
mechanisms, namely, reflection, diffraction, and scattering. The vectorial addition of these waves
constitutes the resultant wave which will vary in strength in real time. A typical propagation effect in a
mobile radio environment is illustrated in Fig. 2.1.
As shown in Fig.2.1 ht is the height of the cell-site antenna from the earth’s surface, hr is the
height of the mobile antenna from the earth’s surface, and r is the distance between the cell-site and the
mobile unit.
The three basic propagation mechanisms are reflection, diffraction, and scattering which
influence signal propagation in a mobile communication environment are briefly described now.

1.2.1 Reflection
Reflection occurs when incident electromagnetic waves are partially reflected when they impinge on
obstructions of different electrical properties. A propagating electromagnetic wave impinges on objects
the sizes of which are large compared to its wavelength, such as the surface of the earth, buildings, walls,
etc. The electromagnetic radio waves get reflected from tall building structures which have a good
amount of conductivity. Reflection can also occur due to metal reinforcement. The extent of reflection of
radio waves depends on the composition and surface characteristics of the objects. The angle of reflection
is equal to the angle at which the wave strikes the object and is measured by the Fresnel reflection
coefficient. Upon reflection, the signal strength of the radio wave gets attenuated that depends on many
factors like the frequency of the radio waves, the angle of incidence, and the nature of the medium
including its material properties, thickness, homogeneity, etc. Generally, higher frequencies reflect more
than lower frequencies.
As an instance, let a ground-reflected wave near the mobile unit be received. Because the
ground-reflected wave has a 180ο phase shift after reflection, the ground wave and the line-of-sight wave
may tend to cancel each other, resulting in high signal attenuation. The vector sum of the phases of the
multipath received signals may give a resultant zero amplitude at certain time instants and large signal
amplitude at some other time. Most of the times, the vectorial addition of these multipath reflected signals
produce an undetectable signal. Further, because the mobile antenna is lower than most human-made
structures in the operational area, multipath interference occurs. These reflected waves may interfere
constructively or destructively at the receiver. In outdoor urban areas, the reflection mechanism often
loses its importance because it involves multiple reflections that reduce the strength of the signal to
negligible values. However, reflection mechanisms often dominate radio propagation in indoor
applications. The reflections are a source of multipath signals which cause low strength in signal
reception. Reflection results in a large-scale fading of the radio signals.
EXAMPLE 2.3 Effects of reflection on signal propagation
A wireless communication transmitter transmits a signal at 900 MHz. A receiver located at a distance of
1 km away from transmitter receives two signals — one directly as a line-of-sight signal and another
indirectly via reflection from a building (having a height more than 10 metres), as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Give reason(s) to justify that the reflected signal causes delay in the reception. Calculate the amount of
delay in the reflected signal with respect to the direct signal at the receiver.
Solution
Frequency of transmission, fc = 900 MHz (given)
Step 1. To find the wavelength of transmission, λc
We know that λc = c / fc
Or, λc = 3 × 108 m/s / 900 ×106 Hz
Therefore, λc = 0.33 m
Step 2. To justify that reflected signal causes delay. The height of the building 10 m (given) Thus, the
given height of the building is much greater than the wavelength of the transmission.
It implies that the radio signal is reflected from the surface of the obstacle of size much greater than λc of
the radio transmissions. The reflected signal suffers a delay in reaching the receiver.
Step 3. To find the time taken by the direct path, tdirect
Distance between transmitter and receiver = 1 km or 1000 m (given)
We know that tdirect = distance traveled by direct path / speed of radio wave
Or, tdirect = 1000 m / 3 × 108 m/s
Therefore, tdirect = 3.33 μs
Step 4. To find the time taken by the reflected path, t reflected
Assuming that the reflected path is approximately equal to 1000 m
Angle between incident and reflected path = 120 (given)
Thus, incident angle = 120 /2 = 60
Therefore, treflected = 1000 m / (3 × 108 m/s) × sin 60
Or, treflected = 3.85 μs
Step 5. To calculate the delay in a reflected signal
Delay = treflected tdirect
Hence, delay = 3.85 μs 3.33 μs = 0.52 s
1.2.2 Diffraction
 Diffraction is referred to the change in wave pattern caused by interference between waves that
have been reflected from a surface or a point. It is based on Huygen’s principle which states that all points
on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for production of secondary wavelets that can combine
to produce a new wavefront in the direction of propagation of the signal. Diffraction occurs when the
radio path between a transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface with sharp irregular edges. Waves
bend around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight condition does not exist. It causes regions of signal
strengthening and weakening irregularly. Diffraction can also occur in different situations such as when
radio waves pass through a narrow slit or the edge of a reflector or reflect off from two different surfaces
approximately one wavelength apart. At higher frequencies, diffraction depends on the geometry of the
object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and polarisation of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.
Figure 2.3 depicts a simple case of diffraction of a radio signal.
Diffraction is a description of how a radio signal propagates around and over an obstruction, and
is measured in dB. Diffraction often results in small-signal fading. In effect, diffraction results in
propagation into shadow regions because the diffracted field can reach a receiver, which is not in the line-
of-sight of the transmitter. Because a secondary wavelet is created, it suffers a signal loss much greater
than that experienced via reflection. Although the received signal strength decreases rapidly as a receiver
moves deeper into the shadow region, the diffraction field still exists and often produces useful signal
strength.
Consequently, diffraction is an important phenomenon of propagation impairment in outdoor
applications such as in micro-cellular areas where signal transmission through buildings is virtually
impossible. It is less consequential in indoor applications where a diffracted signal is extremely weak
compared to a reflected signal or a signal that is transmitted through a relatively thin wall.

In mobile communication systems, diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary waves
such that only a portion of the energy is diffracted around an obstacle. Most cellular systems operate in
urban areas where there is no direct line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the receiver (either
from the cell-site to the mobile unit or vice-versa), and where the presence of highrise buildings causes
severe diffraction loss. In many practical situations, the propagation path may consist of more than one
obstruction. For example, in hilly terrains, the total diffraction loss must be computed due to all of the
obstacles.
1.2.3 Scattering
Scattering is a special case of reflection caused by irregular objects such as walls with rough
surfaces, vehicles, foliage, traffic signs, lamp posts, and results in many different angles of reflection and
scatter waves in all directions in the form of spherical waves. Thus, due to availability of numerous
objects, scattering effects are difficult to predict. Scattering occurs when the size of objects is comparable
or smaller than the wavelength of the propagating radio wave, and where the number of obstacles per unit
volume is large. Figure 2.4 depicts a typical case of scattering of a radio signal.
Propagation in many directions results in reduced received-signal power levels, especially far
from the scatterer. So an incoming radio signal is scattered into several weaker outgoing radio signals. As
a result, the scattering phenomenon is not significant unless the receiver or transmitter is located in a
highly noisy environment. In a mobile radio environment, scattering provides additional radio energy
levels at the receiver to what has been predicted by reflection and diffraction models alone. In radio
channels, knowledge of the physical location of large distant objects, which induce scattering, can be used
to accurately predict scattered signal strength levels. In a mobile radio environment, heavy foliage often
causes scattering. Scattering too results in small-scale fading effects.
These three impairments to free-space propagation influence system performance in various ways
depending on local conditions and as the mobile unit moving within a cell in a cellular system.
• If a mobile unit has a clear line-of-sight condition with the cell-site then only reflection may
have a significant effect whereas diffraction and scattering have minor effects on the received signal
levels.
• If there is no clear line-of-sight condition, such as in an urban area at busy street level, then
diffraction and scattering are the primary means of signal reception.
One major adverse effect of multipath propagation is that multiple copies of a signal may arrive
at different phases. If these phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making
signal detection at the receiver much more difficult and unreliable.
The second major effect of multipath propagation is increase in received data errors due to
intersymbol interference in digital transmission. As the mobile unit moves, the relative location of various
objects also

changes; hence intersymbol interference increases to the extent that makes it difficult to design signal
processing techniques that will filter out multipath effects in order to recover the intended signal with
fidelity.
An extreme form of signal attenuation is blocking or shadowing of radio signals, which is caused
by obstacles much larger in size than the wavelengths of the operating signals such as a small wall, trees,
or a large vehicle on the street.
Another form of propagation effect is the effect of refraction. Refraction occurs because the
velocity of the electromagnetic waves depends on the density of the medium through which it travels.
Waves that travel into a denser medium are bent towards the medium. This is the reason for line-of-sight
radio waves being bent towards the earth since the density of the atmosphere is higher closer to the earth.
1.3 MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
In a mobile communication system, a signal experiences multipath propagation which causes
rapid signallevel fluctuations in time, called fading. Mobile radio channels introduce noise, fading,
interference, and other distortions into the signals that they transmit. Fading effects that characterise
mobile radio communication are large-scale fading and small-signal fading. If there is a large number of
multiple reflective paths with no line-of-sight signal path, it is Rayleigh fading. The Rayleigh flat-fading
channel model assumes that the channel induces amplitude which varies in time according to Rayleigh
distribution. When there is a dominant non-fading signal component present, the small-signal fading
envelope is described by a Rician fading. Small-signal fading results into signal dispersion and time-
variant behaviour of the channel.
Rayleigh and Rician fading phenomena include multipath scattering effects, time dispersion, and
Doppler shifts that arise from relative motion between the transmitter and receiver. The major paths result
in the arrival of delayed versions of the signal at the receiver. In addition, the radio signal undergoes
scattering on a local scale for each major path. Such local scattering is typically characterised by a large
number of reflections by objects near the mobile. These irresolvable components combine at the receiver
and give rise to the phenomenon known as multipath fading. As a result, each major path behaves as a
discrete fading path.
Typically, the fading process is characterised by a Rayleigh distribution for a non-line-of-sight
path and a Rician distribution for a line-of-sight path. In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh distribution
is commonly used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat fading
channel, or the envelope of an individual multipath components. The relative motion between the
transmitter and receiver causes Doppler shifts. Local scattering typically comes from many angles around
the mobile. This scenario causes a range of Doppler shifts, known as the Doppler spectrum. The
maximum Doppler shift corresponds to the local scattering components whose direction exactly opposes
the mobile’s trajectory.
1.3.1 Multipath Fading
Fading of signal received by the mobile unit is an inherent problem in mobile communication. As
the location of the mobile unit keeps on changing in real time, the resultant radio signal incident on its
antenna varies continuously. Multipath in the mobile communication channel creates small-scale fading
effects such as rapid changes in signal strength over a small time interval or small distance traveled by a
mobile; random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals; and
time dispersion caused by multipath propagation delays. Fading is the rapid fluctuation of a radio signal’s
amplitude in a short time or over a short distance.
In reality, the received signal rapidly fluctuates due to the mobility of the mobile unit causing
changes in multiple signal components arriving via different paths. These multiple waves can combine
constructively or destructively. Multipath waves are also generated because the antenna height of the
mobile unit is lower than its typical surrounding structures such as in builtup urban areas of operation,
and the operating wavelength is much less than the sizes of the surrounding structures at the mobile unit.
The sum of multipath waves causes a signal-fading phenomenon. The rapid fluctuation of the signal
amplitude is referred to as small-signal fading, and it is the result of movement of the transmitter, the
receiver, or objects surrounding them. Over a small area, the average value of the received signal is
considered to compute the propagation path loss and received signal strength. But the characteristics of
the instantaneous signal level are also important in order to design receivers that can mitigate these
effects.
 In fact, there are two main reasons that contribute to the rapid fluctuations of the signal
amplitude. The first, caused by the addition of signals arriving via different paths, is referred to as
multipath fading. The second, caused by the relative movement of the mobile unit towards or away from
the cell-site transmitter, is called Doppler effect. Other factors that influence small-scale fading include
multipath propagation, speed of the mobile, speed of the surrounding objects, and the transmission
bandwidth of the signal. For a particular service area, the fading effects of the received signal at the
mobile unit need to be analysed towards the effort of designing a reliable mobile communication system.
Suitable diversity reception or signal-processing techniques need to be provided to minimise the impact
of fading.
Multipath fading results in fluctuations of the signal amplitude because of the addition of signals
arriving with different phases. This phase difference is caused due to the fact that signals have traveled
different path lengths. Because the phase of the arriving paths are too changing rapidly, the received
signal amplitude undergoes rapid fluctuation that is often modeled as a random variable with a particular
distribution, called Rayleigh distribution. The multipath waves at the mobile receiver bounce back and
forth due to the surrounding buildings and other structures, as shown in Fig. 2.5. When a mobile unit is
stand-still, its receiver only receives a signal strength at that spot, so a constant signal is observed. When
the mobile unit is moving, the fading structure of the wave in the space is received. It is a multipath
fading which becomes fast as the vehicle moves faster.

1.3.2 Types of Small-Scale Fading

The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating through a mobile communication channel
depends on the nature of the transmitted signal with respect to the characteristics of the wireless channel,
the speed of the mobile, and the direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the incoming received
signal from the cell-site transmitter. Fading effects in a mobile radio environment can be classified as –
 fading effects due to multipath time delay spread; and –
 fading effects due to Doppler spread.
Due to multipath time-delay spread, fading effects can also be classified as flat fading and
frequency selective fading. Flat fading, or non-selective fading, is that type of fading in which all
frequency components of the received signal fluctuates in the same proportions simultaneously. Flat
fading occurs when the radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response but its bandwidth is
greater than that of the transmitted signal. It implies that the desired signal bandwidth is narrower than,
and completely covered by, the spectrum affected by the fading.
In flat fading, the multipath structure of the channel is such that the spectral characteristics of the
transmitted signal are preserved at the receiver. However, the strength of the received signal changes with
time due to fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath. In a flat fading channel,
sometimes referred to as a narrowband channel, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much larger
than the reciprocal of the multipath time-delay spread of the channel. The bandwidth of the applied signal
is narrow as compared to that of the wireless channel. The distribution of the instantaneous gain of flat-
fading channels can be best described by Rayleigh distribution and is important for designing wireless
communication links. Typical flatfading channels cause deep fades, and can be best corrected by
increasing the transmitter power by 20 or 30 dB in order to achieve low bit-error rates during times of
deep fades as compared to systems operating over non-fading channels.
Frequency-selective fading affects unequally the different spectral components of a radio signal.
Selective fading is usually significant only relative to the bandwidth of the overall wireless
communication channel. If the signal attenuates over a portion of the bandwidth of the signal, the fading
is considered to be selective in frequency domain. Frequency selective fading on the received signal
occurs when a radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response, but the channel bandwidth is
less than that of the transmitted signal. Under such conditions, the channel impulse response has a
multipath delay spread which is greater than the reciprocal bandwidth of the transmitted signal. The
received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted signal which are faded and delayed in time,
and hence the received signal is distorted. Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the
transmitted symbols within the channel, and the channel induces intersymbol interference. Because this
effect varies by frequency, fading is different at different frequencies and it is extremely difficult to
counter its impact or compensate for the signal loss. Frequency-selective fading channels are also known
as wideband channels since the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is wider than the bandwidth of the
channel impulse response.
As an example, suppose a mobile receiver moves directly away from the transmitting antenna but
toward a reflecting surface. This particular scenario is depicted in Fig. 2.6.

If the two signals are in phase at a given point, they will add. As the mobile moves forward a
distance of λc /4, the direct path is increased and the reflected path is reduced by the same amount,
resulting in a total phase shift of 180 degrees, resulting into partial cancellation of the signal (which
means the signal may fade up to 50 dB in worst cases). When the mobile moves another distance of λc /4,
the signals are once again in phase. Thus, the fades occur each time the mobile moves a distance of λc /2.
Given the frequency of the the signal and the speed of the mobile, it is easy to estimate the time between
fades. The time between fades is given by
Tf = (λc /2) / Vm = λc / (2Vm) = c / (2 fc Vm) (2.6)
Due to Doppler spread, fading effects can also be classified as fast fading and slow fading.
Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal changes as compared to the rate of change of
the channel, a wireless channel is classified as a fast fading or slow-fading channel. In fast-fading
conditions, as the mobile unit moves down a street in an urban environment, rapid fluctuations in received
signal strength occur over distances of about one-half a wavelength. The channel impulse response
changes rapidly within the symbol duration. That is, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the
symbol period of the transmitted signal. This causes frequency dispersion, also called time-selective
fading, due to Doppler spreading. This results into signal distortion which increases with increasing
Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Therefore, a signal undergoes fast
fading if the symbol period Ts > Tf , the time between fades. Fast fading occurs when the rate of change
of the channel characteristics is faster than the rate of change of the information data signal, and results in
distortion.

In mobile cellular applications operating at 900 MHz (corresponding to a wavelength of 0.33 m)

in an urban environment, a typical example of the spatial variation of a received signal amplitude is
illustrated in Fig.2.7.
The signal may fade in a range of about 40 dB (10 dB above and 30 dB below the average signal)
over a short distance. If the mobile unit moves fast, the rate of fluctuation of the radio signal also
increases. This type of rapidly changing fading phenomenon, known as fast fading, not only affects
mobile phones in automobile vehicles, but even a mobile phone user walking through an urban street.
In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted baseband signal. As the mobile subscriber covers distances well in excess of a wavelength,
the urban environment changes, as the mobile subscriber crosses buildings of different heights, busy
intersections, vacant spaces, and so forth. Over these longer distances, there is a change in the average
received power level about which the rapid fluctuations occur. This is indicated by the slowly changing
waveforms. In the frequency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread of the channel is much less than
the bandwidth of the baseband signals. Therefore, a signal undergoes slow fading if the symbol period Ts
<< Tf .
Depending on the environment and the surroundings, and the location of objects, the received
signal strength for the same distance from the transmitter will be different. In fact, the actual received
signal strength will vary around the mean value of the signal. This variation of the signal strength due to
location is often referred to as shadow fading, which is similar to slow fading. Shadow fading is typically
modeled by attenuation in signal amplitude that follows a log-normal distribution. The variation in
shadow fading is specified by the standard deviation of the logarithm of this attenuation.
The problem caused by shadow fading is that all locations at a given distance may not receive
sufficient signal strength for detecting the data accurately. In order to achieve sufficient signal coverage,
the technique employed is to add a fade margin to the path loss or the received signal strength. This is
more important at the edge of a cell or near the fringe cell areas. This fading margin can be applied by
increasing the transmit power and keeping the same cell size, or reducing the cell size.

1.3.3 Effects of Multipath Fading

Fading may cause rapid changes in volume, random frequency modulation, echoes, distortion, or
a dropped call. The listener notices all these effects of fading. Small-signal fading results in very high bit-
error rates. In order to overcome the effects of small-signal fading, it is not possible to simply increase the
transmit power because this will require a huge increase in the transmit power. A variety of techniques
are used to mitigate the effects of small-signal fading such as error control coding with interleaving,
diversity schemes, and using directional antennas at the cell-site. Diversity techniques are useful to
overcome the effects of fast fading by providing multiple copies of the signal at the receiver. Because the
probability that all these copies suffer fading is small, the receiver is able to correctly decode the received
data. requency hopping is another technique that can be used to combat fast fading. Because all
frequencies are not simultaneously under fade, transmitting data by hopping to different frequencies is an
approach to combat fading.
1.3.4 Multipath Delay Spread
Multipath interference is the reflection of radio signals from concrete structures that results in
multiple copies of the received signal. Multipath interference can allow radio signals to reach hard-to-
reach areas. It can also create some problems such as delay spread which occurs when several signals
reach a receiver at different times due to different lengths of transmission paths. Delay spread also occurs
due to Rayleigh fading which results from the signal’s amplitude and phase being altered by reflections.
In a digital communication system, the delay spread along with fading causes intersymbol
interference, thereby limiting the maximum symbol rate of a digital multipath channel. If the multipath
delay spread is comparable to or larger than the symbol duration, the received waveform spreads into
neighbouring symbols and produces intersymbol interference. The intersymbol interference results in
irreducible errors that are caused in the detected signal. Figure 2.8 shows the multiple signals received at
different multipaths.
Since each radio signal path has a different path length, the time of arrival for each signal path is
different. The smearing or spreading-out effect of the received radio signal is called delay spread. For a
low bit-errorrate (BER) performance of a digital transmission, the transmission data rate, r should be
r < 1 / (2 d) (2.7)
where d is the delay spread.
The average delay spread is typically about 3 microseconds for an urban area and up to 10
microseconds in hilly terrain. A measure of the data rate that can be supported over the channel without
additional receiver techniques is determined by the RMS multipath delay spread values. The RMS delay
spread varies depending on the type of the operating environment. In urban microcells, the RMS delay
spread is of the order of a few microseconds. In indoor applications, it could be as small as 30
nanoseconds in residential areas or as large as 300 nanoseconds in factory environments. This means that
the maximum data rate which can be supported in outdoor applications is about 50 kbps (at 4
microseconds of RMS delay spread) and in indoor applications, about 6.7 Mbps (at 30 nanoseconds of
RMS delay spread). Table 2.2 shows the typical values of delay spread in different operating
environments.

1.3.5 Doppler Shift

There is always a relative motion between the cell-site transmitter and the mobile receiver. As a
result, Doppler effect occurs in the shift of the received carrier frequency. Doppler spectrum is the
spectrum of the fluctuations of the received signal strength. Multipath fading provides the distributions of
the amplitude of a radio signal. It is important to know for what time a signal strength will be below a
pre-defined threshold value, that is, the duration of fade, and how often it crosses a threshold value, that
is, frequency of transitions or fading rate. Doppler effect results in the inaccurate operation of the system.
Proper compensation technique needs to be implemented to minimise this effect. A study of Doppler
spectrum is important to design the coding and interleaver schemes for efficient performance.
Thus, multipath propagation, speed of mobile unit, speed of reflecting objects, and Doppler shift
are the main causes of fading. Multipath propagation can result in a positive or negative Doppler shift. As
mobile unit moves around, the resulting multipath reception of waves reflected from different objects can
also result in a positive or negative Doppler shift. The Rayleigh distribution is often used to model the
received envelope of such a signal in a statistical, time-varying way. Rayleigh fading is also called
multipath fading in the mobile radio environment. Speed of reflecting objects can induce their own
Doppler shift in the reflected wave. Doppler frequency or Doppler shift is given by
fd = (1/λc) Vm cos θ (2.8)
where λc is the wavelength of the carrier signal, Vm is the relative velocity of the mobile, the angle θ is
between the motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves, and Vm cos θ represents
the velocity component of the motion of the mobile in the direction of the incoming signal.
The maximum Doppler frequency will be obtained when the mobile unit is moving in line with
the direction of the received signal, that is, θ = 0ο or cos θ = 1. Then from Eq. (2.8), the maximum
Doppler frequency is given by
fdm = Vm / λc = Vm fc / c (2.9)
where fc is the frequency of transmission in Hz, Vm is the speed of the mobile and c is speed of
light in same units.
When a pure sinusoidal carrier signal having frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal
spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range fc – fd to fc + fd,
corresponding to whether the direction of motion of the mobile is away from or towards the direction of
the received signal respectively. This simply means that Doppler shift will be positive or negative
depending on whether the mobile receiver is moving toward or away from the base station transmitter.
EXAMPLE 2.5 Doppler shift frequency
Consider a base-station transmitter operating at 900 MHz carrier frequency. For a mobile moving at a
speed of 72 km/h, calculate the received carrier frequency if the mobile is moving (a) directly away from
the base-station transmitter (b) directly towards the base-station transmitter (c) in a direction which is 60
degrees to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal (d) in a direction perpendicular to the direction
of arrival of the transmitted signal
Solution Carrier frequency of base station transmitter, fc = 900 MHz (given)
Speed of the mobile, Vm = 72 km/h (given) Or, Vm = (72 × 103 )/3600 = 20 m/s
(a) To calculate received carrier frequency when the mobile is moving directly away from the base-
station transmitter
Step 1. In the given case, θ = 180ο , cos θ = cos 180ο = –1 So the Doppler shift is negative.
Step 2. Doppler frequency, or Doppler shift, is given by
fd = (1/ λc) Vm where λc = (c / fc) Or, fd = ( fc / c) Vm = (900 × 106 Hz / 3 × 108 m/s) × 20 m/s Or,
fd = 60 Hz
Step 3. The received carrier frequency at the mobile = fc – fd = 900 × 106 Hz – 60 Hz = 899.99994
MHz
(b) To calculate the received carrier frequency when the mobile is moving directly towards the base-
station transmitter.
Step 4. In this case, θ = 0ο , cos θ = cos 0ο = +1. So the Doppler shift is positive.
Step 5. Doppler frequency or Doppler shift is given by fd = (fc / c) Vm = (900 × 106 Hz / 3 × 108 m/s) ×
20 m/s Or, fd = 60 Hz
Step 6. The received carrier frequency at the mobile = fc + fd = 900 × 106 Hz + 60 Hz = 900.00006 MHz

(c)To calculate received carrier frequency when the mobile is moving in a direction which is 60 degrees
to the direction of arrival of the transmitted signal
Step 7. In this case, θ = 60ο , cos θ = cos 60ο = 0.5. So the Doppler shift is positive.
Step 8. Doppler frequency or Doppler shift is given by fd = ( fc / c) Vm cos 60ο = (900 × 106 / 3 × 108 )
× 20 × 0.5 = 30 Hz
Step 9. Hence, the received carrier frequency at the mobile = fc + fd = 900 × 106 Hz + 30 Hz =
900.00003 MHz
(d)To calculate received carrier frequency when the mobile is moving in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of arrival of the transmitted signal
Step 10. In this case, θ = 90ο , cos θ = cos 90ο = 0. So there is no Doppler shift. Step 11. The received
signal frequency is the same as the transmitted frequency. Hence, the received carrier frequency = 900
MHz.
In mobile radio applications, the Doppler spectrum or Doppler spread for a Rayleigh fading channel is
usually modeled by the following expression:
D(λ) = (0.16 / fdm) × 1 – ( λc / fdm) 2 −0.5
for – fdm <= λc <= fdm
(2.10)
where fdm is the maximum Doppler frequency possible and is related to the velocity Vm of the mobile
via the expression fdm = Vm / λc and λc is the wavelength of the radio signal.
 It is possible to relate the time rate of change of the received signal to the signal level and
velocity of the mobile. The level crossing rate and average fade duration of a Rayleigh fading signal are
two important statistics which are useful for designing error control codes and diversity schemes to be
used in mobile communication systems.
The level-crossing rate is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope,
normalised to the local RMS signal level, crosses a specified threshold level in a positive-going direction.
The average number of level crossings per second at a specified level L is given by
NL = 2.5 fdm ρ e −ρ2 (2.11)
where fdm is the maximum Doppler frequency given by Vm / λc. ρ is the value of the specified
level L, normalised to the local rms amplitude of the fading envelope, that is, L/Lrms.
Or, NL = 2.5 (Vm / λc) ρ e −ρ2 (2.12)
Thus, the level-crossing rate is a function of the mobile speed Vm. There are few crossings at both high
and low levels, with the maximum rate occurring at ρ = 0.707 (that is, at a level of 3 dB below the rms
level).
EXAMPLE 2.8 Doppler frequency in a Rayleigh fading channel
Consider a Rayleigh fading signal experiencing a maximum Doppler frequency of 20 Hz. The carrier
frequency is 900 MHz. Compute
(a) the positive-going level-crossing rate for ρ = 1
(b) maximum velocity of the mobile for the given Doppler frequency
Solution Carrier frequency of transmission, fc = 900 MHz (given) Maximum Doppler frequency, fdm =
20 Hz (given)
(a) To compute the positive-going level crossing rate, NL
Step 1. Normalized specified level, ρ = 1 (given) Average number of level crossings per second at a
specified level is given by:
NL = 2.5 fdm ρ e – ρ2
Therefore, NL = 2.5 × 20 × 1 × e– 1 = 18.39 crossings per second
(b) To compute maximum velocity of the mobile, Vm
Step 2. We know that fdm = Vm / λc Or, Vm = fdm × λc = fdm × c / f
where c = 3 × 108 m/s Therefore, Vm = (20 Hz × 3 × 108 m/s) / (900 × 106 Hz)
Hence, Vm = 6.67 m/s or 24 km/h
From the Doppler spread, it is possible to obtain the fade rate as well as the fade duration for a
given mobile velocity. Fade rate is defined as the number of times that the signal envelope crosses the
threshold value in a positive-going direction per unit time. Usually, the fade rate is related to the carrier
wavelength λc, the velocity of the mobile user Vm, and the number of multipaths. The average fade rate
is given by 2 Vm / λc, that is,
average fade rate = 2 Vm / λc
(2.13)
The average fade duration is defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is
below a specified level L. Fade duration is defined for which the signal is below a given threshold value.
It is a random variable and usually, average fade duration is used. For a Rayleigh fading signal, the
average fade duration as a function of ρ and fdm can be expressed as
Average fade duration = 0.4 ( eρ2 – 1) / ( fdm ρ)
(2.14)
where ρ is the value of the specified level L, normalised to the local rms amplitude of the fading
envelope, that is, L/Lrms, and fdm is the maximum Doppler frequency given by Vm / λc.
There is a fade margin built into the link budget of the mobile communication system. The
average fade duration of a received signal enables one to determine the most likely number of signaling
bits that may be lost during a fade. It primarily depends upon the speed of the mobile, and decreases as
the maximum Doppler frequency becomes large. It is appropriate to evaluate the receiver performance by
determining the rate at which the input received signal falls below a given level L, and on the average
how long it remains below the level. Similarly, depth of fading is defined as the ratio between the mean
square value and the minimum value of the fading signal. It is also a random variable and usually, the
average depth of fading is used. This is useful for establishing the relationship between the signal-to-
noise ratio during a fade to the instantaneous available BER.
1.3.6 Coherence Bandwidth
The coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel can be considered flat. A flat channel is one which passes all spectral components with
approximately equal gain and linear phase and without any distortion. The coherence bandwidth Bc
represents the correlation between two fading signal envelopes at frequencies f1 and f2 and is a function
of the delay spread d.
When the correlation coefficient between two fading signal envelopes at frequencies f1 and f2 is
equal to 0.5, the coherence bandwidth Bc is approximated by:
Bc ≈ 1 / (2 π d ) (2.15) where d is the delay spread.
Two frequencies that are larger than the coherence bandwidth fade independently. This concept is
also useful for diversity reception, wherein multiple copies of the same signal are received. The coherence

Δf = ⏐ f1 f2 ⏐ > Bc = 1 / (2 π d) (2.16)
bandwidth for two fading amplitudes of two received signals is given as

Δf = ⏐ f1 f2 ⏐ > E Bc = 1 / (4 π d) (2.17)
The coherence bandwidth for two random phases of two received signals is given as

where E Bc is the average value of the coherence bandwidth Bc. If the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal is larger than the channel coherence bandwidth, a part of the transmitted signal is
truncated, which means nonlinearity is present and the signal could be severely influenced by frequency-
selective fading. If the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is smaller than the channel coherence
bandwidth, only the gain and phase of the signal are changed, which means nonlinear transformation
could not occur.
 It is possible to support data rates that are less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel that
is approximately 1 / (5 d(rms)).
1.3.7 Coherence Time
Coherence time is the time duration over which two received signals have a strong potential for
amplitude correlation. In other words, coherence time c is inversely proportional to the Doppler spread. It
is used to characterise the time-varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time
domain. If the reciprocal bandwidth of the baseband signal is greater than the coherence time of the
channel then the channel will change during the transmission of the baseband signal, thus causing
distortion at the receiver. If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time correlation
function is above 0.5, then the coherence time is approximately given by
c ≈ 0.423 / fdm (2.18)
where fdm is the maximum Doppler shift given by Vm / λc. It implies that two signals arriving with a
time separation greater than c are affected differently by the channel. It is recommended that the symbol
rate must exceed 1/ c in order to avoid distortion in a digital transmission system.
 2.Principles of Cellular Communication

4.1 Cellular Terminology

A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. A cell is the radio area covered by a cell-site that
is located at its centre. In other words, the radio coverage by one base station or a cell-site is referred to as
a cell, which is also called a footprint. In a cellular system, the most important factor is the size and shape
of a cell. Because of constraints imposed by natural irregular terrain, man-made structures, and non
uniform population densities, the actual shape of the cell may not be either a circle or a regular
geometrical shape but may be a little distorted. For proper analysis and evaluation of a cellular system, an
appropriate model of a cell shape is needed. Figure 4.1 depicts ideal cell, actual cell and possible cell
models such as equilateral triangle, square, and hexagon that represent a cell boundary with a radius R
from the centre of the cell.

The actual shape of the cell is determined by the desired received signal level by the mobile
subscribers from its base-station transmitter in its operating area. The received signal is affected by many
factors including reflections, refractions, and contour of the terrain as well as multipath propagation due
to presence of natural and man-made structures.
A cell is not a perfect polygon. So real footprints are vague in nature. On the other hand, cellular
layouts using irregular structures limit growth and are also inefficient. For this reason, cellular layouts and
performance studies are based on regular topologies as they allow the systematic growth though they may
be just conceptual.
The base station, also called Cell-Site (CS), located approximately at its centre, serves all mobile
users in the cell. Figure 4.2 illustrates an ideal cell area (circular), a hexagonal cell area (used in most
models), and a square cell area (an alternative shape) with a cell-site at its centre and a number of mobile
units (M) within the cell area.
The shape of the cell can be circular around the cell-site transmitting tower under ideal radio
environment. The periphery of the circle is equal to the acceptable received signal level from the
transmitting signal. It means that if the cell-site is located at the centre of the cell, the cell area and
periphery are determined by the signal strength within the region. This depends on many factors, such as
the height of the cell-site transmitting antenna; contour of the terrain; presence of tall buildings, hills,
valleys, vegetation; and atmospheric conditions. Therefore, the actual shape of the cell may be a zigzag
shape which indicates a true radio coverage area. However, for all practical purposes, a regular hexagonal
geometry shape approximates the cell boundary, which is a good approximation of a circular region.
However, the square is another alternative shape that can be used to represent the cell area.

4.2 Cell Structure And Cluster

In practice, cells are of arbitrary shape which is quite close to a circle, is the ideal radiation
pattern of an omnidirectional antenna. Because of the randomness inherent nature of the mobile radio
propagation and irregular geographical terrain, it is easier to obtain insight and plan the cellular network
by visualising all the cells as having the same shape. By approximating a uniform cell size for all cells, it
is easier to analyse and design a cellular topology mathematically. It is highly desirable to construct the
cellular system such that the cells do not overlap, and are tightly packed without any dead signal spots.
The cellular topology formed by using ideal circular shape results into overlaps or gaps between
them which is not desirable in cellular communications which has to be essentially continuous. This form
of layout requires the use of regular topologies (say, a hexagonal topology) instead of a circular shape, as
depicted in Fig. 4.3.
In Fig. 4.3, the middle dark circles represent cell-sites. This is where the base-station radio
equipment and their antennas mounted on tall towers are located. A cell-site gives radio signal coverage
to a cell. In other words, the cell-site is a location or a point at the centre of the cell, whereas the cell is a
wide geographical service area.

The design and performance of cellular systems using regular geometrical topologies may not
correspond to real mobile environments, but these topologies do provide valuable information and
guidelines for structuring practical cellular configuration layouts. Cells of the same shape form a
tessellation so that there are no ambiguous areas that belong to multiple cells or to no cell. The cell shape
can be of only three types of regular polygons: equilateral triangle, square, or regular hexagon as shown
in Fig. 4.4.
A cellular structure based on a regular hexagonal topology, though fictitious, offers best possible
non-overlapped cell radio coverage. Traditionally, a regular hexagonal-shaped cell is the closest
approximation to a circle out of these three geometrical shapes and has been used for cellular system
design. In other words, for a given radius (largest possible distance between the polygon centre and its
edge), the hexagon has the largest area. Moreover, it allows a larger region to be divided into
nonoverlapping hexagonal subregions of equal size, with each one representing a cell area. Octagons and
decagons geometrical patterns do represent shapes closer to a circular area as compared to hexagons, but
they are not used to model a cell as it is not possible to divide a larger area into non- overlapping subareas
of the same size.
A mobile radio communication system is generally required to operate over areas too large to be
economically covered by a single cell-site. Therefore, several or many widely spaced transmitter sites are
required to provide total area coverage. The spacing between the base stations need not be regular and the
cell or the area served by a base station need not have any particular shape. However, the absence of an
orderly geometrical structure makes the system design more difficult and results in inefficient use of
spectrum and uneconomical deployment of equipment. The propagation considerations recommend the
circle as a cell shape for defining the area covered by a particular base station. This is impracticable for
design purpose, since there could be areas which are contained either in no cell or in multiple cells. On
the other hand, any regular polygon can cover the service area with no gaps or overlaps. The regular
hexagonal shape results in the most economical system layout design. In most modeling, simulation,
measurements, and analysis of interference in cellular systems, hexagons are used to represent the cell
structure. A hexagon is closer to a circular area and multiple hexagons can be arranged next to each other,
without having an overlapping area or uncovered space in between. In other words, the hexagonal-shaped
cells fit the planned area nicely, with no gap and no overlap among the adjacent hexagonal cells. Thus, it
simplifies the planning and design of a cellular system.
EXAMPLE 4.1 Significance of cellular topology
Consider a single high-power transmitter that can support 40 voice channels over an area of 140 km² with
the available spectrum. If this area is equally divided into seven smaller areas (cells), each supported by
lower power transmitters so that each cell supports 30% of the channels, then determine (a) coverage area
of each cell (b) total number of voice channels available in cellular system Comment on the results
obtained.
Solution Total service area to be covered = 140 km (given)
Total number of channels available = 40 (given)
Number of cells = 7 (given)
(a) To determine coverage area of each cell
Step 1. Coverage area of a cell = Total service area / Number of cells Hence, coverage area of a cell =
140 km / 7 = 20 km
(b) To determine total number of voice channels available in the cellular system
Step 2. Number of voice channels per cell = 30% of original channels (given)
Number of voice channels per cell = 0.3 × 40 = 12 channels/cell
Total number of voice channels available in cellular system is given by the number of channels per
cell multiplied by the number of cells in the service area.
Hence, total number of voice channels = 12 × 7 = 84 channels
 Comment on the results
• Thus, there is a significant increase in the number of available channels (84 channels as calculated
above) in a given cellular system as compared to a non-cellular system (40 channels as given).
• This means the system capacity is increased.
• However, care has to be taken in allocation of channels to various cells in such a way so as to
prevent interference between the channels of one cell and that of another cell.
• Adjacent cells should not be allocated the same channels, whereas cells located far apart can be
allocated the same channels using frequency reuse scheme.
A Cellular Cluster
A group of cells that use a different set of frequencies in each cell is called a cellular cluster.
Thus, a cluster is a group of cells with no reuse of channels within it. It is worth mentioning here that only
a selected number of cells can form a cluster. It follows certain rules before any cell can be repeated at a
different location. Some common reuse cluster patterns are given in Fig. 4.5. Two or more different cells
can use the same set of frequencies or channels if these cells are separated in space such that the
interference between cells at any given frequency is at an acceptable level. That means, the cluster can be
repeated any number of times in a systematic manner in order to cover the designated large geographical
service area. Let there be K number of cells having a different set of frequencies in a cluster. Then K is
termed as the cluster size in terms of the number of cells within it.

EXAMPLE 4.2 Number of clusters

Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4 have to be replicated in order to approximately cover
the entire service area of 1765 km2 with the adequate number of uniform-sized cells of 7 km2 each.
Solution Size of the cluster, K = 4 (given)
Area of a cell, Acell = 7 km2 (given)
Step 1. To determine area of the cluster Area of a cluster, Acluster = K × Acell Therefore, Acluster = 4 ×
7 km2 = 28 km2
Step 2. To determine number of clusters in the service area Total service area, Asystem = 1765 km2
( given) Number of clusters in service area = Asystem / Acluster Number of clusters in service area =
1765 km2 / 28 km2 Number of clusters in service area = 63 Hence, the number of times the cluster of size
4 has to be replicated is 63.
Each cell size varies depending on the landscape. Typical size of a cell may vary from a few 100
metres in cities (or even less at higher frequencies) to several kilometres on the countryside. Smaller cells
are used when there is a requirement to support a large number of mobile users, in a small geographic
region, or when a low transmission power may be required to reduce the effects of interference. So typical
uses of small cells are in urban areas, low transmission power required, or higher number of mobile users.
It is clear that if the cell area is increased, the number of channels per unit area is reduced for the
same number of channels and is good for less populated areas, with fewer mobile users. Generally, large
cells are employed in remote areas, coastal regions, and areas with few mobile users, large areas that need
to be covered with minimum number of cell-sites. It may also be noted that the cell area and the boundary
length are important parameters that affect the handoff from a cell to an adjacent cell. A practical solution
for optimum cell size is to keep the number of channels per unit area comparable to the number of mobile
subscribers to be served within that cell.
EXAMPLE 4.3 Cell size and system capacity
(a) Assume a cellular system of 32 cells with a cell radius of 1.6 km, a total spectrum allocation that
supports 336 traffic channels, and a reuse pattern of 7. Calculate the total service area covered with this
configuration, the number of channels per cell, and a total system capacity. Assume regular hexagonal
cellular topology.
(b) Let the cell size be reduced to the extent that the same area as covered in Part (a) with 128 cells. Find
the radius of the new cell, and new system capacity. Comment on the results obtained.
Solution (a) To calculate total service area, number of channels per cell, and system capacity
Total number of cells in service area = 32 (given) Radius of a cell, R = 1.6 km (given)
Step 1. To calculate area of a regular hexagonal cell Area of a regular hexagonal cell,
Acell = 3√3 / 2 × R2 Therefore, Acell = 3√3 / 2 × (1.6 km)2 = 6.65 km2
Step 2. To calculate total service area
Total service area covered = no. of cells in total area × Area of a cell Hence, total service area covered =
32 × 6.65 = 213 km2
Step 3. To calculate number of channels per cell Total number of available traffic channels = 336 (given)
Frequency reuse pattern (cluster size) = 7 (given) Hence, number of channels per cell = 336/7 = 48
Step 4. To calculate total system capacity Total system capacity = number of channels per cell × number
of cells Hence, total system capacity = 48 × 32 = 1536 channels
(b) Total number of available cells = 128 (given) Total service area = 213 km2 (as calculated in Step 2)
Step 5. To determine area of new regular hexagonal cell
Area of a regular hexagonal cell = total service area / number of cells = 213 km2 / 128 = 1.66 km2
Step 6. To find radius of new smaller cell, R
Area of a regular hexagonal cell = 3√3 / 2 × R2 But, 3√3 / 2 × R2 = 1.66 km2 (as calculated in Step 5) Or,
R = 0.8 km Hence, radius of new smaller cell R = 0.8 km
Step 7. To find new system capacity
New system capacity = number of channels per cell × number of cells
New system capacity = 48 × 128 Hence, new system capacity = 6144 channels
Comment on the results It is observed that as the number of cells are increased from 32 to 128 to cover
the same service area (213 km2 ), the size of the cell (in terms of radius R) is decreased from 1.6 km to
0.8 km. Keeping the identical number of channels (48) per cell, total system capacity is significantly
increased from 1536 channels to 6144 channels. Hence, cell size is one of the major factors to determine
the system capacity for a given number of frequency channels allocated to serve the designated area.
4.3 Frequency Reuse Concept
What is the essence of cellular communication? As outlined previously, if a single base station serves a
wireless communication system, a high power transmitter is needed to support a large number of users.
Moreover, due to availability of limited RF spectrum, the maximum number of simultaneous users in this
system is also limited. If allocated RF spectrum or a given set of frequencies (frequency channels) can be
reused in a given large geographical service area without increasing the interference then the service area
can be divided into a number of small areas called cells, each allocated a subset of frequencies. With
smaller area coverage, lower power transmitters with lower height antennas can be used at a base station.
The conventional radio communication systems are faced with the problems of limited service
area capability and inefficient spectrum utilisation. This is because these systems are usually designed for
providing service in an autonomous geographic zone and by selecting RF channels from a specified
allocated frequency band. Contrary to this, the present mobile radio communication system are designed
for wide area coverage and high grade of service. At the same time, the systems are required to provide
continuous communication through an effective usage of available spectrum. This dictates that the mobile
radio network design must satisfy the objective of providing continuous and wide service area coverage
while optimally using the RF spectrum.
The increase in system capacity is achieved with the use of smaller cells, reuse of frequencies,
and cell sectoring. Frequency reuse is the core concept of the cellular communications. The design
process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all the cellular base stations within a system is
called frequency reuse. Thus, large coverage area, efficient spectrum utilisation and enhanced system
capacity are the major attributes of cellular communication. However, this requires proper system design
and complex operation of the cellular mobile system working in a hostile mobile propagation
environment and system interference in order to ensure the desired service performance.
In a mobile radio network designed on the basis of frequency reuse concept, it must be ensured
that the service area is adequately protected from the cochannel and the adjacent-channel interference.
The carrierto-interference ratio (C/I) requirements are considerably lower for digital systems as compared
to analog systems. It is seen that spectrum efficiency increases if the C/I value is lowered. This is due to
the fact that lowering the acceptable value of C/I reduces the frequency reuse distance and the reuse
pattern. The co channel interference can be controlled by geographical separation whereas adjacent-
channel interference depends on the receiver filter characteristics and out-of-band transmission.
A regular geometrical hexagonal pattern results in obtaining optimum area coverage and efficient
spectrum utilisation. The minimum value of cluster size provides optimum spectrum occupancy.
However, in actual design, due to physical limitations the location of base stations cannot follow the
regular geometrical hexagonal pattern. The resultant location errors distort the regular pattern, thereby
causing serious interference problems.
 Mobile users communicate only via the base stations. Each cell is allocated a finite number of
Radio Frequency (RF) channels, depending upon the number of simultaneous users required to be served.
This enables the cells that are located sufficiently physically apart to reuse the same set of frequencies,
without causing cochannel interference. However, each adjacent cell within a cluster operates on different
frequencies to avoid interference.
Cells, which use the same set of frequencies, are referred to as cochannel cells. The space
between adjacent cochannel cells is filled with other cells that use different frequencies to provide
frequency isolation.
A typical cluster of seven cells, each repeated seven times with frequency reuse, is illustrated in
Fig. 4.6.
If the system is not properly designed, cochannel interference may occur due to the simultaneous
use of the same channel. This is the major concern in frequency reuse. Specifically, if the available
channels are reused for additional traffic, it is possible to serve more number of users, thereby increasing
the system capacity within allocated RF spectrum, and hence enhancing spectrum efficiency as well. The
total number of channels available in a cellular system is finite because of limited RF spectrum allocation.
The capacity of a cellular system is defined by the total number of channels available, which depends on
how the available channels are deployed. So, the total number of available channels without frequency
reuse, N, is the allocated RF spectrum band divided by the number of RF channels having equal channel
bandwidth.
EXAMPLE 4.4 Frequency reuse and spectrum efficiency
Consider a single high-power transmitter that can support 100 voice channels covering a given service
area. Let the service area be divided into seven smaller areas (cells) as shown in Fig. 4.7, each supported
by lower power transmitters. The available spectrum of 100 voice channels is divided into 4 groups of 25
channels each. The cells (1, 7), (2, 4), (3, 5), and 6 are assigned distinct channel groups. Show that the
total number of channels that can be supported is enhanced to 175 to cover the same service area.
Comment on the results obtained.
Solution Total number of channels available, N = 100 (given)
Case 1. When a single high-power transmitter is used to cover the given service area
This implies that it is a non-cellular system. Hence, total number of channels in the system are limited to
100 only.
Case 2. When the service area is divided into seven cells
Number of distinct cells = 7 (given) Number of channel groups = 4 (given) Number of channels per
channel group = 25 (given)
Step 1. Allocation of channel groups to cells Let channel group 1 be allocated to cells 1 as well as 7;
channel group 2 be allocated to cells 2 as well as 4; channel group 3 be allocated to cells 3 as well as 5;
and channel group 4 be allocated to cell 6 (refer given Fig. 4.7).
Step 2. Total number of channels available in the specified cellular system
Total number of channels allocated to all cells is equal to the number of channels per channel group
multiplied by the number of distinct cells. That is, Total number of channels allocated to all cells = 25 × 7
Hence, total number of channels available = 175 channels
Comment on the results It is seen from the above example that the total number of channels that can be
supported by the given cellular system is increased to 175 from 100 in a non-cellular system to cover the
same service area. Hence, it can be concluded that ‘The theoretical coverage range and capacity of a
cellular communication system are unlimited, with optimum use of RF spectrum utilisation.’ ‘The
frequency reuse can drastically increase the spectrum efficiency, thereby increasing the system capacity.’

However, there is a need to address the following technical issues for proper design and planning of
cellular network:
• Selection of a suitable frequency reuse pattern
• Physical deployment and radio-coverage modeling
• Plans to account for the expansion of the cellular network
• Analysis of the relationship between the capacity, cell size, and the cost of the infrastructure
The reason for the complexity of the cellular system is, of course, frequency reuse. Once a mobile moves
out of the radio coverage of a cell, the channel pair it occupied for duplex communication link is now
available for another communication link in that cell. By making cells smaller, frequencies can be reused
at shorter distances. Typically, once the radius drops below about 0.5 km, the hand-offs occur so
frequently that it is difficult to cope with a mobile moving at high speed. The flexibility of cell sizes
allows for larger cells in less-developed areas and smaller cells in areas of higher traffic.
EXAMPLE 4.5 Frequency reuse and system capacity
A mobile communication system is allocated RF spectrum of 25 MHz and uses RF channel bandwidth of
25 kHz so that a total number of 1000 voice channels can be supported in the system.
(a) If the service area is divided into 20 cells with a frequency reuse factor of 4, compute the system
capacity.
(b) The cell size is reduced to the extent that the service area is now covered with 100 cells. Compute the
system capacity while keeping the frequency reuse factor as 4.
(c) Consider the cell size is further reduced so that the same service area is now covered with 700 cells
with the frequency reuse factor of 7. Compute the system capacity.
Comment on the results obtained
Solution Number of available voice channels, N = 1000 (given)
Step 1. To determine the cluster capacity We know that in a cellular system based on frequency-reuse
concept, all the given available channels, that is, 1000, are allocated to each cluster uniformly. Therefore,
each cluster can serve 1000 active users simultaneously.
In other words, the capacity of a cluster = 1000
(a) To compute the system capacity for given K Number of cells covering the area = 20 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 4 (given)
Step 2. To determine number of clusters Number of clusters = number of cells/cluster size Therefore,
number of clusters = 20/4 = 5
Step 3. To determine the system capacity The capacity of a cluster = 1000 (as calculated is Step 1)
Number of clusters = 5 (as calculated is Step 2)
Thus, number of channels in all 5 clusters = 1000 × 5 = 5000 Hence, the system capacity = 5000 users (b)
To compute new system capacity for increased number of cells. Number of cells covering the area = 100
(given) Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 4 (given)
Step 4. To determine number of clusters Therefore, number of clusters = 100/4 = 25
Step 5. To determine new system capacity Thus,
number of channels in all 25 clusters = 1000 × 25 = 25000 Hence, the new system capacity = 25000 users
(b)To compute new system capacity for increased number of cells and cluster size. Number of cells
covering the area = 700 (given) Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 7 (given)
Step 6. To determine number of clusters
Therefore, number of clusters = 700/7 = 100
Step 7. To determine new system capacity
Thus, number of channels in 100 clusters = 1000 × 100 = 100,000
Hence, the new system capacity = 100 000 users
Comments on the results It is observed that as the number of cells covering a given service area is
increased, the number of clusters having all available number of channels increases. This results into
significant increase in the number of active users in the system or the system capacity. Hence, it is
concluded that frequency reuse enhances system capacity.
4.4 Cluster Size And System Capacity
The K number of cells in the cluster would utilise all N available channels. In this way, each cell in
the cluster contains N/K number of channels only.
Alternately, the total number of channels available in a cluster, N is equal to the number of channels
per cell (J ≤ N) multiplied by the number of cells per cluster (K), that is,
N = J × K
(4.1)
In a cellular system, the whole geographical area where the cellular services are required to be
provided is divided into a number of clusters having a finite number of cells. The K cells in a cluster use
the complete set of available frequency channels.
Since N is the total number of available channels, it can be seen that a decrease in the cluster size K is
accompanied by an increase in the number of channels J allocated per cell. Thus, by decreasing the cluster
size, it is possible to increase the capacity per cell.
The cluster can be replicated many times to cover the desired geographical area by a cellular
communication system. The overall system capacity, C, can then be theoretically determined by simply
multiplying the number of clusters in a system (say M) with total number of channels allocated to a
cluster, N, i.e.,
C = M × N
(4.2)
Using the relationship N = J × K, we get
C = M × J × K
(4.3)
If K is decreased and J is proportionally increased so that C = M × J × K is satisfied, it is necessary to
replicate the smaller cluster more times in order to cover the same geographical service area. This means
the value of M has to be increased. Since J × K (=N) remains constant and M is increased, it shows that
the system capacity C is increased. That is, when K is minimised, C is maximised. But minimising K will
increase cochannel interference.
EXAMPLE 4.6 Cellular system capacity
Consider that a geographical service area of a cellular system is 4200 km2 . A total of 1001 radio
channels are available for handling traffic. Suppose the area of a cell is 12 km2 .
(a) How many times would the cluster of size 7 have to be replicated in order to cover the entire service
area? Calculate the number of channels per cell and the system capacity.
(b) If the cluster size is decreased from 7 to 4, then does it result into increase in system capacity?
Comment on the results obtained.
Solution Service area of a cellular system, Asys = 4200 km2 (given) Coverage area of a cell, Acell = 12
km2 (given) Total number of available channels, N = 1001 (given)
(a) To calculate number of clusters, cell capacity, and system capacity Cluster size, K = 7 (given)
Step 1. To calculate the coverage area of a cluster
The coverage area of a cluster, Acluster = K × Acell Therefore, Acluster = 7 × 12 km2 = 84 km2
Step 2. To calculate the number of clusters The number of times that the cluster has to be replicated to
cover the entire service area of cellular system = Asys Acluster Or, number of clusters, M = 4200 84
Hence, number of clusters, M = 50 clusters
Step 3. To calculate cell capacity Since total number of available channels are allocated to one cluster,
therefore, the number of channels per cell, J = N K Or, cell capacity, J = 1001 7 Hence, cell capacity, J =
143 channels/cell
Step 4. To calculate system capacity The system capacity, C = N × M Or, system capacity, C = 1001 × 50
Hence, the system capacity, C = 50 050 channels
(b) To calculate new system capacity for reduced K New cluster size, K = 4 (given)
Step 5. To calculate the coverage area of a new cluster The coverage area of a cluster, Acluster = K ×
Acell Therefore, Acluster = 4 × 12 km2 = 48 km2
Step 6. To calculate increased number of clusters
The number of times that the cluster has to be replicated to cover the entire service area of a cellular
system = Asys Acluster
Or, number of clusters, M = 4200 48 Hence, number of clusters, M = 87 (approx.) Step 7. To calculate
new system capacity The system capacity, C = N × M Or, system capacity, C = 1001 × 87 Hence, the
system capacity, C = 87 000 channels
Comments on the results From (a) and (b) above, it is seen that for decrease in cluster size from 7 to 4
results into an increase in number of clusters from 50 to 87 for a given service area. The system capacity
is increased from 50,050 channels to 87,000 channels. Therefore, decreasing the cluster size does increase
the system capacity. However, the average signal-to-cochannel interference also increases which has to be
kept at an acceptable level in order to achieve desirable signal quality.
Assume that the cell size is kept constant and a fixed spectrum per cluster is allocated. Then more number
of cells per cluster (that is, higher value of K) means
• Fewer channels per cell
• Less system capacity
• Less cochannel interference (cochannel cells farther apart)
And less number of cells per cluster (that is, lower value of K) means
• More channels per cell • More system capacity • More cochannel interference (cochannel cells closer
together) So it is desirable to choose reuse factor K to maximise capacity per area subject to interference
limitations.
EXAMPLE 4.7 Cluster and system capacity
A cellular communication service area is covered with 12 clusters having 7 cells in each cluster and 16
channels assigned in each cell.
Show that (a) the number of channels per cluster are 112
(b) the system capacity is 1344
Solution Number of clusters in the service area = 12 (given)
Number of cells in a cluster = 7 (given) Number of channels in a cell = 16 (given)
(a) To determine the number of channels per cluster
Number of channels in a cluster is given by the number of cells in a cluster multiplied by the number of
channels in a cell, that is, Number of channels in a cluster = 7 × 16 Hence, number of channels per cluster
= 112 channels/cluster
(b) To determine the system capacity
The system capacity is given by the number of clusters in a given area multiplied by the number of
channels in a cluster, that is, Number of channels in the system = 112 × 12 Hence, the system capacity =
1344 Channels/System.
4.5 Frequency Reuse Distance
Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is limited by cochannel interference
between cells and the cochannel interference can become a major problem in cellular communication. So
it is desirable to find the minimum frequency reuse distance D in order to reduce this cochannel
interference.
The minimum distance, which allows the same frequency to be reused in cochannel cells, will
depend on many factors such as
• the number of cochannel cells in the vicinity of the centre cell,
• the type of geographic terrain contour,
• the antenna height, and
• the transmitted power at each cell-site.
Assume that the size of all the cells is approximately same; the cell size is usually determined by
the coverage area of the signal strength in each cell. As long as the cell size is fixed, cochannel
interference is independent of transmitted power of each cell. It means that the received signal threshold
level at the mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell.
Actually, cochannel interference is a function of a parameter known as frequency reuse ratio, q,
and is defined as
q = D R
(4.14)
where D is the distance between two nearest cochannel cells marked as C1, and R is the radius of
the cells under consideration, as shown in Fig. 4.14. It may be noted here that this ratio is applicable for
any value of cluster size K.
The parameter q is also referred to as the cochannel reuse ratio or the cochannel reuse factor or
cochannel interference reduction factor or frequency reuse ratio.
EXAMPLE 4.10 Frequency reuse distance, D
Determine the distance from the nearest cochannel cell for a cell having a radius of 0.64 km and a
cochannel reuse factor of 12.
Solution The radius of a cell, R = 0.64 km (given)
The cochannel reuse factor, q = 12 (given)
To determine the distance from the nearest cochannel cell, D
We know that q = D R, Or, D = q × R
Therefore, D = 12 × 0.64 km = 7.68 km
Hence, the distance from the nearest cochannel cell D = 7.68 km Thus, the important parameters of the
network designed on cellular approach are
• Reuse pattern, K
• Reuse distance, D
• Frequency reuse factor, q
The frequency reuse factor determines the minimum distance for repeating a set of frequencies
and is expressed as q = D/R where R is the cell radius. The spectrum efficiency is most significantly
influenced by the frequency reuse factor. The concept of frequency reuse when applied, permits the
system to meet the important objective of serving a large area, while using a relatively small frequency
spectrum. But if the network is not designed properly, serious interferences may occur. To minimise
interference, there must be adequate spatial separation between cells that use the same frequencies and the
cells that use adjacent channel frequencies. The frequency assignment depends on the channel bandwidth,
modulation scheme adopted, reuse factor and the carrier-to-interference ratio requirements.
EXAMPLE 4.11 Frequency reuse ratio, q
Determine the frequency reuse ratio for a cell radius of 0.8 km separated from the nearest cochannel cell
by a distance of 6.4 km.
Solution The radius of a cell, R = 0.8 km (given)
The distance between nearest cochannel cells, D = 6.4 km (given)
To determine the frequency reuse ratio, q We know that q = D R Or, q = 6.4 0.8 = 8
Hence, the frequency reuse ratio for given parameters q = 8
The frequency reuse ratio q is related to the cluster size (or frequency reuse factor) K by q = D R = 3K
(4.15)
Theoretically, a large K is desired. However, the total number of allocated channels N is fixed.
When K is too large, the number of channels assigned to each of K cells becomes small. It is always true
that the total number of allocated channels N in a cluster is divided by K to calculate the system capacity
per cell. As K increases, system capacity per cell and hence spectrum efficiency will reduce significantly.
EXAMPLE 4.12 Relationship between frequency reuse ratio q and cluster size K
Illustrate and prove that for a regular hexagonal geometry,
the frequency reuse ratio is given by the relationship q = 3K where K = i2 + j2 + i × j; i and j being the
shift parameters.
Solution The geometry of an array of regular hexagonal cells is depicted in Fig. 4.15,
where R is the radius of the hexagonal cell (from its centre to one of its vertex). A hexagon has exactly
six equidistant neighbouring hexagons corresponding to six sides of the hexagon.
Step 1. Relation between d and R Let the distance between the centres of two adjacent hexagonal cells be
denoted by d. Then, using the trigonometry, it can be seen that d = 3R (4.16)
Step 2. Procedure of locating a cochannel cell The nearest cochannel hexagonal cell to the cell under
consideration can be located using shift parameters i, j in a regular hexagonal geometry. Figure 4.16
depicts the regular hexagonal geometry of one colocated cell. The procedure of locating a cochannel cell,
corresponding to any one side of the hexagon is as follows:
• Firstly, move i number of cells along the i axis from the centre of the hexagonal cell under consideration
(say point to point Y) along one side of hexagon.
• Secondly, turn 60 degrees counterclockwise.
• Then move j number of cells along j axis (point Y to point ) to locate the centre of the nearest cochannel
cell. Let D be the distance from the centre of the cell under consideration to the centre of a nearest
cochannel cell (that is, ).
Step 3. To derive the relation between D. d and shift parameters Applying cosine formula to Δ Y , we
have D2 = (i × d) 2 + ( j × d) 2 − 2 × (i × d) × ( j × d ) cos 120
Or, D2= (i×d) 2 + ( j×d) 2 − 2 × (i×d)× ( j×d) × (− ) Or, D2 = (i × d) 2 + ( j × d ) 2 + (i × d ) × ( j × d) Or,
D2 = d 2 (i 2 + j 2 + i × j) (4.17) Using Eq. (4.16), D2 = 3 × R2 × (i 2 + j 2 + i × j)
(4.18)
Step 4. To establish relationship between K and shift parameters
K = i 2 + j 2 + i × j (given) Substituting it in Eq. (4.18), we get D2 = 3 × R2 × K Or, D2 R2 = 3 × K Or, D
R = 3K By definition q = D R; therefore, we get q = 3K Thus, the frequency reuse ratio q can be
determined from the cluster size K (i.e., the number of cells per cluster).
q = D/R ratio is a parameter used to describe the frequency reuse factor for a cellular system. The
D/R ratio for any cellular system determines the reuse factor as well as the distance D between the
frequency reusing cell-sites and the radius R of the serving cell-sites. Table 4.2 illustrates standard
frequency reuse ratios for different cluster size, K.
Because the D/R measurement is a ratio, if the radius of the cell is decreased, the distance
between frequency reusing cochannel cells sites is also decreased in the same proportion for maintaining
same cochannel interference reduction factor. Conversely, if a cell has a large radius, the distance
between frequency reusing cells must be proportionally increased to maintain the same D/R ratio. Since q
increases with K and a smaller value of K has the effect of increasing the capacity of the cellular system.
But at the same time, this results into increase in cochannel interference. Hence the choice of q (or K).
has to be made such that the signal-to-cochannel interference ratio is at an acceptable level. If all the cell-
sites transmit the same power, then as K increases, the frequency reuse distance D increases. This
increased D reduces the possibility that cochannel interference may occur.
The frequency reuse method is useful for increasing the efficiency of spectrum usage but results
in cochannel interference because the same frequency channel is used repeatedly in different cochannel
cells. In most mobile radio environments, use of K = 7 is not sufficient to avoid interference. Increasing K
greater than 7 would reduce the number of channels per cell, and that would also reduce the spectrum
efficiency.
Now the challenge is to obtain the optimum value of K that can still meet the desired system
performance requirements in terms of system capacity, spectrum utilisation and signal quality. This
involves estimating cochannel interference and selecting the minimum frequency reuse distance D to
reduce cochannel interference.
4.7 Cochannel Interference And Signal Quality
The frequency reuse method is useful for increasing the efficiency of spectrum usage but results
in cochannel interference because the same frequency channel is used repeatedly in different cochannel
cells in a service area. In this situation, the received signal quality is affected by the amount of radio
coverage area as well as the cochannel interference.
The cochannel interference is caused due to the reuse of the same carrier frequency at different
geographical locations. Because cochannel interfering signals are amplified, processed and detected in the
same manner as the desired signal, the receiver is particularly vulnerable to these emissions. Thus,
cochannel interference may either desensitise the receiver or override or mask the desired signal. It may
also combine with the desired signal to cause serious distortions in the detected output.
The cochannel interference can then be measured by selecting any one channel (as one channel
represents all the channels) and transmitting on that channel at all cochannel sites. In a fully equipped
hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are always six cochannel interfering cells in the first tier. Figure
4.17 depicts a typical field measurement test set-up 1 to measure cochannel interference at the mobile
unit, in which the mobile unit is moving in its serving cell.
Let the symbol C, I, and N denote respectively the power of the desired signal, the power of the
cochannel interference, and the power of the noise at the output of the receiver demodulator. Cochannel
interference can be experienced both at the cell-site and at mobile units in the serving cell. If the
interference is much greater then the carrier to interference ratio C/I at the mobile units caused by the six
interfering cell-sites is (on the average) the same as the C/I received at the serving cell site caused by
interfering mobile units in the six cells. According to the reciprocity theorem and the statistical
summation of radio propagation, the two C/I values can be very close.

A channel-scanning mobile receiver records three received signals while moving in any one
cochannel cell, under the following conditions:
• When only the serving cell transmits (signal recorded is termed as C)
 • Cell-sites of all six cochannel cells only transmit (signal recorded is termed as I)
• No transmission by any cell-site (signal recorded is termed as N ) Let a value of C/I = 18 dB or
greater be acceptable in a cellular system. In general, the performance of such types of interference-
limited cellular system can be evaluated from the following results.
(a) If the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I is greater than 18 dB in most of the area being served by
a cell, the system is said to be properly designed.
(b) If C/I is less than 18 dB and carrier-to-noise ratio C/N is greater than 18 dB in some areas, the
system is said to have a cochannel interference problem.
(c) If both C/I and C/N are less than 18 dB and C/I is approximately same as C/N in a given area,
the system is said to have a radio coverage problem.
(d) If both C/I and C/N are less than 18 dB and C/I is less than C/N in a given area, the system is
said to have both cochannel interference as well as radio coverage problem.
In fact, the reciprocity theorem can be applied for the study of area coverage problem but not so
accurately for the study of cochannel interference problem at the cell-site. Therefore, it is recommended
to perform Test 2 to measure cochannel interference at the cell-site. In Test 2, the mobile unit is
transmitting in its serving cell as well as six mobile units are transmitting in cochannel cells
simultaneously at the same frequency channel. Figure 4.18 depicts a typical field measurement test set-up
2 to measure cochannel interference at the cell-site.
The received signal-level measurements are recorded at the serving cell-site, under the following
conditions:
– When only the mobile unit in the serving cell transmits (signal recorded is termed as C)
– Up to six interference levels are obtained at the serving cell-site from six mobile units
transmitting in six cochannel interfering cells (the statistical average signal recorded is termed as I)
– No transmission by any mobile unit (signal recorded is termed as N)
Then the C/I and C/N received at the serving cell site is computed. The test result analysis will be same as
obtained in Test 1. From the analysis of the results, it can be easily deduced whether the cellular system
has a radio coverage problem, or a cochannel interference problem or both.