CHAPTER NINE

9. Electric Current and Magnetism

9.1 Electric Current
The electric current is a flow of charge per unit time. Comparing it with water, a small
current is like trickle passing through a pipe; a really large current is like a river in flood.

 It can be denoted by capital letter ‘I’.

 It is SI unit is ampere (A).

1𝐴 = 1𝐶⁄𝑠

 It is scalar quantity.
Household appliances, such as toasters and kettles, run on a current of a few amperes. An
ampere is quite a sizeable flow of charge. Especially in electronic circuits, we also often
deal in milli-amperes (𝑚𝐴 = 10−3𝐴 ) or microamperes (𝜇𝐴 = 10−6𝐴).

The electric current is a stream of moving charges, not all moving charges constitute an
electric current. If there is to be an electric current through a given surface, there must be a
net flow of charge through that surface. Two examples clarify our meaning.

1. The free electrons (conduction electrons) in an isolated length of copper wire are in
random motion at speeds of the order of 106 m/s. If you pass a hypothetical plane
through such a wire, conduction electrons pass through it in both direction at the rate of
many billions per second-but there is no net transport of charge and thus no current
through the wire. However, if you connect the ends of the wire to a battery, you
slightly bias the flow in one direction, with the result that there now is a net transport
of charge and thus an electric current through the wire.
2. The flow of water through a garden hose represents the directed flow of positive
charge (the protons in the water molecules) at a rate of perhaps several million
coulombs per second. There is no net transport of charge, however, because there is a
parallel flow of negative charge (the electrons in the water molecules) of exactly the
same amount moving in exactly the same direction.
If charge flows at a rate of one ampere, and continues to flow like that for a second,
then the total amount of charge that has passed is one coulomb. This is how the size of
the coulomb is fixed; in terms of the ampere and the second.

1
Ambo University, Physics Department
 𝑸
𝑰= (𝟗. 𝟏)
𝒕
Where: I is the electric current in ampere, Q is the amount of charge in coulomb, t is the time in second.

Example 9.1 A charge of 180C passes through 1 minute. What is the electric current?
Given Required Solution
𝑄 = 180𝐶 𝑄180𝐶
𝐼 =? 𝐼= = = 3𝐴
𝑡 60𝑠
𝑡 = 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 60𝑠

Example 9.2 How long will a current of 4𝐴 take to pass 60𝐶 of charge?
Given Required Solution
𝐼 = 4𝐴 𝑡 =? 𝑄 60𝐶
𝑡= = = 15𝑠
𝑄 = 80𝐶 𝐼 4𝐴

 Galvanoscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of an electric current.

 Electron is a negatively charged particle that orbits round the nucleus of an atom.
 Ion is an atom bearing unequal numbers of electrons and protons.
 Conduction electrons are electrons in the conduction band of a solid, free to
move under the influence of an electric field.
 Insulator is a material that resists the flow of electric charge.
9.1.1 Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s law states that “the current that flows through a conductor is
proportional to the potential difference between its ends.”
 For a metal wire at a constant temperature, the current that flows through it is
proportional potential difference (the voltage drop) between its ends.
 It is named after Georg Ohm (1787−1854), a German Physicist who was one
of the first to investigate how currents flowed in circuits. Luckily there is a
letter in the Greek alphabet called ‘omega’, which provides the ideal
replacement: the abbreviation for ohms, therefore, is ‘Ω’, which is a capital
omega.
 Ohm is used to measure the resistance of materials.
9.1.2 Conductivity
 Conductivity is a way of measuring a material’s ability to allow an electric
current to flow.
 It is denoted by symbol 𝝈 and

 It is SI unit is Siemens per meter (𝑺⁄𝒎)

2
Ambo University, Physics Department
9.1.3 Resistivity
 Resistivity is a measure of how much a material resists the flow of an electric
current.
 Resistivity is a property of a material.
 It is denoted by symbol 𝝆
 It is SI unit is ohm meter (𝛀𝒎)
 The inverse of resistivity is conductivity.
𝟏
𝝆= (𝟗. 𝟐)
𝝈
 A material with a high resistivity will have a low conductivity and vice versa.
 The resistivity of most metals are in the range 10−7 Ω𝑚 to 108 Ω𝑚.
 The resistivity of an insulator such as dry polythene may be as high as
1015 Ω𝑚.

9.1.4 Resistance
Resistance is a property of a material that controls the amount of current that
flows through it.
 Resistance is a property of an object.
 It is denoted by capital letter R.
 It is SI unit is ohms (Ω)
The resistance of a metal wire at a given temperature is determined by the
following three factors:
 The resistance is proportional to 𝑙, so if the length doubles so does the
resistance.
 The resistance is inversely proportional to 𝐴, so a wire with twice the cross-
sectional area will have only half the resistance.
 The resistivity of the material from which the wire is made. A material with
higher resistivity will have a higher resistance.
The relationship between resistance 𝑅, resistivity 𝜌, length 𝑙 and cross-
sectional area 𝐴 of a conductor, then they are related by the equation:
𝝆𝒍
𝑹= (𝟗. 𝟑)
𝑨
Where: 𝑅 −is the resistance in Ω, 𝜌 − is the resistivity in Ω𝑚,
𝑙 −is the length in m, 𝐴 −is a cross−sectional area in 𝑚2

3
Ambo University, Physics Department
 Example 9.3 What is the resistance of a copper cable that has a cross-sectional area
of 1𝑐𝑚2 and a length of 2𝑘𝑚? The resistivity of copper is 2𝑥10−8Ω𝑚.

Given Required Solution

𝐴 = 1 𝑐𝑚2 = 1𝑥10−4𝑚2
𝑙 = 2𝑘𝑚 = 2𝑥103 𝑚 𝑅 =? 𝑅=
𝜌𝑙
=
(2𝑥10−8 Ω𝑚)𝑥(2𝑥103 𝑚)
= 0.4Ω
𝜌 = 2𝑥10−8Ω𝑚 𝐴 1𝑥10−4 𝑚2

Example 9.4 Constantan has a resistivity of 47𝑥10−8Ω𝑚. How much of this wire is
needed to make a 10Ω resistor if the diameter is 0.5 𝑚𝑚?

Given Required Solution

−8
𝜌 = 47𝑥10 Ω𝑚
𝑅 = 10Ω 𝑅𝐴 (10Ω)𝑥(1.96𝑥10−7 𝑚2 )
2 𝑙 =? 𝑙 = = = 4.17𝑚
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜌 47𝑥10−8 Ω𝑚
= (3.14)𝑥(0.25𝑥10−3𝑚)2
= 1.96𝑥10−7𝑚2

 Resistance can also be defined as the ratio of voltage dropped across the circuit to
the current flow through the circuit.
𝑽
𝑹= (𝟗. 𝟒)
𝑰
𝑉
1Ω = 1
𝐴

Example 9.5 A 12V battery is connected to a circuit. If the current is 2mA, what
must the resistance of the circuit be?

Given Required Solution

𝑉 = 12𝑉
𝑉 12𝑉
𝐼 = 2𝑥10−3 𝐴 𝑅 =? 𝑅= = = 6𝑘Ω
𝐼 2𝑥10−3 𝐴

Example 9.6 A 15V car battery is connected to a circuit for which the total resistance
is 7Ω. What current will flow?

Given Required Solution

𝑉 = 15𝑉 𝐼 =? 𝑉 15𝑉
𝐼= = = 2.5𝐴
𝑅 = 7Ω 𝑅 7Ω

4
Ambo University, Physics Department
Example 9.7 What voltage battery would be needed to send a current of 2𝐴 round a
circuit for which the total resistance is 5Ω?

Given Required Solution

𝐼 = 2𝐴 𝑉 =? 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (2𝐴)𝑥(5Ω) = 10𝑉
𝑅 = 5Ω
9.1.4.1 Electrical Resistance
The size of the current a cell will pump round a circuit depends on two things.
1. The electromotive force, or 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓., of that cell, measured in volts. Also adding a
second cell in series (the current passes through one cell then the other) with the
first makes a battery of cells, which has twice the 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. of a single cell, and the
charge will be pumped round the circuit at twice the rate. In the other way, the
current will double.
2. Determining the current is the circuit through which the cell must drive the charge.
We specify the resistance of a circuit by the number of volts of ‘battery power’ we
would need to get a current of 1𝐴 to flow round it. A low resistance circuit might
𝑉
need only 2V per ampere (2 ), say. This suggests that a 1𝑉 battery would produce
𝐴
a flow rate of 0.5𝐴 round it, or that to get a current of 3A going you would need to
𝑉
provide an 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. of 6𝑉. A less easy circuit might have a resistance of 200 ; in
𝐴
other words, as many as 200𝑉 would be needed to establish a current of just 1𝐴.
It is important to study the behavior of resistors in electrical circuits.
Generally;
in series: wiring an electrical circuit so that there is only one path for the current to
take between any two points.
Resistance: the opposition to a flow of current in an electrical circuit.
9.1.4.2 Measuring the resistance of a resistor
The principle is simple: apply a voltage across the resistor, and measure the size
of the resulting current. A suitable circuit is shown in figure below, where 𝑅 is the
resistor to be measured.

Figure 9.1 Measuring the resistance of a resistor.

5
Ambo University, Physics Department
 This figure 9.1 also shows the symbol of a variable resistor sometimes called a
‘rheostat’. By moving slider or rotating a knob you can alter its resistance. This in
turn will alter the total resistance of the whole circuit, and will therefore control the
current drawn from the battery which then passes through the ammeter.
In a lighting circuit a variable resistor would act a dimmer switch to make the bulb
fainter or brighter.
The ammeter may be placed anywhere in the circuit since the same current flows all
the way round. The voltmeter is not part of the circuit itself; it is placed alongside to
measure the drop in voltage between the two ends of 𝑅.
The variable resistor is not essential, but it enables you alter the voltage drop across
R and the current through it so as to get check readings.
If you try this activity for yourself, you should choose a resistor to measure that is
not significantly warmed by the current you send through it.
A length of resistance wire open to the air should do, but avoid using a light bulb.
In other words, if the voltage drop across the wire doubles, charge will flow through
it at exactly twice the rate.
 Conduction Electrons
We need to see the structure of an atom of a material that allows electric current to
flow (a conducting material). All its positive charges are located in the central part,
which is the nucleus. Each chemical element has a different number of positive
charges in its nucleus, from one to hundred. Example, copper has 29 positive
charges in the nucleus. Also copper atom has 29 negative electrons. The first two
electrons orbit in an innermost shell, the next eight fill a second shell and the
following 18 complete the third shell. That leaves a solitary electron as the first
member of a new fourth shell.
This electron in the outer shell allows copper to conduct electricity.
In a copper wire the atoms are packed close together, as they are in any other solid.
In each copper atom 28 of the electrons are still firmly bound in orbit around their
nucleus, fixed in its place in its place in the solid.

Figure 9.2 conduction electrons in copper metal.

6
Ambo University, Physics Department
  Current Density
 It is a vector quantity, which has both magnitude and direction.
 It is magnitude is the current per cross-sectional area.
 It is symbol is given by 𝐽⃗ .
𝑱⃗ = 𝝈𝑬⃗⃗⃗ (𝟗. 𝟓)
Where 𝐽⃗ is the current density, 𝜎 is the electric conductivity of a material &𝐸⃗⃗ is
the electric field.
𝐴
 It is SI unit is 2.
𝑚
Example 9.8 Find the approximate magnitude of current density when an electric field
of 5 𝑉 ⁄𝑚 is applied to a copper conductor. The conductivity of copper is
59.6𝑥106 𝑆⁄𝑚.
Given Required Solution
𝐸 = 5 𝑉 ⁄𝑚 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
𝐽 =?
= (59.6𝑥106 𝑆⁄𝑚)(5 𝑉 ⁄𝑚 )
𝜎 = 59.6𝑥106 𝑆⁄𝑚 𝐴
= 2.98𝑥108 2
𝑚

 Drift Velocity
When an electric field in the form of a voltage is applied, the electrons gain an
additional velocity, so that there is a net flow along the wire.
The average velocity that an electron reaches when an electric field is applied across
a conductor is called drift velocity.

Figure 9.3 Path of conduction electrons when there is a current

Drift velocity, 𝑣⃗𝑑 can be expressed as:
𝑱⃗
⃗⃗𝒅 =
𝒗 (𝟗. 𝟔)
𝒏𝒒
Where: 𝐽⃗ is the current density, 𝑛 is the number of charge carriers per unit
volume & 𝑞 is the elementary charge on the charge carriers.

7
Ambo University, Physics Department
Example 9.9 Find the number of charge carriers per unit volume in a copper wire of
cross−sectional area 1𝑚𝑚2 carrying a current of 3𝐴, if the drift velocity
𝑚
of the charge carriers is 0.00028 . (The elementary charge is 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶.)
𝑠

Given Required Solution

𝐴
𝐽 = 3𝑥106 𝐽
𝑚2 𝑛=
𝑛 =? 𝑞𝑣𝑑
𝑣𝑑 = 0.00028 m⁄s 𝐴
3𝑥106
= 𝑚2
(1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶 )(0.00028 𝑚⁄𝑠)
𝑞 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶
= 7𝑥1028

 Internal Resistance: the internal resistance of the battery is the electrical

resistance of the conducting materials of the battery and thus is an un removable
feature of the battery.
 It is represented by small letter “r”.
 It measures by Ohms (Ω).
 Potential Difference: it measures the difference in the amount of energy the
current is carrying either side of the component. This voltage drop across the
component tells us how much energy the component is transferring.
 It is defined as energy per unit charge.
𝑬
𝑽= (𝟗. 𝟕)
𝒒
It measured by volt (𝑽).
1𝑉 = 1J/C
The higher the voltage is the greater the amount of energy that can be transferred.
Voltage is a measure of the difference in electrical energy between two parts of a
circuit. Because the energy is transferred by the component there must be more
energy entering the component than there is leaving the component.
Voltage is sometimes called potential difference (𝑝. 𝑑).
 Electromotive Force: is a source of energy causing a current to flow in an
electric circuit.
It is measured by volt or voltmeter, the same as unit of potential difference, 𝑝. 𝑑.
A source of 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 produces a potential difference.

8
Ambo University, Physics Department
  As soon as the voltage is applied, there is an electromotive force on all the
electrons, which gets them moving. It’s a bit like a bicycle chain.
 Electrical circuits transfer energy from batteries to the other components. The
chemicals in the battery are a store of energy.
 When the circuit is complete the energy from the battery pushes the current around
the circuit and transfers the energy to the component, which can then work.
 The energy or push that the battery gives to the circuit is the voltage or
electromotive force of the battery.
The formula that relates 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. (𝐸), terminal 𝑝. 𝑑. (𝑉) and the internal resistance 𝑟:

𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝒓 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒓 (𝟗. 𝟖)

 Electric Power: the word ‘power’ here means the rate at which energy is
being supplied or converted.
Electric power is generated by electric generators and transferred using the power
grid.
It is measured in the units of joules per second (𝑱⁄𝒔) or watt (𝑾).
The electrical energy produced by a current of 𝐼 amperes flowing through a 𝑝. 𝑑. of
𝑉 for a time t, it is given by: 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
Then, power is defined as the time rate of energy transferred. It is given by:
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 (𝟗. 𝟗)

1𝑊 = 1 𝐽⁄𝑠 = 1𝑉𝐴 = 1Ω𝐴2

Example 9.10 If the potential difference across a working electrical motor is 55𝑉 and the
current is 3𝐴, find the power of the motor.
Given Required Solution
𝑉 = 60𝑉 𝑃 =? 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 == (55𝑉 )(3𝐴) =165W
𝐼 = 3𝐴

Example 9.11 A 80W light bulb is switched on for 4 minutes. How many joules of
electrical energy does it convert in to heat and light in that time?
Given Solution
Required
𝑃 = 80𝑊 𝐸 =? 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 80𝑊𝑥240𝑠 = 19,200𝐽
𝑡 = 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 240𝑠
9
Ambo University, Physics Department
Example 9.12 A battery has an 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. of 12𝑉 and an internal resistance of 3Ω. Find
a) The current it supplies to the resistor, 𝑅, with value 12Ω
b) Power used in the external resistor
c) The percentage of the total power wasted in the internal resistance

Given Required Solution

𝐸. 𝑚. 𝑓 = 12𝑉 𝐸.𝑚.𝑓 12𝑉
a) 𝐼 =? a) 𝐼 = = = 0.8𝐴
𝑅𝑇 15Ω
𝑟 = 3Ω, 𝑅 = 12Ω b) 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐼 2𝑅 = (0.8𝐴)2𝑥12Ω = 7.68𝑊
b) 𝑃𝑅 =?
Also 𝑃𝑟 = (0.8𝐴)23Ω = 1.92𝑊
𝑅𝑇 = r + R = 15Ω 𝑃𝑇 = 7.68𝑊 + 1.92𝑊 = 9.6𝑊
c) %𝑃𝑟 =?
1.92𝑊
c) %𝑃𝑟 = ( )𝑥100% = 20%
9.6𝑊

 Cost of Electrical Energy

 Electricity is distributed to homes and business.
 The quantity supplied is measured in kilowatt hours (𝑘𝑊ℎ).
 A kilowatt hour is the energy used by a 1kW appliance working for 1hour.
 Consumers of electricity are charged for each kWh used.
For example: how many joules are there in 1kWh?
Solution: 1𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 1000𝑊 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟(3600𝑠)
Then (1000𝑊 )𝑥 (3600𝑠) = 3600000𝑊𝑠 = 3600000𝐽 = 3.6𝑀𝐽

9.2 Measuring Instruments

Different instruments are used for different kinds of measurements in electric
circuits. So that ammeters used to measure current, ohms used to measure
resistance, voltmeters used to measure p.d, galvanometers used to measure an
electric current and etc.
The greater the current flowing around the coil of an electric motor, the more
strongly it will try to turn. This suggests a way to measure the size of a
current: let it flow through a motor, and make the coil try to turn while it is
held back by a spring. The bigger the current, the further the coil will
manage to stretch the spring.

10
Ambo University, Physics Department
 (a) (b)
Figure 9.4 the moving coil galvanometer
In figure 9.4 (a) shows the coil of the instrument. This is the basis of the moving coil
galvanometer. The current can be fed into the coil and out again via the hairspring at top
and bottom, no commutator is needed in this case because the rotation of the coil is
restricted to just a fraction of a turn.
In figure 9.4 (b) shows a view of the complete arrangement from above. The coil can
rotate inside the gap of a steel horse-shoe magnet whose pole pieces are curved. The soft
iron cylinder which sits in the middle of the coil itself gets turned into a magnet because
of the presence of the permanent magnet; one of its effects is to increase the strength of
the field within the gap.
The basic galvanometer described can be converted into an ammeter by adding a low
resistance ‘shunt’, which is usually fitted inside the causing of the instrument and consists
of a short length of quite thick wire as shown in figure below. Most of the current takes
this low resistance shunt route, and only a tiny proportion trickles through the coil to
rotate the pointer.

Figure 9.5 Conversion to an ammeter

Example 9.13 A galvanometer of resistance 50Ω and full-scale deflection 5𝑚𝐴 is to be
is to be made into a 0 − 10𝑉 voltmeter as shown in figure below. How
can this be done?

11
Ambo University, Physics Department
 Given Required Solution
𝑅 = 50Ω 𝑉 10V
𝑅𝑥 =? 𝑅𝑇 = = = 2000Ω
𝐼 0.005𝐴
𝑉 = 10V
𝐼 = 5𝑚𝐴 Then 𝑅𝑥 = 2000Ω − 50Ω = 1950Ω

Example 9.14 An ammeter of resistance 𝑅3 is added to the circuit as shown in the figure.
Before the ammeter was added, the current in the circuit was 0.03𝐴. When the ammeter
is added, it reads 0.02𝐴. Calculate the resistance of the ammeter.

Given Required Solution

𝑝. 𝑑 = 12𝑉 𝑉 12V
𝑅3 =? 400Ω + 𝑅3 = = = 600Ω
𝐼 0.02𝐴
𝐼 = 0.02𝐴 Then 𝑅3 = 600Ω − 400Ω = 200Ω

Example 9.15 Two heating coils A and B produce heat at a rate of 1𝑘𝑊 and 2𝑘𝑊,
respectively, when connected to 260𝑉 mains.
a) Calculate the resistance of each resistor.
b) Find the power they would produce when connected in series to mains.

12
Ambo University, Physics Department
 Given Required Solution
a) For the 1st resistor
𝑃𝐴 = 1𝑘𝑊 a) 𝑅1 =? 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 ⟹ 1000𝑊 = 270𝑉𝑥𝐼

𝑅2 =? ⟹ 𝐼 = 3.7𝐴
𝑉 270𝑉
𝑅1 = = = 73Ω
𝐼 3.7𝐴
𝑃𝐵 = 2kW For the 2nd resistor
b) 𝑃 =?
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 ⟹ 2000𝑊 = 270𝑉𝑥𝐼
⟹ 𝐼 = 7.4𝐴
𝑉 270𝑉
𝑉 = 270𝑉 𝑅2 = = = 36.5Ω
𝐼 7.4𝐴
b) In series total resistance is
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 73Ω + 36.5Ω
= 109.5𝛺
𝑉 𝑉 270𝑉
Then 𝑅𝑇 = ⟹𝐼= = = 2.5𝐴
𝐼 𝑅𝑇 109.5Ω

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 270𝑉𝑥2.5𝐴 = 675𝑊
9.2 Electric Circuit (series, parallel)
9.2.1 Series Circuit
In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path for
electrons to flow. That is, when two or more resistors are connected in series, the
total amount of current flowing through the circuit is equal to the currents in the
individual resistors. This can be put as
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑 = (𝟗. 𝟏𝟎)
Whereas, the total amount of voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltage
across the individual resistors:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + (𝟗. 𝟏𝟏)
Hence, the total or equivalent resistance of the circuit can be calculated using Ohm’s law
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 (𝟗. 𝟏𝟐)
Substituting Eq. (9.12) into Eq. (9.11) yields
𝑰𝑻 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 𝑹𝟑 (𝟗. 𝟏𝟑)
In view of Eq. (9.10), the current can be eliminated and total resistance will be;
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 (𝟗. 𝟏𝟒)

13
Ambo University, Physics Department
 Figure 9.6 Three resistors in series combination
This relationship indicates that the equivalent resistance of a series connection of
resistors is the numerical sum of the individual resistances and is always greater than
any individual resistance.
Example 9.16: Two resistors of resistance 30Ω and 50Ω are connected in series to a 8𝑉
cell. Calculate:
a) the total resistance in the circuit
b) the current in the circuit
c) the 𝑝. 𝑑. across the 50Ω resistor
Given Required Solution
a) 𝑅𝑇 =? a) 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 80Ω
𝑉 = 8𝑉 b) 𝐼 =? 𝑉 8𝑉
𝑅1 = 30Ω, b) I= = = 0.1𝐴
c) 𝑝. 𝑑 =? 𝑅 80Ω
𝑅2 = 50Ω 𝑐) 𝑝. 𝑑 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.1𝐴𝑥50 Ω = 5V
Example 9.17 When an ammeter is added to a circuit to measure the current it acts as a
series resistor of resistance 𝑅. The circuit in figure below consists of a 12𝑉 supply of
negligible internal resistance connected to two equal resistors and the ammeter A.
a) Write down the total resistance in the circuit 𝑖) before 𝑖𝑖) after the ammeter is added.
b) Show that the current before the ammeter is added is 30𝑚𝐴.
c) The ammeter reads 24𝑚𝐴 when it is in the series. Calculate its resistance 𝑅.

14
Ambo University, Physics Department
 Given Required Solution
𝑝. 𝑑 = 12𝑉 a) i) 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 400Ω
b) 𝑖) 𝑅𝑇 =?
𝑅1 = 200Ω, ii) 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 400Ω + 𝑅
𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑇 =? 𝑉 12𝑉
𝑅2 = 200Ω b) I= = = 30𝑚𝐴
𝑅 400Ω
b) 𝐼 = 30𝑚𝐴? 𝑉 12𝑉
−3 𝑐) 𝑅𝑇 = 400Ω + 𝑅 = =
𝐼 = 24𝑥10 𝐴 𝐼 24𝑥10−3𝐴
c) 𝑅 =? 𝑅 = 500Ω − 400Ω = 100Ω
9.2.2 Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other, forming exactly
two sets of electrically common points. That is, when two or more resistors connected
in parallel the total amount of current flowing through the circuit is equal to the sum
of currents in the individual resistors. That is,
𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + ⋯ (𝟗. 𝟏𝟓)
Whereas, the total amount of voltage across the circuit is equal to voltage drop across
the individual resistors:
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑 = ⋯ (𝟗. 𝟏𝟔)
The total or equivalent resistance of the circuit can be calculated using Ohm’s law as:
𝑽
𝑰= (𝟗. 𝟏𝟕)
𝑹
Substituting this into equation Eq. (9.15) and simplify it and it yields
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝑻 = (𝟗. 𝟏𝟖)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

Figure 9.7 Three resistors in parallel combination

We can see from this expression that the inverse of the equivalent resistance of two or
more resistors connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the inverses of the
individual resistances. Furthermore, the total resistance is always less than the
smallest resistance in the group.

15
Ambo University, Physics Department
Exercise: Draw the three resistors in parallel circuit and determine the values of
𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , & 𝑅3. If 𝑅2 = 2𝑅1, 𝑅3 = 2𝑅2 & the total resistance is 18Ω and 𝑝. 𝑑. is
22𝑉, what is the current flow?
Example 9.18: Calculate the total resistance of the network of resistors as shown in
figure below.

Given Required Solution

Since 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 in parallel, then
𝑅1 = 100Ω, 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + ⟹ 𝑅12𝑇 = 20Ω
𝑅𝑇 =? 𝑅12𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 100Ω 25Ω
𝑅2 = 25Ω,
Also 𝑅4 & 𝑅5 in parallel,
𝑅3 = 50Ω, 1
=
1
+
1
=
1
+
1
⟹ 𝑅45𝑇 = 13Ω
𝑅45𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 26Ω 26Ω
𝑅4 = 𝑅5 = 26Ω
Now 𝑅12𝑇 , 𝑅3 & 𝑅45𝑇 in series, so that
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅12𝑇 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅45𝑇 = 20Ω + 50Ω + 13Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 83Ω
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
There are two types of Kirchhoff’s rule. These are Kirchhoff’s junction and loop
rules.
 Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
 When an electric current arrives at a junction, the current divides into two or
more parts, with some electrons going in one direction and the rest going
along the other paths. This is true no matter how complicated the junction or
the circuit may be.
 Electrons cannot appear or disappear so charge is said to be conserved.
 A battery does not produce electric charge; it simply pumps the charge around
the circuit.

16
Ambo University, Physics Department
  A large number of electrons enter the battery at the positive terminal every
second, and the same number leave the battery at the negative terminal every
second.
 Similarly, the rate at which electrons arrive at one end of a wire is exactly the
same as the rate at which they leave the other.
Generally, Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that “the total current flowing into a
point is equal to the total current flowing out of that point.”

Figure 9.8 Kirchhoff’s junction rule

From this figure 9.8 we can see that 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 (𝟗. 𝟏𝟗)
Note that: 𝐼3 has a negative sign. By convention, currents going into a junction are
positive but currents leaving a junction are negativ. The sum of the currents at any
junction is zero.
Example 9.19: From figure below shows part of a circuit network. State the value of the
current in each of the resistors A, B, and C.

Solution: Resistor A has the full 4𝐴 flowing through it.

For resistor B, we need to consider junction x. since 4𝐴 enter from the left,
Kirchhoff’s junction rule states that 2𝐴 must enter from the right, as shown in
figure (a) below.

(a) (b)

17
Ambo University, Physics Department
 For resistor C, we need to consider junction y. there are 3𝐴 flowing into the
junction, so a total of 3𝐴 must leave the junction. In the figure (a) above, we see
that 2𝐴 flow through B, leaving 1𝐴 to flow through C.
 Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
We can consider 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. to be energy per unit charge transferred into electrical
energy and 𝑝. 𝑑. to be energy transferred from electrical energy.
This rule states that “in any closed loop in a circuit the sum of the 𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇.s is
equal to the sum of the 𝒑. 𝒅. 𝒔”

Figure 9.9 Kirchhoff’s loop rule

We assume that the battery has negligible internal resistance. If we apply
Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the complete loop from the battery to 𝑅1 and back again to
the battery, as shown in the figure 9.9 above, then the 𝑝. 𝑑. across the resistor
equals the 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. of the battery.
This is true for each resistor, so if we now apply Kirchhoff’s junction rule we get
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉
Since 𝐼 = where R is the total resistance, we get
𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Example 9.20: find the current that flows in each of the resistors in the circuit
shown in figure below.

18
Ambo University, Physics Department
Solution: start by drawing the diagram with the different currents marked as
shown in figure below.

Applying the Kirchhoff’s loop rule we can say that the 𝑝. 𝑑. between points A and
C is 12V. Now we need to find the current 𝐼. We can do this by first working out
the effective resistance in the circuit.
The resistance of the parallel combination is given by:
1 1 1 2 1 3
= + = + =
𝑅 15 30 30 30 30
⟹ 𝑅 = 10Ω
The total resistance can be, 𝑅𝑇 = 10Ω + 14Ω = 24Ω
𝑉 12𝑉
Then 𝐼 = = = 0.5𝐴
𝑅 24Ω
Now to find 𝑝. 𝑑. b/n points B and C in order to find 𝐼1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2
1st let find 𝑝. 𝑑. between A and B.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 0.5𝐴𝑥14Ω = 7𝑉
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule again, this means that the 𝑝. 𝑑. between B and C
must be 𝑉 = 12𝑉 − 7𝑉 = 5𝑉
𝑉 5𝑉 5 5𝑉 5
So since 𝐼 = then 𝐼1 = = 𝐴 and 𝐼2 = = 𝐴
𝑅 15Ω 15 30Ω 30
Example 9.21: Evaluate the currents flowing in each of the resistors in the circuit
shown in figure below.

Given: Required:
𝑉1 = 3𝑉, 𝑉2 = 6𝑉, 𝑉3 = 9𝑉 𝐼1 =?, 𝐼2 =?, 𝐼3 =?,
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 = 10Ω,

19
Ambo University, Physics Department
 Solution: first let label the diagram as shown in figure below

At junction A, using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 (9.20)

In loop 1, applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, 𝑉1 − 𝐼1𝑅4 − 𝐼2𝑅2 − 𝐼1𝑅1 =0
Substituting the values in the Eq., we have
3𝑉 − 10𝐼1 − 6𝑉 − 10𝐼2 − 10𝐼1 = 0
−3𝑉 = 20𝐼1 + 10𝐼2 (9.21)
In loop 2, 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 − 𝐼2𝑅2 − 𝐼2𝑅3 = 0
9𝑉 − 6𝑉 − 10𝐼2 − 10𝐼2 = 0
3𝑉 = 20𝐼2
𝐼2 = 0.15𝐴 (9.22)
Using Eq. (9.22) in Eq. (9.21), we have
−3𝑉 = 20𝐼1 + 10Ω𝑥0.15𝐴 ⟹ 20𝐼1 = −4.5𝑉
𝐼1 = −0.225𝐴 (9.23)
Substituting, Eqs. (9.22) and (9.23) in to Eq. (9.20), we find 𝐼3

𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 ⟹ 0.15𝐴 = −0.225𝐴 + 𝐼3 ⟹ 𝐼3 = 0.375𝐴

Therefore: 𝐼1 = −0.225𝐴, 𝐼2 = 0.15𝐴 & 𝐼3 = 0.375𝐴

 The Wheatstone Bridge
The basic concept of the Wheatstone bridge is that two voltages or potential,
dividers in the same circuit are both supplied by the same input. The circuit output
is taken from both voltage divider outputs, as shown in figure 9.9, below.

Figure 9.10 A Wheatstone bridge circuit

20
Ambo University, Physics Department
The galvanometer can be connected between the output terminals, and used to
monitor the current flowing from the output voltage divider to the other. If the two
𝑅1 𝑅3
voltage dividers have exactly the same ratio ( = ), then the bridge is said to be
𝑅2 𝑅4
balanced and no current flows in either direction through the galvanometer.
If one of the resistors changes even a little bit in value, the bridge will becomes
unbalanced and current will flow through the galvanometer. Thus, the
galvanometer becomes a very sensitive indicator of the balance condition.
An unknown resistor, 𝑅𝑥 , is connected as the fourth side of the circuit, as shown in
figure below, and power is applied, 𝑅2 is adjusted until the galvanometer, 𝐺 reads
zero current. At this point,
𝑹
𝑹𝒙 = 𝑹𝟑 ( 𝟐 ) (𝟗. 𝟐𝟒)
𝑹𝟏

Example 9.22 A Wheatstone bridge circuit is set up as shown in figure below. It is

balanced. What is the unknown resistance, 𝑅𝑥 ?

Given Required Solution

𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 100Ω 𝑅𝑥 =? 𝑅 100Ω
𝑅3 = 200Ω 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅3 ( 1 ) = 200Ω ( ) = 200Ω
𝑅2 100Ω

21
Ambo University, Physics Department
9.3. Sources of magnetic field

9.3.1. Review of Magnetic fields

Magnetic field is a region where magnets exert force. It is a vector quantity and its magnitude
depends on the strength of the magnet which produced it. Note that the area where the magnetic
field has the same strength is shown by the magnetic field lines also known as the magnetic flux
lines. The magnetic field lines always points from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole
of the magnet.

The north pole and the south pole of a magnet cannot be isolated into a single monopole. No matter how
many times a parmanent magnet is cut, each piece always has a north pole and a south pole, forming the
magnetic dipole moment (simply magnetic moment)

The strength of a magnetic field is also indicated by the quantity of flux ( ) through any given area. Flux
is measured in Webers (Wb). To find thye flux for a particular region you multiply the area of the region
by the component of the flux density perperdicular to the area:

Example; A bar magnet causes a magnetic field with a strength of at an angle of to the region
of area A, how much flux will be contained by this region if the area is .

Given:

Required:

Solution: ( )

9.3.2. Magnetic properties of Matter

Magnetism – is the term used to describe how the atoms of materials respond to a magnetic field.

Diamagnetism – is a property of all materials that indicates the tendency of a material to oppose an
applied magnetic field.

Paramagnetic materials – are materials that have unpaired electrons, which will tend to align themselves
in the same direction as the applied magnetic field, thus reinforcing it.

Ferromagnetic materials – are materials that have unpaired electrons, which will align with the applied
magnetic field and parallel to each other. They keep this alignment even when the applied field is
removed. Some examples of ferromagnetic materials are: iron, cobalt, nickel, and their alloys.

9.3.3. Sources of magnetic fields

There are different sources of magnetic fields such as a bar magnet, magnetic fields of the earth,
a moving charge, and an electric current. We will see these sources of magnetic fields one by
one.

(a) Bar magnets

A bar magnet has a north pole and a south pole as shown in Figure below and also note that
the magnetic field lines points from the north pole to the south pole. Note also that like poles
repel each other and unlike poles attracts each other.

In summary, the nature of the magnetic field lines due to the bar magnet is as follows.

1. The end of the magnet from which the magnetic field lines emerges is the north pole
of the magnet, and the end into which the magnetic field lines enter is the south pole.
2. The magnetic field lines form closed loop. The magnetic field lines do not begin or
end anywhere in the way. As usual, the magnetic field lines never intersect, or
should they begin or end on anything but sources and sinks.
3. Isolated magnetic poles or magnetic monopoles, do not exist.
4. Since there is no such “magnetic charge” that act as source or sink of magnetic field
lines, the magnetic field lines of any kind of magnetic field must always form closed
loop.
(b) Magnetic fields of the Earth

The Earth can be thought of as a huge magnet. The geographic north pole is the south pole of
the magnet, and the geographic south pole is the north pole of the magnet. Hence, the needle
on a compass will be attracted to the geographic north pole.

There is no simple answer to the question “where does the Earth’s magnetism come from?”
We can form a theory that circulating electric currents in the molten iron core of the Earth
produce the magnetic field. We do not know how this “dynamo effect” works in detail, but
the rotation of the Earth plays a part in generating the currents that are presumed to be the
source of the magnetic field.

Except near the equator, the field liens of the Earth’s magnetic field are at an angle to the
Earth’s surface. At the magnetic poles, the field lines pass through the Earth’s surface
vertically. However, at any other point on the Earth’s surface the Earth’s magnetic field has a
vertical and a horizontal component.
 The strength of the field at the Earth’s surface ranges from less than 30, 000 nT Americal and
South Africa to over 60, 000 nT around the magnetic poles in norther Canada and sourth of
Australia, and in part of Sibera. Near the poles, the field strength diminishes with the inverse
square of the distance, i.e., at a distance of R Earth radii it only amounts to ⁄ of the
surface field in the same direction, whereas at greater distances, such as in outer space, it
diminishes with the cube of the distance. Where the prime meridian intersects with the
equator, the field strength is about .

(c) Moving charged particle

A moving charged particle creates a magnetic field. When a charge is forced to move in an
external manetic field, it experiences a deflection due to the magnetic field it produces.

(d) Electric current

Current flowing through a coil of wire generates a magnetic field at the centre of a coil, and this
field deflects a magnetic compass needle. The instrument derives its name from the fact that the
current is proportional to the tangent of the angle of the needle’s deflection. The magnetic field
produced due to this current is given by:

where is the number of turns of the coil, is the current through it and is the radius of the
coil. Note that

9.4. Magnetic Force

9.4.1. Magnetic force from motion of charged particles in a magnetic field

A charged particle moving in a magnetic field will create a force ⃗ . The magnitude of this force
depends on:

 The speed of the particle, ⃗

 The strength of the magnetic field, ⃗⃗.

The force can be calculated using the vector cross product

⃗ (⃗ ⃗⃗ )

From the definition of the vector cross product, we can say that the magnitude of the force is
where is the angle between ⃗ and ⃗⃗. We can find the direction of the force by using the right
hand rule.

Example: (a) Find the size of the force felt by an electron travelling perpendicular to the Earth’s
magnetic field at 500 m/s. (The charge on an electron is and the magnitude of the
Earth’s magnetic field is .) (b) In what direction will the force act?

Given: ⃗

Required: The size of the force, F

Solution: The magnetic force due of a moving charge is given by

( )( )( ) ( )

Example: Find the size of the force felt by an electron travelling at an angle of to the Earth’s
magnetic field at . (The charge on an electron is and the magnitude of
the Earth’s magnetic field is .)

Given: ⃗

Required: The size` of the force, F

Solution: The magnetic force due of a moving charge is given by

( )( )( ) ( )

Magnetic force from a particle moving in both electric and magnetic fields

Particles can move in both magnetic and electric fileds. If a particle is simply moving in an
electric field, then you know that

where is the force experienced by the particle, is the strength of the magnetic field and is
the charge on the particle.

There are useful devices that use a conmbination of electric and magnetic fields. An example is a
velocity selector. This device uses a combination of electric and magnetic fields to trap particles
moving at different speeds. When the force on a particle as a result of the electric field is the
same as the force on the particle as a result of the magnetic field

Hence
Note that if the angle between the magnetic field and the direction of the velocity of the
electron is , then the above equation becomes

Example: Find the speed of an electron travelling at to the electric and magnetic fields in a
velocity selector operating with an electric field of 3 kV and a magnetic field of 3 T.

Given:

Required: The speed v of the electron.

Solution: The speed of the electron moving in both electric and magnetic fields is given by

When the electron beam is accelerated by the potential difference between the cathode and
anode, its kinetic energy is given by:

If we equate this to the expression for involving E and B, and square both sides, we get

Example: (a) Find the charge mass ratio for an electron accelerated through 600 V in a magnetic
field of strength 45 mT where the speed of the electron is . (b) What is the
percentage difference between your result and the accepted ratio with the values
and

Given:

Required: (a) The charge mass ratio, (b) The percentage of the error,

Solution: (a) The charge mass ratio is

 ( )

(b) The ratio with the accepted values is

The percentage difference is

Circular motion of particles in magnetic fields

From the right hand rule, you know that the force on a charged particle is always at right angles
to the direction of its velocity. The force, therefore, acts as a centripetal force and so the particle
follows a circular path.

You know that and the centripetal force is , where r is the radius of the
circular path and solving for r from these equations, we have

The period T of the circular path is

And the frequency of oscillation is

The angular velocity is

9.4.2. Magnetic force on current carrying conductors (long, straight and circular loops)

When a charge travels a length l in a conducting wire, the speed of the charge can be replaced by
and then the magnetic force becomes . We also know that the current
flowing through the wire within time t is given by . Then by substitution, we
obtain

( ) ( )

The direction of the force is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field and is given by
the right hand rule as shown in Figure below.

Example; A student sets up a jumping wire demonstration to impress her younger cousin. She
uses a wire with a current of 1.5 A running through it, and a pair of magnets, which have a
magnetic field of 0.75 mT. She is a bit careless in setting up and 5 cm of the wire hangs across
the field at an angle 0f . (a) How much force does the wire experience? (b) If it has a mass of
7.5 g, how fast will it accelerate initially?

Given:

Required: (a) The magnetic force F, and (b) the speed v

Solution: (a) The magnetic force is given by:

(b) Using the equation , we obtain

The magnitude and direction of torque acting on a current loop

Consider a rectangular loop of wire in a uniform magnetic field, as shown in Figure below. The
sides with length a are parallel to the magnetic field and so they do not experience a force since
. The sides with length b are perpendicular to the magnetic field and so each will
experience a force of magnitude
However, since the direction of the current is opposite on each side, the direction of the force
will be opposite so there is no net force. However, there will be a resultant torque . This torque
acts about the axis and is given by

The area of the loop, , is ab, and so the torque is given by

This is the maximum torque, when the field is in the plane of the loop. In general the torque is
given by

( ⃗ ⃗⃗ )

where is the angle between the plane of the loop and the field as shown in the figure.

Example: Find the torque on a loop of wire of area at to a magnetic field of strength
30 mT with a current of 2 A flowing through it.

Given:

Required: The torque

Solution: The torque is given by

( ) ( ) ( )

Magnetic dipole moment

A current loop creates a magnetic dipole moment. A dipole moment is defined as

( ). If we consider a coil of wire consisting of N loops, then the magnetic
moment, of such a coil is given by
The direction of the magnetic moment is given by the right hand rule. When a magnetic dipole
moment is placed in a magnetic field (B), it experiences a torque. This torque is given by the
equation

Example: (a) Find the magnetic dipole moment on a coil of wire with 100 turns each of area
at to a magnetic field of strength 30 mT with a current of 2A flowing through it. (b)
Find the torque on the coil described in part (a).

Given:

Required: (a) The magnetic dipole moment and (b) the torque

Solution: (a) The magnetic dipole moment is given by:

(b) The torque is given by

( ) ( )

The magnetic field produced by an electric current in a long straight conductor

You know that the magnetic field around a long straight wire takes the form of concentric circles
around the wire as shown in the figure below

The strength of the magnetic field B depends on

 The current, I, flowing through the conductor

 The inverse of the distance from the conductor, r

Mathematically, we can write this as

It has been found that the values of k depends on the value known as the permeability of free
space, and the inverse of the . So, .

We can see that for a straight current – carrying conductor

The magnetic force between two wires

If two identical parallel wires each carry current, as shown in Figure below, then each will exert
a force F on the other

The magnetic field in wire 2 from is given by

The force on length of wire 2 is given by

The force per unit length in terms of the currents is therefore