DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS

&
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

IV SEMESTER LAB

MANUAL

(2022 Scheme)

Communication Lab – BECL404

Prepared By:

Dr. Suprith P G, Assistant Professor, ECE

Lab Instructor:
Mr. Srinivasa T, Technical Staff, ECE
Mr. Yelliger, Tecnical Staff, ECE

Approved by

Dr. Somashekhar,
Associate Professor, Dept. of ECE
 Vision and Mission of the Institute

Vision of the Institute

To develop technologically competent, humane and socially responsible
engineers and managers to meet the ever-growing challenges of the
Global Environment.

Mission of the Institute

 To provide quality technical and management education by applying best
practices in teaching, learning and with the state of the art
infrastructural
facilities.
To mould engineers and managers with appropriate pedagogy to
develop leadership qualities and skills by imbibing professional ethics
to makethem industry ready.
To develop student-centric institution which evolves and fosters the
talents of budding engineers, managers and entrepreneurs and prepare
them to make a positive contribution to the society.
To promote Research and Consultancy through collaboration with
industries and Government Organizations.

Vision, Mission, PEOs & PSOs of the Department

Vision of the Department

To excel in creating technically competent and socially responsible
Electronics & Communication Engineers capable of contributing to the
emerging technology.

Mission of the Department

M1: Imparting effective technical education to excel in Electronics &
Communication Engineering.

M2: Adapting appropriate pedagogy to imbibe professionalism in

students.

M3: Inculcating Research culture and there by bridging the gap

between Academia and Industry.
Program Educational Objectives

PEO1: To deliver Engineering Skills and Knowledge by integrating

basic engineering concepts with core Electronics and
Communication Engineering to solve the problems of the society.

PEO2: To exhibit technical competency by developing solutions in

diverse areas of Electronics and Communication Engineering.

PEO3: To be receptive to emerging technologies and attain

professional competency through pursuing Research and life-long
learning.

Program Specific Outcomes

PSO1: Design Analog and Digital Systems using emerging

Technologies.

PSO2: Build different models by applying technical knowledge in

Communication, Networking, Signal Processing, VLSI and
Embedded Systems along with Programming and Simulation tools
for a variety of applications.
 Program Outcomes

Graduates of Electronics & Communication Engineering by the time of

graduation will demonstrate:

PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.

PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex

engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety,
and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based

knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.

PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.

PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS

Communication LAB

Subject Code: BECL404 IA Marks: 40

No. of Practical Hrs/Week: 02(Tutorial)+02(Laboratory) Exam Hours: 03

Total no. of Practical Hrs.: 42 Exam Marks: 60

1. Design and test a high-level collector Modulator circuit and Demodulation

the signal using diode detector.

2.Test the Balanced Modulator / Lattice Modulator (Diode ring)

3.Design a Frequency modulator using VCO and FM demodulator using PLL (Use
IC566 and IC565).

4.Design and plot the frequency response of Preemphesis and Deemphasis

Circuits

5.Design and test BJT/FET Mixer

6 Design and test Pulse sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction

7. Design and test Pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation.

8. Generation and Detection of Pulse position Modulation

9. Generation and Detection of Pulse Width Modulation

10. PLL Frequency Synthesizer

11. Data formatting and Line Code Generation

12.PCM Multiplexer and Demultiplexer

 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Communication Lab Course Objective’s and CourseOutcome’s
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Course objectives:

This laboratory course enables students to

 Understand the basic concepts of AM and FM modulation and demodulation.
 Design and analyse the electronic circuits used for AM and FM modulation and
demodulation circuits.
 Understand the sampling theory and design circuits which enable sampling and
reconstruction of analog signals.
 Design electronic circuits to perform pulse amplitude modulation, pulse position
modulation and pulse width modulation. .

Course outcomes (Course Skill Set):

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1. Illustrate the AM generation and detection using suitable electronic circuits.
2. Design of FM circuits for modulation, demodulation and noise suppression.
3. Design and test the sampling, Multiplexing and pulse modulation
techniques using electronic hardware.
4. Design and Demonstrate the electronic circuits used for RF transmitters and
receivers.
 ProgramOutcomes(PO)

PO-1:Engineeringknowledge:Engineering Knowledge:Apply the knowledge of mathematics,science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineerring problems.

PO-2: Problem analysis: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyse complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,and engineering
sciences.

PO-3: Design/development of solutions: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex

engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

PO-4: Conduct investigation of complex problems:Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,and synthesis of the information to provide
valid conclusions.

PO-5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.

PO-6: The engineering and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.

PO-7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of need for sustainable development.
PO-8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.

PO-9: Individual& teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and
in multidisciplinary settings.

PO-10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

PO-11:Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding for the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one‘s own work, as a member and leader ina team,to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.

PO-12: Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage inindependent and
life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Programme Specific Outcomes(PSO)

PSO1: Specify,design,build and test analog and digital systems for signal processing including
multimedia applications,using suitable components or Simulation tools.

PSO2: Understand and architect wired and wireless analog and digital Communication systems as
per specifications and determine their performance.
 ‘Instructions to the candidates’

 Student should come with thorough preparation for the experiment to be

conducted.

 Student should take prior permission from the concerned faculty before
availing theleave.

 Student should come with proper dress code and to be present on time in
thelaboratory.

 Student will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the
practical record fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment
conducted in the previousclass.

 Student will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the
observation book fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment to
be conducted in presentclass.

 Experiment should be started conducting only after the staff-in-charge has

checked the circuitdiagram.

 All the calculations should be made in the observation book. Specimen

calculations for one set of readings have to be shown in the practical record.

 Wherever graphs to be drawn, A-4 size graphs only should be used and the
same should be firmly attached in the practicalrecord.

 Practical record and observation book should be neatlymaintained.

 Student should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the observation

book after completing eachexperiment.

 Theory related to each experiment should be written in the practical record

before procedure in your own words with appropriatereferences.
 CONTENTS
Page
Sl. Name of the Experiment
No. No.
First cycle

1. Collector Modulator circuit and Demodulation 1

2. Balanced Modulator / Lattice Modulator (Diode ring) 6

3.Frequency modulation 8

4. Preemphesis and Deemphasis 16

5. Design and test BJT/FET Mixer 18

6 Pulse sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction 21

7 Pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation. 28

8 Generation and Detection of Pulse position Modulation 31

9 Generation and Detection of Pulse Width Modulation 34

10 PLL Frequency Synthesizer 38

11 Data formatting and Line Code Generation 41

12.PCM Multiplexer and Demultiplexer . 46

 INDEX PAGE

Date

Manual Marks

Record Marks

Signature

Signature
(Max . 20)

(Max. 10)

(Faculty)
(Student)
Sl. Name of the Experiment
No
Submission of
Conduction Repetition
Record

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Average
Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

Circuit Diagram :

Waveforms :

m(t)

t
c(t)
t

AM

wave

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

Experiment No. :01

Date:
COLLECTOR MODULATOR
Aim:
Design and test a high-level collector Modulator circuit and Demodulation
of the signal using diode detector.

Apparatus:
Sl.No. Particulars Range Quantity

1. Transistor SL100 01
Resistors & As per
2. -
Capacitors design
3. Diode OA79 01

4. IFT, AFT - 01 each

5. Probes - 03 set

Theory:
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a form of modulation in which the
amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating
signal. AM is commonly used at radio frequencies and was the first method used
to broadcast commercial radio. The term "AM" is sometimes used generically to
refer to the AM broadcast (Medium wave) band. In its basic form, amplitude
modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency
and in two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the
modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other. Thus, most of the power
output by an AM transmitter is effectively wasted, half the power is concentrated
at the carrier frequency, which carries no useful information (beyond the fact that
a signal is present), the remaining power is split between two identical sidebands,
only one of which is needed.

The modulator shown is a high power class C amplifier with high-level

modulation. The modulator is a linear power amplifier that takes low level
modulating signal and amplifies it to a high power level. The modulating signal is
coupled through modulating transformer AFT to the class C amplifier. The
secondary winding of the modulation transformer is connected in series with the
collector supply voltage Vcc of the class C amplifier. This means that the
modulating signal is applied in series with the collector power supply voltage of
the class C amplifier applying collector modulation.

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

In the absence of modulating signal, there will be zero modulation voltage

across the secondary of AFT. Therefore, the collector supply voltage will be applied
directly to the class C amplifier generating current pulses of equal amplitudes and
the output of the tuned circuit will be a steady sine wave.

When the modulating signal occurs, the ac voltage across the secondary of the
modulating transformer will be added to and subtracted from the collector supply
voltage. This varying supply voltage is then applied to the class C amplifier,
resulting in variations in the amplitude of the carrier sine wave in accordance with
the modulating signal. Due to this, amplitude of the current pulses also varies in
accordance with the modulating signal. The tuned circuit then converts the current
pulses into an amplitude modulated wave.

Modulation index
In AM, Modulation index is also called Modulation depth, indicates by how much
the modulated variable varies around its 'original level’.
For AM,
% m = [(Emax – Emax) / (Emax + Emin)] * 100

If m = 0.5, the carrier amplitude varies by 50% above and below its unmodulated
level, and for m = 1.0 it varies by 100%. Modulation depth greater than 100% is
generally to be avoided - practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate
some kind of limiter circuit. Modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into
low and high level.

Design :
f = 455 kHz  T=2.2sec
For clamping: RbCb >> T  Let RbCb =100T
With Rb = 10k, we get Cb = 0.022F

Procedure:
1. Connections are made as shown in the figure.
2. Without applying the message signal m(t), apply the carrier signal C(t) and
adjust its frequency until we will get proper output and note down its voltage
as carrier voltage Vc.
3. Calculate the carrier Power Pc.
4. Apply the Modulating Signal m(t) and note down E max and Emin from
modulated signal. Repeat the same for different voltages of m(t).
5. Calculate Modulation Index.

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

6. Connect the demodulator circuit and obtain demodulated message output.

7. The frequency of the demodulated signal is equal to message signal
frequency.
8. Plot a Graph of( Vm v/s %m) and (Vc v/s %m)
%m
%m

Vm v/s (%m) Vm Vc v/s (%m) Vc

Formulae:
1. Power without modulation = Pc =Vc2 / 8RL
2. Modulation Index : %m = [(Emax – Emax) / (Emax + Emin)] * 100
3. Total power of AM Signal, Pt = Pc[1+(m2/2)]

Tabular Column:

Modulation
Sl.No. Vm(p-p) volts Vc (p-p)volts Emax Emin
index `m` (%)
1.
2.
3.

Transfer Characteristic Curve :

E max

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

Diode Detector: (Design)

(1/fm) >> Rd Cd >> (1/fc) ; Let Rd Cd = 100/fc
Assume Cd = 0.001 f, then Rd = 200 k

Demodulation Circuit:

Diode/Envelope Detector

Sl. No. Vo in Volt fo in Hz fm in Hz

Note: To obtain the Trapezoidal waveform, feed the modulating signal to channel
(i) and AM wave to channel (ii), press X-Y knob.

Result :

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

EXPERIMENT No.: 02 Date:

Balanced Modulator / Lattice Modulator (Diode ring)

Aim: Test the Balanced Modulator/Lattice Modulator (Diode ring) and observe
DSBSC Waveform.
Components and equipments required:

Sl.No Apparatus Range

1 2 Audio 1:1 turns ratio
Transformers
2 Audio Signal Generators 100Hz – 1 MHz
2
3 4 Identical Diodes OA79
4 CRO Digital

Theory:

DSBSC (Double Side band suppressed carrier) system is a continuous wave

modulation scheme where the carrier is suppressed and only the two sideband
(lower sideband LSB and upper sideband USB) frequencies are transmitted
together. It is used for mixing of colour signals in colour TV transmission. Due to
the absence of carrier in DSBSC, the power required to transmit a DSBSC signal is
very less compared to that required to transmit an AM signal.
Principle of Working:
The Circuit used for generating a DSBSC signal is a ring modulator. Four Identical
diodes are connected in the form of a ring as shown in the circuit diagram. The
output contains only a pair of sidebands symmetrically placed on either side of
carrier frequency position in the spectrum. The Input and Output transformers are
audio frequency transformers of 1:1 ratio and must be identical.
Procedure:

1. Circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. The Modulating and the carrier signal generators are switched ON.
3. The frequency of the modulating signal is kept at 500 Hz.
4. The frequency of the carrier signal is kept at 10 KHz.
5. With fine tuning of frequencies of modulating and carrier signals, an perfect
DSBSC waveform is observed on CRO.
6. The variation in the DSBSC output is observed by varying the signal
amplitude and frequencies of both modulating and carrier signals.

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

Circuit Diagram:

Result: Peak to Peak amplitude of DSBSC Signal: _________ Volts

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EXPERIMENT No.: 3
Date:

FREQUENCY MODULATION USING VCO AND PLL FM

DEMODULATOR.

Aim: To Implement Frequency Modulation using VCO and Phase locked loop (PLL)
for FM demodulation.

FM Generation:

A simple and direct method of generating an FM signal is by the use of a voltage

controlled oscillator -VCO. The frequency of such an oscillator can be varied by
the magnitude of an input (control) voltage. The block diagram of VCO-FM
generator is shown in Figure.

For the VCO to work as a frequency modulator, it has to manifest a linear relation
between the magnitude of the input signal and the output oscillation. Large signal
amplitude may take the system out of its linear range of operation. Therefore a
careful design of the deviation sensitivity of the VCO is required to ensure linear
operation over the full range of input signal amplitudes.

Figure.1: FM by VCO (a), and Resulting Output (b). Spectral analysis:

1. FM Bandwidth

In theory FM modulated signal will have an infinite number of sidebands and

hence an infinite bandwidth but in practice all significant sideband energy
(98% or more) is concentrated within the transmission bandwidth defined by
Carson's rule.
BT = 2∆f + 2fm
= 2fm(1+β)
= 2∆f (1+(1/β))
β: is the FM modulation index and it is equal to ∆f/f

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

There are a few interesting points of summary relative to frequency modulation

bandwidth:
1. The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation
and modulating frequency.
2. Increasing modulating frequency reduces modulation index - it reduces the
number of sidebands with significant amplitude and hence the bandwidth.
3. Increasing modulating frequency increases the frequency separation
between sidebands.
4. The frequency modulation bandwidth increases with modulation frequency
but it is not directly proportional to it

2. FM signal types
There are two types of FM signal:
Narrowband signal (NBFM):

In this type ∆f << thus <<1, and its bandwidth is approximately based
on Carson's rule.
Wideband signal (WBFM):
In this type ∆f >> thus >>1, and its bandwidth is approximate based
on Carson's rule.

Figure.2 FM signal types

3. Phase Look Loop:

The block diagram of a phase locked loop (PLL) is shown in Figure 1. The
principle of operation is simple. Suppose there is a non-modulated carrier at the
input. If the VCO was tuned precisely to the frequency of the incoming carrier

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

(ω0), then the instantaneous output would be a DC voltage of magnitude

depending on the phase difference between the output of the VCO and the
incoming carrier. Now suppose the incoming carrier started to drift slowly in
frequency, then the output voltage will vary according to the frequency variation.
If the incoming carrier is frequency modulated by a message, the output of the
PLL will follow the message.

Figure.3 Phase Look Loop (PLL)

4. Frequency discriminator
FM can be demodulated as well by using a differentiator or a frequency
discriminator. Frequency discrimination can be achieved by applying the FM
signal to the linear part (transition region) of a BPF as depicted in Figure 4. The
output of the discriminator is both FM and AM modulated. The message can be
recovered by applying the discriminator output to an envelope detector as shown
in Figure 5. The BPF of the 100 kHz channel filter module has close-to-linear
pattern in the band 80- 90 kHz.

Figure.4: The BPF of the 100 kHz channel filter

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

Figure.5: Frequency Discriminator

Modules Needed:
The following plug in modules are needed to complete the experiment:
Audio Oscillator, VCO, Multiplier, 100kHz channel filter, Utilities, Tunable LPF

Part I: Setting the Frequency Deviation

The frequency deviation is equal to the product of V in(Max) and Gain. Our objective
is to design the Gain that yields frequency deviation of ±2 kHz.
1. Set a DC voltage of 2 V as input to VCO.
2. Set the Gain control fully anti-clockwise and the output frequency to 10
kHz.
3. Advance the Gain control until the frequency changes by 2 kHz.
4. Change to Variable DC to +2V and confirm that the deviation is about 2 kHz
in the other direction. Record the measured frequency.

Part ll: Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis

1. Fix the message frequency from the Audio Oscillator to 1 kHz.
2. Plot the message signal, carrier signal and the modulated signal in lab
sheet.
3. Plot the spectrum of the modulated signal using Pico Scope, in lab sheet
4. Vary the message frequency and describe the impact on the spectrum of
the FM signal.
5. Plot the spectrum of the FM signal at the minimum and maximum
frequencies of the Audio oscillator.
6. Reset the frequency of the message to 1 kHz, and vary the deviation ratio
(by varying the Gain in the VCO). Describe the effect on the spectrum of the
FM signal (make sure you do not overload the VCO).
7. Plot the spectrum at the minimum value and maximum Gain setting (before

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

overload).
8. Explain the obtained spectra in light of Carson’s Rule for bandwidth
estimation.

Part III: FM Demodulation Using PLL

1. Reconstruct the FM modulator as in the previous part.
● Let the message frequency be 1 kHz from the Audio Oscillator,

● Let the carrier frequency be 85 kHz from VCO,

● Let the modulator VCO gain be around 20% of the maximum value.
2. Model the PLL demodulator illustrated in Figure 3.

● For the filter use RC LPF provided in the Utilities Module.

● In the Multiplier module set the toggle switch to AC.

● Set the VCO in the demodulator to 85 kHz.

● Set the Gain control to 20% of its maximum
3. Connect the output of the modulator to the input of the demodulator.
4. The PLL may or may not lock on to the incoming FM signal. Tune the
Gain (and if necessary the center frequency) of the PLL-VCO until you
obtain lock.
5. Examine the output of the PLL VCO and compare it with the original message.
6. Plot the message signal and recovered signal in lab sheet.

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

Pre-Emphasis

De-Emphasis:

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

EXPERIMENT No.: 04 Date:

Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis

Aim: Design and plot the frequency response of Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis
Circuits.

Components required:

Sl.No Apparatus Range/Specifications

1 Op amp μA 741

Audio Signal Generator 100Hz – 1 MHz

2

3 Resistors 3.3KΩ (02 No.s)

470Ω (02 No.s)

4 Capacitors 0.022μf

5 CRO Digital

Theory: The Power Spectral Density of message signal falls off at higher
frequencies as shown in graph. On the other hand the Power spectral Density of
noise increases rapidly with frequency as shown in figure. Consequently, the
signal-to-noise ration reduces drastically. To improve the signal-to-noise ration
artificially, it is required to emphasize or boost up high frequency components of
the message signal prior to modulation. This boosting of higher modulating
frequencies in accordance with a pre-arranged curve is known as “Pre-
Emphasis”. The reverse process is done at the receiver after discrimination
(Demodulation). This reverse process is called as “De-Emphasis”. Pre-Emphasis is
achieved with a high pass circuit followed by a voltage follower using Op-amp,
with RC time constant equal to the standard value of 75μ sec for FM. A low pass
circuit followed by another voltage follower using Op-amp is used as De-Emphasis
circuit.

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Procedure:

Pre-Emphasis

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Apply a Sine wave of 0.5Vp-p amplitude, vary the frequency and note down
the gain of the circuit
3. Plot a graph of Normalized gain V/s frequency

De-Emphasis

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Apply a Sine wave of 0.5Vp-p amplitude, vary the frequency and note down
the gain of the circuit
3. Plot a graph of Normalized gain V/s frequency

Design:

Pre-Emphasis Circuit

RC = 75μsec for standard FM broadcasting.

Given f1=2.1KHz, f2=15KHz

f0 = {(1)/(2∏RC)} = 2.12KHz

Let C = 0.022μf

Since, RC = 75 μsec

R = ( 75 μsec / 0.022 μf ) = 3.4KΩ , Choose R = 3.3KΩ

Message Band width

w= {(1)/(2∏rc)} = 15KHz

r = {(1)/(2∏wc)} = 482Ω

Choose r = 470Ω

De-Emphasis Circuit

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Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24

RC = 75 μsec

fc = {(1)/(2∏RC)} = 2.12 kHz

R = 3.3KΩ and C = 0.022 μf

Graph :

Tabular Column:

Pre-Emphasis : Input Voltage = 0.5 Vp-p

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Output Voltage Gain in dB = 20 log10 (Vout/Vin )

Sl.No Frequency in Hz
Vout

De-Emphasis : Input Voltage = 0.5 Vp-p

Output Voltage Gain in dB = 20 log10 (Vout/Vin )
Sl.No Frequency in Hz
Vout

Result: Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis characteristics are verified by plotting

response curves

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EXPERIMENT No.: 05 Date :

BJT/FET Mixer

Aim: To design and test mixer circuit using transistor.

Tabular Column:

Sl. No. Item & Specification Quantity

1 Resistor- 22K, 33K, 3.3K 1No. each
2 Transistor BF194 1No.
3 Capacitor- 0.1 F 1No.
4 IFT 1No.
5 Signal Generator 2Nos.
6 CRO 1No.
7 Power Supply- =12V 1No.
8 Multimeter 1No.
9 Bread Board 1No.
10 Wires and probes -
THEORY:
Mixer or frequency convertor is actually a non linear resistor having two sets of input
terminals and one set of output terminal. The two inputs to the mixer are the input signal
and the local oscillator signal. The output of the mixer contains many frequencies
including the sum and difference frequencies between the two input signals. The mixer
output is commonly tuned to the difference frequency. This frequency is called the
intermediate frequency (IF).
The input to the mixer is the input signal voltage with magnitude V S and frequency fS.
The output is usually a current component at IF frequency having a magnitude IIF
proportional to VS. The proportionality constant is called transconductance and is given
by
gC = IIF/ VS
The conversion transconductance of a transistor mixer is of the order of 6ms.
Mixing takes placewhen the transconductance of the mixer is caused to vary with
the local oscillator voltage.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Test all the components and probes.

2. Set up the circuit as shown in figure on a breadboard.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. Check the dc conditions of the transistor and make sure that it is working in the
activeregion.
5. Feed a 2Vpp, 100KHz sine wave signal at the base of the transistor as shown in figure.
6. Feed a 2Vpp, 555KHz sine wave signal at the emitter of the transistor as shown in figure.
7. Observe the output waveform on a CRO and measure the frequency. Adjust the IFT
toobtain 455KHz as the peak output frequency.
8. Plot the input/output waveforms.
9. Measure the output ac current (IIF) and the input ac voltage(VS) using a multimeter. Calculate
the transconductance using the equation gC = IIF/ VS
10. Check the output for 100KHz and 355KHz inputs.

Note: The IFT centre tap point should be connected to Vcc. Connect one of the other two terminals
of the IFT primary to the collector of the transistor. Try both terminalsand select the one that gives
the better output.

Result: The transistor mixer circuit is designed for the difference frequency.

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Circuit Diagram

Waveforms:

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EXPERIMENT No.: 06 Date:

PULSE SAMPLING, FLAT TOP SAMPLING AND

RECONSTRUCTION

Aim: To conduct an experiment to generate pulse sampling and to demodulate

the same.

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Sample & hold IC – LF398 - 1

2 Resistors & As Per the -

Capacitor design

3 Springboard + connecting wires - 1 Set

Procedure:

1. Check the components/Equipments for their working condition.

2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
3. Apply the square wave carrier signal of 15-20KHz of 20% duty cycle.
4. Apply sine wave modulating signal of frequency fm = 1kHz with 5V peak to
peak amplitude.
5. Turn on the offset and vary the offset voltage until desired waveform is
observed on CRO.
6. Observe the output waveform.
7. Connect the sampled output as a input to the low pass filter and
reconstruct the original message signal and note fo and Vo.
8. Repeat the above steps for fc = 2fm and fc<2fm.

Circuit Diagram: (Natural sampling)

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Fig 5.1: Natural Sampling using LF398

Filter design:

fs= 1/ Ts ; Ts=RC ; R=Ts/C

Cut off frequency of the filter
fo >> fm
Choose fo = 2kHz, fo = 1 / 2∏RC Assume C = 0.1 μf, then R = 500 Ω
Waveforms:

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 Vo of fo of
Sl. Sampling fc in fm
demodulated demodulated
methods Hz in Hz
No. Communication Laboratory BECL404 2023-24
signal in Volt signal in Hz

Under Sampling
1
(fc<2fm)

Nyquist Rate
2
fc=2fm

Over Sampling
3
fc>2fm

Tabular Column: Vc (p-p)= ___V, Vm(p-p)= V

FLAT TOP SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION

Aim: To verify the Flat Top sampling theorem.

Apparatus Required:

Sl. Apparatus Range Quantit

No. y

1 Function Generator 1MHz 1

2 Op-amps μA741 2

Transistor SL 100 1

3 Resistors and As per

capacitors design

4 Dual trace 20 MHz 1

oscilloscope

Theory:

The analog signal can be converted to a discrete time signal by a process called
sampling. The sampling theorem for a band limited signal of finite energy can be
stated as: “A band limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency
component higher than W Hz is completely described by specifying the
values of the signal at instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds’’

It can be recovered from knowledge of samples taken at the rate of 2W per

second.

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Circuit diagram:

Fig 5.3: Sampling Circuit using transistor

Procedure:

1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in the fig 5.1 or 5.3

2. Switch on the power supply and set at +12V and -12V.

3. Apply the sinusoidal signal of approximately 3V (p-p) at 100-500 Hz

frequency and pulse signal of 5V (p-p) with frequency between 100Hz and 10
KHz.

4. Connect the sampling circuit output and AF signal to the two inputs of
oscilloscope

5. Initially set the sampling frequency to 200Hz and observe the output on the
CRO. Now vary the amplitude of modulating signal and observe the output of
sampling circuit. Note that the amplitude of the sampling pulses will be
varying in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

6. Design the reconstructing circuit. Depending on sampling frequency, R & C

values are calculated using the relations Fs = 1/Ts, Ts = RC. Choosing an
appropriate value for C, R can be found using the relation R=Ts/C
7. Connect the sampling circuit output to the reconstructing circuit shown in Fig 5.4
8. Observe the output of the reconstructing circuit (AF signal) for different
sampling frequencies. The original AF signal would appear only when the
sampling frequency is 200Hz to 500Kz.

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Circuit diagram:

Fig 5.4: Reconstruction circuit using Op-amp

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Waveforms:

Result: Sampling Theorem is verified for Pulse sampling & Flat top sampling circuits.

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Circuit Diagram :

Design:

Specifications : Ic = 1mA, hfe = 100, V CE(sat) = 0.3 V, VBE(sat) = 0.7 V, fm = 100 Hz

Biasing:

Vm(t) = Ic Rc + VCE(sat)
Let Vm(t) = 2.5 V peak + 3 V DC shift = 5.5 V peak signal
Then Rc = 5.2 k
Vc(t) = IB RB + VBE(sat)
Let Vc(t) = 2 V peak – peak ( 1V peak ) & IB = IC / hfe = 10 A
1 = RB 10A + 0.7
 RB = 30K
Filter:
Cut off frequency of the filter fo >> fm
Choose fo = 500 Hz, fo = 1 / 2RC
Assume C = 0.1 f, then R = 3.3 kTabular Column :
Vc (p-p) fc Vm (p-p) fm
Vo of demodulated fo of demodulated
Sl. No.
in Volt in Hz in Volt in Hz signal in Volt signal in Hz

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EXPERIMENT No;7 Date:

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Aim:

To conduct an experiment to generate PAM signal and to demodulate it.

Apparatus:

Sl.No. Particulars Range Quantity

1. Transistor SL100 01

Resistors & As per

2. -
Capacitors design

Springboard +
3. - 01 set
connecting wires

Theory:

Pulse-amplitude modulation, acronym PAM, is a form of signal

modulation where the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a series
of signal pulses. Demodulation is performed by detecting the amplitude level of
the carrier at every symbol period. The samples are taken at regular interval of
time. Each sample is a pulse whose amplitude of the variable at the instant of
time at which the sample is taken. It is a simple process.

Pulse-amplitude modulation is now rarely used, having been largely

superseded by pulse-code modulation, and more recently, by pulse-position
modulation. The widely popular Ethernet communication standard is a good
example of PAM usage.

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Tabular Column:

Vc (p-p)= ___V, Vm(p-p)= V

Vo of fo of
Sl Sampling fc in fm in
demodulate demodulate
. methods Hz Hz
d d
No
signal in signal in Hz
.
Volt

Under Sampling
1
(fc<2fm)

Nyquist Rate
2
fc=2fm

Over Sampling
3
fc>2fm

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PAM signal

(fc < 2fm)

PAM signal

(fc = 2fm)

PAM signal

(fc > 2fm)

Demodulated wave

(When fc > 2fm)

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Experiment No.: 08 Date:

GENERATION AND DETECTION OF PULSE POSITION

MODULATION

Aim: To conduct an experiment to generate PPM signal and to measure critical

amplitude.

Apparatus:Sl.No. Particulars Range Quantity

1. ICs 555, uA741 01 each

Resistors & As per

2. -
Capacitors design

3. Diode BY127 - 01

Spring board +
4. - 01 set
connecting wires

Theory:Pulse Position Modulation: In this type the amplitude and width of the
pulse are kept constant, with reference to the position of a reference pulse, It is
changed according to the instantaneous sampled value of the modulating signal.
Hence, transmitter has to send synchronizing pulses to keep the transmitter and
receiver in Synchronism. It has advantage over that of PWM i.e it handles
constant power output. But it require synchronization at transmitter as well as
receiver which is the disadvantage. Pulse-position modulation is a form of
signal modulation in which M message bits are encoded by transmitting a single
pulse in one of 2M possible time-shifts. This is repeated every T seconds, such that
the transmitted bit rate is M/T bits per second. It is primarily useful for optical
communications systems, where there tends to be little or no multipath
interference.

Procedure:

1. Check the components/Equipments for their working condition.

2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

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3. Check the output of Monostable Multivibrator (unmodulated carrier) for the

designed pulse width by giving unmodulated PWM signal (m(t) amplitude set
to zero).
4. By increasing the amplitude of the modulating signal observe the PWM
waveform and then observe the PPM waveform.

To find the critical amplitude and the dynamic range:

As the amplitude of the modulating signal is increased the position of the pulses
will vary. Keep on increasing the amplitude of the modulating signal until the
pulses will disappear. The corresponding amplitude of the modulating signal is the
critical amplitude. The dynamic range is the difference between the critical
amplitude and the amplitude of the modulating signal at which the PPM just begin.

Result:

Pulse width = ________ ms

Dynamic range = ________ Volt

Critical Amplitude = ________ Volt

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Wavveforms : Vtri(t)
m(t)

Comparator o/p

with zero m(t)

PWM signal

PPM signal

with zero m(t)

PPM signal

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EXPERIMENT No.: 09 Date:

t
GENERATION AND DETECTION OF PULSE WIDTH
MODULATION
Aim: To conduct an experiment to generate PWM signal and to measure critical
amplitude.
Apparatus:
Sl.No. Particulars Range Quantity
1. IC 555 Timer 01
As per
2. Resistors & Capacitors -
design
3. Diode BY127 - 03
Spring board + connecting
4. - 01 set
wires
Theory:
Pulse width modulation is also known as pulse duration modulation. Three
variation of pulse width modulation is possible.
1. The leading edge of the pulse is held constant and change in pulse width in
accordance to the information signal.
2. The tail edge is held constant and with respect to it pulse width is
measured.
3. The centre of the pulse is held constant and pulse width changes on either
side of the centre of the pulse. Pulse-width modulation of a signal or
power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle, to either
convey information over a communications channel or control the
amount of power sent to a load.
Procedure:
1. Check the components/Equipments for their working condition.
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Keeping the modulating signal with minimum amplitude, observe the
astable multivibrator output and verify the frequency and duty cycle.
4. Apply the modulating signal with frequency f m at some convenient
amplitude.
5. Observe the PWM waveform.
6. Observe the variation of pulse width with respect to clamped modulating
signal (at Pin No.5).

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Circuit Diagram:
Design :
Specifications : fc = 1 kHz, duty cycle = 50 %
Hence T = 1/fc = 1ms, Ton = 0.5 ms and Toff = 0.5 ms
Astable Multivibrator :
Ton = 0.693 ( Rch + Rf ) Ct, Toff = 0.693 ( Rdch + rf ) Ct
Since duty cycle = 50 %, Ton = Toff = 0.5 ms
Assume Ct = 0.1 f and the forward resistance of diode Rf = 100 
Then Rch = Rdch = 7.146 K

Clamping Circuit :
Negative peak of the modulating signal should be clamped to zero volts.
RC >> 1 / fm, therefore RC = 100/fm
Choose C = 10 f, fm = 100Hz then R = 100 k

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Tabular Column: fm = ____________Hz

Unmodulated carrier signal Modulated Signal Dynamic
Max. width in Min. width in range in
Ton in ms Toff in ms fc in Hz volt
ms ms

Waveforms :

Modulating signal

(Clamped m(t))

Carrier signal t

(with zero m(t))

PWM signal

Reference waveform

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To find the critical amplitude and the dynamic range:

As the amplitude of the modulating signal is increased the width of the pulses
during the negative half cycle of the modulating signal will reduce and during
positive half cycle will increase. Keep on increasing the amplitude of the
modulating signal until the pulses will disappear for the first time either because
the width of the pulse may become zero during negative half cycle or the width of
the pulse may become so large that it combines with the neighboring pulse during
positive half cycle. The corresponding amplitude of the modulating signal is the
critical amplitude.

The dynamic range is the difference between the critical amplitude and the
amplitude of the modulating signal at which the PWM just begin.

Result:

Pulse width = _________ms

Dynamic range = ________ Volt

Critical Amplitude = ______Volt

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EXPERIMENT No.: 10 Date:

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS USING PLL

Aim: To study the frequency synthesis of PLL.

Circuit Diagram:

Design:

The center frequency of PLL is determined by free running frequency of VCO

which is given by

fout =1.2 / 4R1C1 Hz

fL =  8 fout / V
Where V=(Vcc-(-Vcc))= 10V
fC =  [fL /(2лx3.6x103x C2)]1/2
where 3.6K is the internal resistance of the capacitor C2
fout = 1.2/ (4x 4.3x103 x0.01x10-6 ) = 70KHz
fL =  (8x 70K) / 10 =  56 KHz
fC =  49.75KHz

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Lock range

FL

Capture range

FC

fout

Frequency in Hertz

Procedure for Frequency synthesis:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diadram.

2. Insert Mod-5 counter between pin 4 and 5.
3. Using function generator at pin 2 apply square wave of frequency 1 KHz to
get 1V p_p input
signal
4. By adjusting the DRB, set the VCO frequency till PLL is locked. Measure
and note
down the output frequency, it should be 5 times the input frequency.

Result:

Thus using IC NE 565 PLL the capture range and the locking range were
determined.

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NOTE:

Procedure for finding capture and locking range of PLL

1. Make the Connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Measure and note down the frequency of 565 at pin 4 using CRO without
input signal
at pin 2.
3. Set the input signal at pin 2 to get 1Vp_p. Increase the input signal
frequency slowly at
the point of center frequency fout . At some frequency VCO output will
suddenly shifts
from fout
4. Measure and note down the frequency that is the lower edge of the
Capture range fC1
5. Increase the input signal frequency further till the output signal VCO is in
phase with
Input.
6. Measure and note down the frequency that is the upper edge of the Lock
range fL2
7. Now start decreasing at the point of center frequency f out . At some
frequency VCO
output shifts from fout.
8. Measure and note down the frequency that is the upper edge of the
Capture range fC2
9. Increase the input signal frequency further, till the output signal VCO is in
phase with
Input.
10. Decrease the input signal frequency further till the output signal VCO is
out phase
with Input.

11. Measure and note down the frequency that is the lower edge of the Lock
range fL1
12. Calculate Locking range as fL2 - fL1 and capture range as fC2 - fC1

Result: Frequency Synthesis is designed and verified using PLL

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EXPERIMENT No.: 11 Date:

DATA FORMATTING & LINE CODE GENERATION

Aim: To study Pulse data coding techniques for NRZ formats & generation of Line
Codes.

Apparatus:

Sl.No. Particulars Range Quantity

1. Data Encoding kit (Digital Trainer Kit) 01

2. Data bit generator -- 01

3. Patch cords -- 05

4. CRO 20 MHz 01

5. CRO Probes -- 02

Block Diagram:

Digital/Digital
01011101 Encoding

Fig 1: Digital-to-Digital Encoding

Analog O/P

Digital D/A Conversion A/D Conversion

O/P

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Theory:

Digital to Digital conversion is the representation of digital information by a digital

signal. In this conversion, the binary 1’s and 0’s generated by a computer are
translated into a sequence of voltage pulses that can be propagated over a wire.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-
digital encoding hardware and the resultant digital signal. There are many
mechanisms for digital-to-digital conversion, these are Uni-polar, polar and bipolar
encoding/conversion. In our present experiment we are using polar conversion
method.

Polar Encoding: It uses two-voltage levels, one positive and one negative, Of
many existing variations of polar conversion we will examine only the three most
popular: Non return to zero (NRZ), Return to zero (RZ), and Biphase. NRZ
encoding includes two methods: Non return to zero, level (NRZ-L), and Non return
to zero invert (NRZ-I). Biphase also refers to two methods. The first, Manchester,
is the method used by Ethernet LANs. The second, Differential Manchester, is the
method used by Token Ring LANs.

Non return to Zero(NRZ): In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal is always
either positive or negative. The two most popular method of NRZ transmission
are:

NRZ-L: In this encoding method, the level of the signal depends on the type of bit
it represents. A positive voltage usually means the bit is a ‘0’, and a negative
voltage means the bit is a ‘1’(or vice-versa). Thus, the level of the signal is
dependent upon the state of the bit.

It is the simplest form of data representation. The NRZ (L) waveform simply goes
low for one bit time to represent a data '0' & high for one bit time to represent a
data '1'. Thus the signal alternates only when there is a data change.

NRZ-I: In this method, an inversion of the voltage level represents a 1 bit. It is

the transition between a positive and negative voltage, not the voltages
themselves, that represents a 1 bit. A ‘0’ bit is represented by no change.

Non - Return - To Zero (Mark) : [NRZ (M)] :

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The NRZ (M) code is very much similar to the NRZ (L) code. Here if logic 1 is to be
transmitted. The new level is inverse of the previous level i.e. change in level
occurs. If a data '0' is to be transmitted the level remains unchanged. Thus in the
case of NRZ (M) waveform the present level is related to the previous levels. See
figure 2. Thus, no longer the absolute value of signal is necessary instead it is the
change in the level for which we look now.

Remember: A change means a logic '1'

No change means logic '0'

Return to Zero: This method uses three values: positive, negative and zero. The
signal changes not between bits but during each bit. A positive voltage means 1
and negative voltage means 0.

Biphase: In this the signal changes at the middle of the bit interval but does not
return to zero. Instead it continues to the opposite pole.

Biphase (Manchester) Coding:

The encoding rules for biphase (Manchester) code are as follows: A data '0' is
encoded as a low level during first half of the bit time and a high level during the
second half. A data '1' is encoded as a high level during first half of the bit time and
a low level during the second half. Thus string of 1's or 0's as well as any mixture of
them will not pass any synchronization problem in receiver

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Fig. 3: Biphase (Manchester) waveform for a given data stream

Procedure :

1. Data is generated with the help of a data bit generator.

2. Connect the data O/P of the data generator to the Tx data I/P of the trainer
kit.
3. Now connect the clock of the generator to the Tx clock of the kit and
ground with the ground terminal of the kit.
4. Select the data on the data generator and load it in the trainer kit by
pressing load button.
5. Now observe the O/P of the NRZ-L, NRZ-M and Bi-phase.

Result:

Observed different data formatting methods & generation of line codes

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Circuit Connections at digital trainer kit:

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EXPERIMENT No.: 12
Date:

PCM MULTIPLEXER AND DEMULTIPLEXER

Aim: Study of Pulse code modulation (PCM) and its demodulation.

Apparatus Required:

Sl. Component Quantity

No.

1. PCM modulation / demodulation ST2103 1

trainer.

2. CRO 1

3. Connecting leads 2

Theory:

Pulse Code Modulation technique involves following steps:

(a) Sampling:

The analog signal is sampled according to the Nyquist criteria. The Nyquist criteria
states that for faithful reproduction of a band limited signal, the sampling rate
must be at least twice the highest frequency component present in the signal. So
sampling frequency ≥ 2 fm, where fm is maximum frequency component present
in the signal. Practically the sampling frequency is kept slightly more than the
required rate.

(b) Allocation of Binary codes:

Each binary word defines a particular narrow range of amplitude level. The
sampled value is then approximated to the nearest amplitude level. The sample is
then assigned a code corresponding to the amplitude level, which is then
transmitted. This process is called quantization and it is generally carried out by
the A/D Converter as shown below in figure 01

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Procedure:

1. Ensure that the MODE switch should be in FAST mode.

2. Connect CH 0 & CH 1 to DC1 AND DC2.
3. Ensure that the DC1 and DC2 controls, in Function Generator Block should
be in fully clockwise direction and ~1KHz and 2 KHz signal controls set at
10Vpp.
4. Now turn ON the kit and see that the LED glows.
5. With the help of Digital Voltmeter, adjust the DC1 amplitude control until
the DC1 output measures 0V.
6. Observe the output on the A/D Converter Block LED’s (D0 to D6). The LED’s
represent the state of the binary PCM word allocated to the PAM sample
being processed.
7. Adjust the D.C input from +5V to –5V in steps of 1V.
8. Observe the output of +5V is as follows:

D D D D D D1 D
6 5 4 3 2 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Where for the negative values it is less than 1000000. For –5V the output is as
follows:

D6 D D4 D D D1 D
5 3 2 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

This is obtained at the approximately full anti clockwise position of the DC Control.

9. Turn the DC1 control fully anticlockwise and repeat the above procedure by
varying the DC2 control.
10. Trigger the dual trace oscilloscope externally by the CH.1 signal available at

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t.p.12 and observe the signal at CH.0 and CH.1 at t.p.5 with reference to the
signal at t.p.7.
Now connect the oscilloscope channel 1 to CH1 sample at t.p.6 and sketch the three
waveforms

Result: The PCM Modulation is performed and demodulated

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Circuit Diagram :

Design :

Specifications : Carrier frequency fc = 3 kHz

fc = 0.3 / ( R Ct ) Where R = Ra = Rb

Assume R = Ra = Rb = 10 k then Ct = 0.01 f

Choose RL = 10 k, R1 = 82 k, Cc = 0.1 f

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Date:

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS BEYOND SYLLABUS

FREQUENCY MODULATION

Aim: To conduct an experiment to generate Frequency Modulated wave and to

measure frequency deviation and modulation index.

Apparatus:

Sl.No
Particulars Range Quantity
.

1. IC 8038 - 4

Resistors & As per

2. 1 each
Capacitors design

3. CRO Probes - 2 set

Theory:

Frequency modulation (FM) is a form of modulation which represents

information as variations in the instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave. In
analog applications, the carrier frequency is varied in direct proportion to changes
in the amplitude of an input signal. Digital data can be represented by shifting the
carrier frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as frequency-
shift keying.

FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts

of music and speech. Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcasted using FM. A
narrowband form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur
radio settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-
FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve
bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space.

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FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by most analog VCR systems,

including VHS, to record the luminance (black and white) portion of the video
signal. FM is the only feasible method of recording video to and retrieving video
from magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large
range of frequency components — from a few hertz to several megahertz, too
wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below -60 dB. FM also
keeps the tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction,
and a simple limiter can mask.

aveforms :

m(t)

c(t)

FM
signal
t
wave
fC min f C max

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Tabular Column :

fc = ___________ Hz, fm = ___________ Hz

BT
Vm fc max fc min
= =2+2f
Sl.No 1 Hz 2 Hz  Hz
/fm m
in V Hz Hz

In Hz

Where 1  fC max  fC ,  2  fC  fC min

variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-
through and pre-echo. FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound.
This technique, known as FM synthesis, was popularized by early digital
synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal
computer sound cards.

Modulation index
In FM modulation index indicates how much the modulated variable varies
around its unmodulated level. For FM,

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With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and

the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal
increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same. If the frequency
deviation is held constant and the modulation index increased, the bandwidth
stays roughly the same, but the spacing between spectra decreases.

Procedure:

1. Check the components/Equipments for their working condition.

2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. By switching off the modulating signal m(t) note the frequency of the carrier
wave at Pin No.2 of IC-8038.
4. Apply the modulating signal with suitable amplitude to get the FM signal.
5. Note the maximum (fcmax) and minimum (fcmin) frequency of the carrier wave
in FM signal.
6. Calculate the frequency deviation, modulation index and bandwidth.

Result:

Modulation index = _________

Maximum Frequency Deviation = _____Hz.

Bandwidth of Operation = ___________ Hz.

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Circuit Diagram

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MINI PROJECT

MINI PROJECT-1:WATER LEVEL INDICATOR USING 555 TIMER

Aim: To make a water level detecting alarm using 555 Timer IC.

Apparatus:

Sl. Particulars Range Quantity

No.

1. IC 555 Timer 1

2. Resistor 100KΩ 1

3. Buzzer 6-12V 1

4. Connecting - 1 set
wires

Procedure:

1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Apply +5V supply to VCC (pin no 8).
3. Keep the probes/wires inside the water container.
4. Observe the output.
Working:

The circuit is normally disabled and it gets enabled only when the probes
touch the water, The distance between the probes should be less than a few
centimeters to ensure that the conduction between the probes will take place
when water is touched to these probes. When the water level rises to the height
of the probes, then the 555 circuit will get enabled and the output is given to the
mini loudspeaker/ Buzzer which then beeps.

Result:

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