Acids and Bases Overview

ACIDS and BASES

Acids and Bases are fundamental concepts in chemistry. They can be classified based on their
properties, behavior in reactions, and their ability to donate or accept protons (H⁺ ions). Here's an
overview:

Acids:

Definition (Arrhenius Theory): Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when
dissolved in water.
Characteristics:
Sour taste (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar).
Turn blue litmus paper red.
React with metals like zinc to release hydrogen gas.
Have a pH less than 7.
Conduct electricity in water (electrolytes).
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), Nitric acid (HNO₃), Acetic acid (CH₃COOH).

Bases:

Definition (Arrhenius Theory): Bases are substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when
dissolved in water.
Characteristics:
Bitter taste (e.g., baking soda, soap).
Slippery feel (e.g., soap).
Turn red litmus paper blue.
Have a pH greater than 7.
Conduct electricity in water (electrolytes).
Examples: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Ammonia (NH₃).

pH Scale:

The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution.

Acidic: pH < 7 (more H⁺ ions).
Neutral: pH = 7 (pure water).
Basic (Alkaline): pH > 7 (more OH⁻ ions).

Bronsted-Lowry Theory (Proton Transfer):

Acids: Donors of protons (H⁺).

Bases: Acceptors of protons (H⁺).

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 1/32
Lewis Theory (Electron Pair Donation):

Acids: Acceptors of electron pairs.

Bases: Donors of electron pairs.

Neutralization Reaction:

When an acid reacts with a base, they neutralize each other to form water and a salt.
Example:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water

Understanding these concepts is essential for many chemical reactions, particularly in industrial
processes, biological systems, and laboratory experiments.

Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases-Arrhenius acids are hydrogen (H) containing
substances that produce proton (H+) when
dissolved in water

HCl (aq)

H+ + NO3-

H+ + Cl-

HNO3 (aq)

H+ + CH3-COO-

CH3-COOH (aq)

H2SO4 (aq)

2H+ + SO42-

Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases

Arrhenius bases are hydroxyl (OH) containing

substances that produce hydroxyl ion (-OH)
when dissolved in water

NaOH (aq)

Ca2+ + 2OH-

Na+ + OH-

Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 2/32
 NH4OH (aq)

NH4+ + OH- All the substances containing H are

NOT ACID!!

Because they do not produce H+ in water Ammonia (NH3) or Methane gas (CH4)
are not acids!!

The Arrhenius Concept of acids and bases is a simple way to define acids and bases based on their
behavior in water. Let's break it down with the details you provided.

Arrhenius Acids:

Definition: Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water.
The general form of an Arrhenius acid dissociating in water is:
HA (aq) → H⁺ (aq) + A⁻ (aq)

Examples of Arrhenius acids:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl): HCl(aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

+ −
Nitric acid (HNO₃): HNO3 (aq) → H (aq) + NO3 (aq)
​ ​

+ −
Acetic acid (CH₃COOH): CH3 COOH(aq) → H (aq) + CH3 COO (aq)
​ ​

+ 2−
Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄): H2 SO4 (aq) → 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
​ ​ ​

Arrhenius Bases:

Definition: Bases are substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water.
The general form of an Arrhenius base dissociating in water is:
BOH (aq) → B⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq)

Examples of Arrhenius bases:

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): NaOH(aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

2+ −
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂): Ca(OH)2 (aq) → Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq)
​

+ −
Ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH): NH4 OH(aq) → NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
​ ​

Important Clarification:

Not all substances containing hydrogen (H) are acids! For example:
Ammonia (NH₃) and Methane (CH₄) do not produce H⁺ ions in water, so they are not acids
according to the Arrhenius definition.
Ammonia (NH₃) in water reacts with water to form NH₄⁺ and OH⁻, but it doesn’t directly
release H⁺ ions.
Methane (CH₄) is a neutral molecule and does not dissociate to release H⁺ in water.

The Arrhenius concept is one of the simplest definitions of acids and bases, but it is limited to aqueous
solutions. More advanced theories, like the Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis definitions, provide broader
explanations of acidity and basicity.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 3/32
 Brønsted – Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases - A Brønsted acid is a substance
capable of donating a proton

in a proton transfer reaction

A Brønsted base is a substance

capable of accepting a proton

in a proton transfer reaction reactants_ acid +base <- _> conjugate base+ conjugate acid
_products An extension of the Brønsted – Lowry Concept : conjugate acid-base pair When
one proton has been removed from a Brønsted acid the conjugate base is formed.

And when a Brønsted base takes up a proton a conjugate acid is formed.

So every Brønsted acid has a conjugate base, and every Brønsted base has a conjugate

acid.

For example, the chloride ion (Cl-) is the conjugate base formed from the acid HCl, and
H3O+ is the conjugate acid of the base H2O. cl (H) + o (H) ( H) -> o(H) (H) (H) + cl - hcl(aq)
acid h2o(l) base h3p+ (aq) acid conjugate cl-(aq) base-acid conjugate

The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of acids and bases is based on proton (H⁺) transfer reactions. It expands
on the Arrhenius definition by focusing on the donation and acceptance of protons (H⁺), rather than
just substances that release H⁺ or OH⁻ in water.

Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases:

Brønsted-Lowry Acid: A substance that donates a proton (H⁺) in a reaction.

Brønsted-Lowry Base: A substance that accepts a proton (H⁺) in a reaction.

In a proton transfer reaction, an acid donates a proton to a base, and the base accepts the proton. This
results in the formation of a conjugate base and a conjugate acid.

General Reaction:

Acid + Base ⇌ Conjugate Base + Conjugate Acid

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs:

After a Brønsted-Lowry acid donates a proton, the remaining substance is called the conjugate
base.
After a Brønsted-Lowry base accepts a proton, the resulting substance is called the conjugate
acid.

Examples of Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs:

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 4/32
 1. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and Chloride ion (Cl⁻):
In water, HCl donates a proton (H⁺) to water (H₂O), forming the conjugate base (Cl⁻) and the
conjugate acid (H₃O⁺).
Reaction:

HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

Here, HCl is the acid, and Cl⁻ is the conjugate base.

2. Water (H₂O) as a Base:
Water can act as a base by accepting a proton to form hydronium (H₃O⁺), which is the
conjugate acid.
Reaction:

H₂O (l) + H+ → H₃O+ (aq)

Here, H₂O is the base, and H₃O⁺ is the conjugate acid.

3. Ammonia (NH₃) as a Base:
Ammonia accepts a proton to form ammonium (NH₄⁺), which is its conjugate acid.
Reaction:

NH₃ (aq) + H+ → NH₄+ (aq)

Here, NH₃ is the base, and NH₄⁺ is the conjugate acid.

Key Points:

Every Brønsted-Lowry acid has a conjugate base, and every Brønsted-Lowry base has a
conjugate acid.
For example, the chloride ion (Cl⁻) is the conjugate base formed when HCl donates a proton, and
H₃O⁺ (hydronium ion) is the conjugate acid of H₂O.
This concept explains why substances can act as acids in some reactions and as bases in others,
depending on the substances with which they react.

Proton Transfer Example (HCl and H₂O):

Reactants: HCl (acid) and H₂O (base)

Reaction:

HCl (aq) + H₂O (l) → H₃O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

HCl donates a proton (H⁺) to H₂O, forming H₃O⁺ and Cl⁻.

This approach to acids and bases is more general than the Arrhenius definition because it allows for the
interaction of acids and bases in a wider range of solvents, not just in water.

Brønsted – Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases One of the advantages of the Brønsted-Lowry theory
is that it
can describe acid–base reactions in a nonaqueous medium like
liquid ammonia.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 5/32
 In liquid ammonia, HCl(g) donates a proton to NH3, forming
NH4+ and Cl-.

HCl(g) + NH3(l) → NH4+ + Cl-

Donating proton Accepting proton

Acid Base

Brønsted – Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases

No water is involved, so there are no H3O+ or OH- ions formed.

Ammonium and chloride ions are solvated by ammonia
molecules.

The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of acids and bases has a key advantage over the Arrhenius theory: it can
explain acid-base reactions in non-aqueous media, such as liquid ammonia. This broadens the scope
of acid-base chemistry beyond aqueous solutions, where the Arrhenius theory is limited.

Acid-Base Reactions in Liquid Ammonia:

In liquid ammonia, ammonia (NH₃) can act as a base by accepting a proton (H⁺), while hydrogen
chloride (HCl) can act as an acid by donating a proton.
The reaction is as follows:

HCl (g) + NH₃ (l) → NH₄+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)

HCl donates a proton (H⁺) to NH₃, which accepts the proton.

The products are NH₄⁺ (ammonium ion, the conjugate acid of NH₃) and Cl⁻ (chloride ion, the
conjugate base of HCl).

Key Points:

In this reaction, no water is involved, so there are no H₃O⁺ or OH⁻ ions formed, which would
typically occur in water-based reactions.
The ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) and chloride ion (Cl⁻) are solvated (surrounded and stabilized) by
ammonia molecules in the liquid ammonia solvent.
This demonstrates that the Brønsted-Lowry theory is not restricted to aqueous solutions, and it can
describe proton transfer in other solvents, like liquid ammonia.

Advantages of the Brønsted-Lowry Theory:

1. Non-Aqueous Reactions: It allows for the explanation of acid-base behavior in solvents other than
water, such as liquid ammonia, which is commonly used in organic chemistry and in certain
industrial processes.
2. Broader Scope: It expands the definition of acids and bases beyond substances that can only
release H⁺ or OH⁻ in water, as seen with non-aqueous proton transfer reactions.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 6/32
 3. Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs: The theory also helps identify conjugate acid-base pairs in reactions,
making it easier to understand how acids and bases interconvert.

In summary, the Brønsted-Lowry Concept is versatile and can be applied to reactions in a variety of
solvents, offering a more comprehensive view of acid-base interactions than the Arrhenius theory.

A comparative study- Arrhenius Concept

Brønsted – Lowry Concept

Describes acid-base only in

aqueous solution

Describes acid-base in any reaction;

not restricted only to aqueous solution

Acid is proton (H+) donor in

aqueous solution

Acid is proton (H+) donor in any proton

transfer reaction

Base is hydroxyl ion (OH-)

donor in aqueous solution

Base is proton (H+) acceptor in any proton

transfer reaction

As hydroxyl ion (OH-) is also a proton

acceptor so any hydroxyl ion (OH-) donor
is a base too according to this concept

Brønsted – Lowry Concept doesn’t contradict with Arrhenius Concept

It just has greater scope than the Arrhenius concept

Here’s a comparative study of the Arrhenius Concept and the Brønsted-Lowry Concept of acids and
bases:

1. Scope of Application:

Arrhenius Concept:
Describes acid-base reactions only in aqueous solutions.
It is limited to water as the solvent, where acids release H⁺ and bases release OH⁻.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept:

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 7/32
 Describes acid-base reactions in any reaction, not restricted to aqueous solutions.
It can be applied in non-aqueous solvents, such as liquid ammonia, or even in gas-phase
reactions.

2. Definition of Acid:

Arrhenius Concept:
An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor, but specifically in aqueous solutions.
Acids release H⁺ ions when dissolved in water. For example, HCl in water produces H⁺ and Cl⁻.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept:
An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor in any proton transfer reaction, not just in aqueous
solutions.
For example, in the reaction between HCl and ammonia (NH₃) in liquid ammonia, HCl donates
a proton to NH₃, forming NH₄⁺ and Cl⁻.

3. Definition of Base:

Arrhenius Concept:
A base is a hydroxide ion (OH⁻) donor in aqueous solutions.
For example, NaOH in water dissociates to produce OH⁻ and Na⁺.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept:
A base is a proton (H⁺) acceptor in any proton transfer reaction.
For example, NH₃ in liquid ammonia can act as a base by accepting a proton (H⁺) from HCl,
forming NH₄⁺.

4. Hydroxide Ions (OH⁻):

Arrhenius Concept:
Hydroxide ions (OH⁻) are directly associated with bases in aqueous solutions.
Brønsted-Lowry Concept:
Since hydroxide ions (OH⁻) accept protons (H⁺), they also qualify as Brønsted bases. This
means any OH⁻ donor is also considered a base under the Brønsted-Lowry theory, but the
theory is more general as it applies to non-aqueous environments too.

5. Relationship Between the Two Concepts:

The Brønsted-Lowry Concept does not contradict the Arrhenius Concept; rather, it has a
greater scope.
The Arrhenius Concept is a specific case of the Brønsted-Lowry Concept when the reactions
occur in water (aqueous solutions).
Arrhenius acids and bases are simply Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases in aqueous
environments.
Brønsted-Lowry offers a broader explanation because it includes acid-base reactions that
occur in a variety of solvents (like liquid ammonia) and does not rely on the presence of water.

Summary of Comparison:

Feature Arrhenius Concept Brønsted-Lowry Concept

Applies to any proton transfer reaction (aqueous and
Scope Limited to aqueous solutions
non-aqueous)

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 8/32
 Feature Arrhenius Concept Brønsted-Lowry Concept

Proton donor (H⁺) in aqueous

Acid Definition Proton donor (H⁺) in any proton transfer reaction
solutions

Hydroxide ion (OH⁻) donor in

Base Definition Proton (H⁺) acceptor in any proton transfer reaction
aqueous solutions

Hydroxide Ion Associated with bases in aqueous OH⁻ is a proton acceptor, thus it is a base in all
(OH⁻) solutions proton transfer reactions

More general, includes reactions in various solvents

Generalization Specific to aqueous solutions
(e.g., liquid ammonia)

Conclusion:

The Brønsted-Lowry Concept provides a broader and more flexible framework for understanding acid-
base behavior because it applies to a wider range of reactions (including non-aqueous solvents).
However, in aqueous solutions, the Arrhenius Concept can still be a simple and effective model.

Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases - Certain reactions have the characteristics of acid–base reactions
but do not fit the Brønsted–Lowry concept.

Example: reaction of the basic oxide Na2O with the acidic oxide
SO3 to give the salt Na2SO4. Na2O(s) + SO3(g) ->Na2SO4(s)

G. N. Lewis realized that the concept of acids and bases could be

generalized to include reactions of acidic and basic oxides and
many other reactions, along with proton-transfer reactions.

G. N. Lewis: proposed the electron-pair theory of covalent

bonding A Lewis acid is a species that can form a covalent bond
by accepting an electron pair from another species and

A Lewis base is a species that can form a covalent bond

by donating an electron pair to another species. Lewis acid Lewis base

The Lewis Concept of acids and bases is a further extension of the Brønsted-Lowry theory, which
broadens the scope to include reactions that do not involve proton transfer. This concept focuses on
electron pair donation and acceptance, rather than the transfer of protons (H⁺).

Lewis Acid-Base Theory:

Lewis Acid: A substance that accepts an electron pair from another species. It is an electron pair
acceptor.
Lewis Base: A substance that donates an electron pair to another species. It is an electron pair
donor.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 9/32
This concept allows for the description of acid-base reactions that do not involve protons (H⁺), such as
those between acidic and basic oxides.

Key Features of the Lewis Concept:

1. Electron Pair Transfer:

In the Lewis model, acids and bases interact by donating and accepting electron pairs,
leading to the formation of covalent bonds.
2. Application Beyond Proton Transfer:
The Lewis theory expands the definition of acids and bases to include reactions that do not
involve proton transfer, such as the reaction between acidic and basic oxides.

Example of a Reaction that Doesn't Fit Brønsted-Lowry:

Reaction: Sodium oxide (Na₂O) reacts with sulfur trioxide (SO₃) to form sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄):

Na₂O (s) + SO₃ (g) → Na₂SO₄ (s)

This reaction involves the combination of a basic oxide (Na₂O) with an acidic oxide (SO₃), but it
does not involve proton transfer (H⁺), so it cannot be explained by the Brønsted-Lowry
concept. However, it can be described by the Lewis theory, as the Lewis acid SO₃ accepts
electron pairs from the Lewis base Na₂O.

Lewis Acid-Base Interaction:

A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor, which means it has an empty orbital that can accept
electrons.
A Lewis base is an electron pair donor, which means it has a lone pair of electrons that it can
share.

Examples of Lewis Acids and Bases:

1. Lewis Acid:
AlCl₃ (Aluminum chloride): The Al³⁺ ion is an electron pair acceptor because it has an
incomplete octet.
BF₃ (Boron trifluoride): The BF₃ molecule can accept electron pairs at the boron atom, which
has an empty orbital.
2. Lewis Base:
NH₃ (Ammonia): The nitrogen atom has a lone pair of electrons that it can donate.
H₂O (Water): The oxygen atom has lone pairs that it can donate in reactions.

Summary of the Lewis Concept:

Feature Lewis Acid Lewis Base

Electron Electron pair acceptor (has an empty
Electron pair donor (has a lone pair of electrons)
Pair orbital)
Reaction Can form a covalent bond by accepting an Can form a covalent bond by donating an electron
Type electron pair pair
Example AlCl₃, SO₃, BF₃ NH₃, H₂O, OH⁻

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 10/32
 Feature Lewis Acid Lewis Base

Can Acidic and basic oxide reactions, reactions Electron pair transfer in covalent bonding,
describe without proton transfer including proton transfer reactions

Conclusion:

The Lewis Concept is a powerful and generalized theory that describes a broader range of acid-base
reactions compared to the Brønsted-Lowry theory. It explains not only proton transfer reactions but also
many reactions involving electron pair donation and acceptance, such as those between acidic and basic
oxides. The Lewis acid-base theory is thus particularly useful for understanding covalent bonding in
chemistry beyond just proton-based reactions.

Strong Acid- what is it? examples- HCL, H2SO4,HNO3 acide module acid ions Examples of the
ionization reactions include:

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

HNO3 (aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + NO3- (aq)

2H2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l) → 2 H3O+(aq) + SO42- (aq)

Note the reaction arrow, which only points to the right. All
of the reactant (acid) is ionized into product.

Strong acids are fully ionised in solution (Greater than

99.99% ionised)

There aren't many strong acids, which makes life easy for you!

Strong Acids

The Formulae

Sulphuric acid

Hydrochloric acid

Hybrobromic acid

Hydroiodic acid

Nitric acid

Perchloric acid

H2SO4

HCl
Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 11/32
 HBr

HI

HNO3

HClO4

A strong acid is an acid that completely ionizes or dissociates in water. This means that in a solution,
nearly 100% of the acid molecules break apart into hydronium ions (H₃O⁺) and conjugate base ions.
Because of this complete dissociation, strong acids have a very low pH (usually below 1) and are very
reactive.

Characteristics of Strong Acids:

Complete ionization in water: Strong acids dissociate almost completely, meaning there is no
equilibrium between the acid and its ions.
Greater than 99.99% ionization: In a strong acid solution, the concentration of H₃O⁺ ions is almost
equal to the initial concentration of the acid.
Reaction arrows point to the right: The ionization reactions of strong acids only go in the forward
direction, producing H₃O⁺ and the conjugate base ions with no significant reverse reaction.

Examples of Strong Acids and Their Ionization Reactions:

1. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl):

HCl (aq) + H₂O (l) → H₃O⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq)

Ionization: HCl completely dissociates to form H₃O⁺ and Cl⁻.

2. Nitric Acid (HNO₃):

HNO₃ (aq) + H₂O (l) → H₃O⁺ (aq) + NO₃⁻ (aq)

Ionization: HNO₃ fully dissociates to form H₃O⁺ and NO₃⁻.

3. Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄):

2H₂SO₄ (aq) + H₂O (l) → 2H₃O⁺ (aq) + SO₄²⁻ (aq)

Ionization: The first proton of H₂SO₄ dissociates completely, and the second proton also
dissociates almost completely.

List of Common Strong Acids:

Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Hydrobromic acid (HBr)
Hydroiodic acid (HI)
Nitric acid (HNO₃)
Perchloric acid (HClO₄)
Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 12/32
Note:

The strong acids listed above are all capable of dissociating completely in water. This makes them
powerful acids in both laboratory and industrial settings.

Conclusion:

Strong acids are substances that completely ionize in solution, producing a high concentration of H₃O⁺
ions. The list of strong acids is relatively small, which simplifies the study and understanding of acid
strength in aqueous solutions.

Weak Acid- what is it? examples - Acetic acid,Citric acid,Carbonic acid Weak acids
ionized/dissociated
incompletely/partially
in aqueous solution Example of the ionization reactions include:CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇋ H3O+
(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

Here, Less than 0.4% acid is ionised.

Note the reaction arrows point to the both left and right. That
indicates a reaction in equilibrium. Only some of the reactant (acid)
is ionized into product (Less than 1% ionised). Some weak acids

Weak Acids

The Formulae

oxalic acid

sulfurous acid

phosphoric acid

nitrous acid

hydrofluoric acid

methanoic acid

benzoic acid

acetic acid

HOOC-COOH

H2SO3

H3PO4

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 13/32
 HNO2

HF

HCOOH

C6H5COOH

CH3COOH

A weak acid is an acid that partially ionizes or dissociates in water. Unlike strong acids, which
completely dissociate, weak acids only produce a small amount of hydronium ions (H₃O⁺) and their
conjugate base ions in solution. This partial dissociation results in an equilibrium between the acid and
its ions.

Characteristics of Weak Acids:

Incomplete ionization: Only a small fraction of the acid molecules dissociate into H₃O⁺ and the
conjugate base.
Equilibrium: The ionization reaction reaches an equilibrium, meaning both the reactants
(undissociated acid) and products (H₃O⁺ and conjugate base) exist in solution.
Less than 1% ionized: In a typical weak acid solution, less than 1% of the acid molecules ionize
into ions. For example, acetic acid (CH₃COOH) ionizes less than 0.4%.

Example of a Weak Acid Ionization Reaction:

1. Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH):

CH₃COOH (aq) + H₂O (l) ⇌ H₃O⁺ (aq) + CH₃COO⁻ (aq)

In this reaction, acetic acid only partially dissociates in water, and the equilibrium sign (↔)
indicates that both the dissociated ions and the undissociated acid are present in the
solution.
Less than 0.4% ionized: Only a small fraction of acetic acid molecules dissociate into H₃O⁺
and CH₃COO⁻ ions.

Common Weak Acids:

1. Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH) – Found in vinegar.

2. Citric Acid (C₆H₈O₇) – Found in citrus fruits.
3. Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃) – Found in carbonated drinks.
4. Oxalic Acid (HOOC-COOH) – Found in plants like spinach and rhubarb.
5. Sulfurous Acid (H₂SO₃) – Formed when sulfur dioxide dissolves in water.
6. Phosphoric Acid (H₃PO₄) – Found in soft drinks and used in fertilizers.
7. Nitrous Acid (HNO₂) – Found in aqueous solutions of nitrous oxide.
8. Hydrofluoric Acid (HF) – Found in industrial applications.
9. Methanoic Acid (HCOOH) – Found in ant and bee stings.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 14/32
 10. Benzoic Acid (C₆H₅COOH) – Found in food preservation.

Ionization Reactions of Weak Acids:

For a weak acid, the ionization reaction is reversible, meaning the acid does not completely dissociate
but exists in a state of equilibrium. For example, acetic acid ionizes as follows:

CH₃COOH (aq) + H₂O (l) ⇌ H₃O⁺ (aq) + CH₃COO⁻ (aq)

In this case, the equilibrium arrow (↔) indicates that only some of the acetic acid molecules dissociate
into H₃O⁺ and CH₃COO⁻, while the rest remain undissociated as CH₃COOH.

Summary of Weak Acid Behavior:

Partially ionized: Less than 1% of the acid dissociates into H₃O⁺ and the conjugate base.
Equilibrium: The dissociation reaches an equilibrium between the acid and its ions.
Weak Acid Examples:
Acetic acid (CH₃COOH)
Citric acid (C₆H₈O₇)
Carbonic acid (H₂CO₃)
Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH)
Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄)

Conclusion:

Weak acids only partially ionize in water, unlike strong acids, which fully dissociate. This partial
dissociation creates an equilibrium between the undissociated acid and its ions, making weak acids less
reactive than strong acids and leading to a higher pH in solution compared to strong acids.

Strong and Weak Bases - Strong bases ionized/dissociated completely

in aqueous solution

Examples

NaOH, KOH , Weak bases ionized/dissociated incompletely/partially

in aqueous solution.

Example,

Al(OH)3 , NH4OH, Mg(OH)2

Strong Bases:

A strong base is a substance that completely dissociates (or ionizes) in water to release hydroxide ions
(OH⁻). These bases produce a high concentration of OH⁻ ions in solution, which results in a high pH
(above 12).

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 15/32
Characteristics of Strong Bases:

Complete ionization in water.

100% dissociation: The base dissociates completely into OH⁻ ions and its cations.
High concentration of OH⁻ ions, which makes the solution highly alkaline (basic).

Examples of Strong Bases:

1. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):

NaOH (aq) → Na⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq)

NaOH completely dissociates in water to form Na⁺ and OH⁻ ions.

2. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH):

KOH (aq) → K⁺ (aq) + OH⁻ (aq)

KOH completely dissociates in water, producing K⁺ and OH⁻ ions.

These are strong bases because they ionize completely in water.

Weak Bases:

A weak base is a substance that only partially dissociates in water, meaning only some of the base
molecules release hydroxide ions (OH⁻). The dissociation of weak bases reaches an equilibrium where
both the undissociated base and the dissociated ions are present in solution.

Characteristics of Weak Bases:

Incomplete ionization: Only a small fraction of the base dissociates to form OH⁻ ions.
Equilibrium: The dissociation reaches equilibrium, meaning the concentrations of the
undissociated base and its ions are relatively constant.

Examples of Weak Bases:

1. Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)₃):

Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H2 O(l) ⇌ Al(OH)−

​ ​ ​
+
4 (aq) + H3 O (aq) ​

Al(OH)₃ is only sparingly soluble in water and dissociates partially to form Al(OH)₄⁻ and H₃O⁺
ions.
2. Ammonium Hydroxide (NH₄OH):

NH₄OH (aq) ⇌ NH₃ (aq) + H₂O (l)

NH₄OH dissociates partially to produce NH₃ and OH⁻ in water, making it a weak base.
3. Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂):

Mg(OH)2 (s) ⇌ Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq)

​

Mg(OH)₂ has low solubility in water, and only a small portion dissociates into Mg²⁺ and OH⁻
ions.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 16/32
Summary of Strong and Weak Bases:

Property Strong Bases Weak Bases

Ionization Completely ionized in water Partially ionized in water

Ionization Percentage 100% dissociation Less than 1% dissociation
Examples NaOH, KOH Al(OH)₃, NH₄OH, Mg(OH)₂
Reaction Type Full dissociation, no equilibrium Partial dissociation, equilibrium formed

OH⁻ Concentration High concentration of OH⁻ ions Low concentration of OH⁻ ions

Conclusion:

Strong bases dissociate completely in water, resulting in a high concentration of OH⁻ ions and a
strongly basic (alkaline) solution.
Weak bases, on the other hand, only partially dissociate, and the dissociation reaches equilibrium,
meaning they do not release as many OH⁻ ions into the solution.

Some Common Bases-Usually metal Oxides and Hydroxides --Water soluble bases

Alkalis- Sodium Hydroxide - NaOH

Potassium Hydroxide - KOH
Calcium Hydroxide - Ca(OH)2

Calcium Oxide - CaO

Sodium Oxide - Na2O

Ammonium Hydroxide - NH4OH , Water insoluble bases

Not Alkalis-Iron Oxide - FeO

Iron Hydroxide - Fe(OH)2

Aluminium Hydroxide - Al(OH)3

Copper Oxide - CuO ,, Only water soluble bases are called Alkalis

Common Bases and Their Classification

Bases can be classified based on their solubility in water. The bases that dissolve in water are called
alkalis, while those that do not dissolve in water are considered water-insoluble bases.

Water-Soluble Bases (Alkalis):

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 17/32
These bases are alkalis, which means they dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻). Alkalis are
typically metal hydroxides or metal oxides that dissolve in water.

1. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH):

A common alkali, also known as caustic soda, it dissociates completely in water to form
sodium ions (Na⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

2. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH):

Also known as caustic potash, it dissociates in water to form potassium ions (K⁺) and
hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

3. Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂):

Known as slaked lime, it dissociates partially in water to form calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and
hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

Ca(OH)2 (aq) → Ca2+ (aq ) + 2OH− (aq)

​

4. Calcium Oxide (CaO):

Known as quicklime, it reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), which is an
alkali.

CaO (s) + H2 O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) ​

5. Sodium Oxide (Na₂O):

Reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is an alkali.

Na2 O (s) + H2 O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)

​ ​

6. Ammonium Hydroxide (NH₄OH):

Also known as ammonia solution, it dissociates in water to form ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) and
hydroxide ions (OH⁻).

NH₄OH (aq) ⇌ NH₄+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

Water-Insoluble Bases:

These bases do not dissolve in water, so they are not considered alkalis. However, they still possess
basic properties when reacted with acids or water.

1. Iron Oxide (FeO):

A basic oxide of iron that is insoluble in water. It can react with acids to form salts, but does
not dissolve in water to form OH⁻ ions.
2. Iron Hydroxide (Fe(OH)₂):
Insoluble in water but can react with acids to form iron salts. It is a weak base due to its
limited solubility.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 18/32
 3. Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)₃):
Known as alumina, this base is insoluble in water but reacts with acids and bases to form
salts or complex ions.
4. Copper Oxide (CuO):
A basic oxide of copper, insoluble in water. It reacts with acids to form copper salts.

Key Point:

Alkalis are water-soluble bases that dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
Common examples include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), and calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).
Water-insoluble bases are bases that do not dissociate in water, such as iron oxide (FeO) and
copper oxide (CuO), and are not classified as alkalis.

#Adverse effects of acids-Acidity in Stomach

excess secretion of acids in the gastric

glands of the stomach, causes heartburn

Cavity in teeth

Acid softens teeth enamel, and brushing

too soon will speed up demineralization

Lead to tooth decay

Acid rain: Effects on buildings and sculpture

Acid dissolves limestone and marble.. #Adverse effects of acids on concrete:

Carbonation (Weathering)-- Concrete's main enemy is the CO2 in air. This
dissolves in water of cement or rainwater to form
a mildly acidic solution:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇋ H2CO3(aq) ,This acidic solution gradually attacks the concrete:

CaCO3 + H2CO3 = Ca(HCO3)2.

This effect is known as carbonation. Carbonation affects concretes’ ability to

hold the components within it together.

As concrete dissolves, cracks are formed that allows water to reach the
supporting steel inside, attack their protective layer of iron oxide and leading to
corrosion (rust).

As steel corrodes, it can expand up to six times its size. The resulting pressure
can cause the already weakened concrete around it to break and crack.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 19/32
 The effect becomes severe if there is acid rain as it contains stronger acid like
H2SO4. It does effect concrete in a similar but severe way:

H2SO4 + CaCO3 = CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O

Adverse effects of acids on concrete: Carbonation (Weathering)

Adverse Effects of Acids

Acids can have various harmful effects on both biological and non-biological materials. Below are some
of the key impacts of acids on the human body, buildings, and other materials.

1. Acidity in the Stomach

Excess secretion of gastric acid in the stomach can lead to several health issues:

Heartburn: This is caused by acid reflux, where stomach acid moves into the esophagus, leading
to a burning sensation in the chest.
Gastric ulcers: The excess acid can erode the stomach lining, causing ulcers.
Indigestion: Excess acid production may also lead to bloating, discomfort, and difficulty digesting
food.

2. Effects on Teeth

Acid can have damaging effects on the teeth, particularly in the following ways:

Cavity formation: Acidic substances can soften and erode tooth enamel, which makes the teeth
more susceptible to decay.
Tooth decay: Continuous exposure to acids (like sugary or acidic drinks) weakens the enamel,
leading to tooth decay.
Enamel demineralization: Brushing too soon after consuming acidic foods or drinks can speed up
enamel erosion. It's recommended to wait 30 minutes after eating acidic foods before brushing
your teeth.

3. Acid Rain

Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) from burning fossil fuels mix
with water vapor in the atmosphere. The resulting acids (such as sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄) can have severe
effects on both natural and man-made environments:

Buildings and sculptures: Acid rain dissolves limestone, marble, and other carbonate-containing
rocks, which can lead to erosion of building structures and historical sculptures, causing loss of
detail and weakening the structure.

CaCO₃ + H₂SO₄ → CaSO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 20/32
4. Adverse Effects on Concrete: Carbonation (Weathering)

Concrete is also vulnerable to acid attack, particularly from carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the air, which leads to
a process known as carbonation:

Carbonation process: CO₂ from the air dissolves in water (from rain or moisture in the concrete),
forming carbonic acid (H₂CO₃).

CO₂ (g) + H₂O (l) ⇌ H₂CO₃ (aq)

The carbonic acid reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) in the concrete, causing it to break down
into calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO₃)₂):

CaCO₃ + H₂CO₃ → Ca(HCO₃)₂

As the concrete dissolves, cracks form, and water can penetrate to the steel reinforcement inside.
This can cause corrosion of the steel (rusting), which expands up to six times its original size,
creating further pressure on the surrounding concrete and causing it to crack and deteriorate.
Acid rain can exacerbate this process, especially if it contains stronger acids such as sulfuric acid
(H₂SO₄), which can cause even more aggressive chemical reactions.

H₂SO₄ + CaCO₃ → CaSO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O

Summary of Key Effects of Acids:

1. Health: Acid reflux, ulcers, and indigestion.

2. Teeth: Erosion of enamel, leading to cavities and decay.
3. Environmental Impact: Acid rain causes erosion of buildings, sculptures, and natural structures.
4. Concrete: Carbonation leads to weakened concrete and rusting of reinforcement steel, which
causes cracking and deterioration.

In all these cases, the adverse effects of acids can be mitigated by reducing acid exposure, using
protective coatings (for buildings and sculptures), and using proper treatment methods for concrete and
other materials.

How to minimize carbonation?

Minimizing carbonation in concrete is essential for maintaining its durability and preventing long-term
damage, especially to the steel reinforcement within it. Here are several strategies to reduce
carbonation:

1. Use of Low Carbonate Content Materials

Select low-alkali aggregates: Some aggregates, such as limestone, can contribute to carbonation.
Using aggregates with low levels of carbonates can help minimize carbonation.
Proper mix design: Use a mix that includes low water-to-cement ratio, which results in denser
concrete that is less permeable to gases like carbon dioxide.
Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 21/32
2. Use of Pozzolanic Materials

Incorporate pozzolanic materials like fly ash, silica fume, and slag in the concrete mix. These
materials react with calcium hydroxide in the concrete to form additional calcium silicate hydrate,
which increases the concrete's density and reduces permeability.
Pozzolanic materials help fill voids and microcracks, reducing the pathways through which
CO₂ can penetrate.

3. Increase Concrete Cover Thickness

Increase the thickness of the concrete cover over steel reinforcement. A thicker cover provides
better protection against carbonation, as it slows down the rate at which CO₂ can penetrate to the
steel.
A thicker cover also reduces the risk of corrosion, as it keeps the reinforcing steel further from the
carbonated zone.

4. Use of Carbonation-Resistant Additives

Incorporate additives that enhance the carbonation resistance of concrete. These may include:
Water repellents: Surface treatments such as silanes or siloxanes can reduce water
infiltration, which also reduces carbonation.
Hydrophobic agents: These agents help prevent moisture from penetrating the concrete,
reducing the carbonic acid formation.

5. Proper Curing

Proper curing during the initial stages of concrete placement helps form stronger, denser concrete
by ensuring that the hydration process is fully completed.
Use curing compounds: This helps maintain moisture during the early curing phase,
ensuring adequate hydration of the cement particles and improving the concrete’s resistance
to carbonation.
Wet curing or using curing blankets for at least the first 7 days to ensure sufficient
hydration.

6. Use of High-Quality Concrete

Use high-strength concrete: High-strength concrete typically has a lower permeability, meaning
less CO₂ can penetrate it. The strength can be increased by using a lower water-to-cement ratio
and high-performance cements.
Ensure proper compaction: Well-compacted concrete has fewer voids, which makes it more
resistant to the penetration of gases and water.

7. Apply Surface Protection Coatings

Use protective coatings such as epoxy or polyurethane-based coatings on exposed concrete

surfaces. These coatings act as a barrier to CO₂ and moisture, slowing down the carbonation
process.
Anti-carbonation coatings are specifically designed to reduce CO₂ penetration into concrete.

8. Environmental Control

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 22/32
 Control exposure to CO₂: In areas with high CO₂ concentrations (e.g., industrial zones), minimizing
the exposure of concrete structures to these environments can reduce carbonation rates.
This can be done by protecting structures with barriers or by positioning sensitive concrete
away from sources of carbon dioxide.

Summary

To minimize carbonation in concrete:

Use low-carbonate aggregates and pozzolanic materials.

Increase concrete cover thickness over reinforcement.
Apply surface coatings that reduce CO₂ penetration.
Ensure proper curing, and use high-strength concrete with low permeability.
Control the environmental exposure of concrete to CO₂.

By adopting these measures, the rate of carbonation can be significantly reduced, preserving the
strength and durability of concrete structures.

Bases on action: ||Unclogging the Sink and Drains|| Fat + strong base (NaOH) ->Salt of a fatty
acid (also known as soap) Hair (protein material) + strong base (NaOH) ->Salts of its constituent
amino acids Both fat and protein become a soapy solution of fatty acid salt and
amino acid salts. That solutions washed easily down the drain.

Bases on Action: Unclogging the Sink and Drains

When dealing with clogged sinks and drains, bases like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are often used
because they break down organic materials such as fats and proteins, which are common causes of
blockages. Here’s how they work in the unclogging process:

1. Fats and Strong Bases (e.g., NaOH)

Reaction with Fats: When fat (or grease) comes into contact with a strong base like NaOH, it
undergoes a chemical reaction called saponification:

Fat (or grease) + NaOH → Salt of a fatty acid (soap)

In this reaction, the fat molecules (usually triglycerides) break down, and soap is produced as a
byproduct. The soap (fatty acid salt) can then dissolve in water, which makes it easier to wash down
the drain.
Why it works: Soap molecules have a hydrophilic (water-attracting) part and a hydrophobic (water-
repelling) part, which allows them to interact with both water and grease. This helps break down
the grease and fat clog.

2. Hair (Protein Material) and Strong Bases (e.g., NaOH)

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 23/32
 Reaction with Hair: Hair, which is mainly composed of keratin (a protein), reacts with sodium
hydroxide as follows:

Hair (protein material) + NaOH → Salts of its constituent amino acids

The strong base breaks the protein down into its amino acid components. The resulting amino acid
salts, being more soluble in water, are easier to wash away.
Why it works: Sodium hydroxide helps to denature the proteins in hair, which means it alters their
structure, making them easier to break apart and flush down the drain.

Effectiveness in Unclogging Drains

Both fat and protein (like hair) are organic materials that can build up in pipes, causing clogs. The
use of strong bases like sodium hydroxide helps break down these materials into water-soluble
components, such as soap and amino acid salts, which can be easily washed away.
The soapy solution created from the breakdown of fat and the amino acid salts from hair helps
dislodge the clog and move it through the drain more easily.

Precautions

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is highly caustic and can cause severe burns. Always handle it carefully,
and follow proper safety precautions, such as wearing gloves and eye protection.
Avoid using NaOH on pipes that may be made of aluminum, as it can react with the metal and
cause damage.

Summary

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is an effective base for unclogging sinks and drains because it breaks down
fats and proteins:

Fats react to form soap (fatty acid salts), which dissolves in water and is easy to flush away.
Hair (proteins) reacts to form amino acid salts, making it easier to clear the clog. This action helps
clear clogged drains and is why strong bases are commonly used in drain cleaning products.

Neutralization reaction--The chemical reaction between an acid and a base is

called Neutralization reaction.

Because the products of the reaction are salt and

water that are neither acidic nor basic.

Acid + Base 🡪 Salt + Water

The overall pH of the

product would be 7.0 ----- Example Sodium hydroxide+hydrochloric acid->Water+Sodium

chloride [ Ions: H+ Cl-, Na+ OH-] In this reaction, the H+ ions from the acid react with the

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 24/32
 OH- ions from the base to form H2O – water

The salt forms when the negative ions from the acid (Cl-)
combine with the positive ions (Na+) from the base

Neutralization Reaction

A neutralization reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a base to produce salt and water. This type
of reaction is called neutralization because the acidic and basic properties are effectively neutralized,
resulting in a solution that is neutral or close to neutral, with a pH of 7.

General Equation for Neutralization Reaction:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Example: Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

A classic example of a neutralization reaction is the reaction between sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
hydrochloric acid (HCl):

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2 O (l) ​

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a strong base, and hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid.
In this reaction:
The H+ ions from HCl (acid) combine with the OH- ions from NaOH (base) to form water
(H₂O).
The Na+ ions from NaOH combine with the Cl- ions from HCl to form sodium chloride
(NaCl), which is a salt.

Ions Involved in the Reaction:

H+ (from the acid) + OH- (from the base) → H₂O (water)

Na+ (from the base) + Cl- (from the acid) → NaCl (salt)

Neutralization Process:

The H+ ions (protons) from the acid and the OH- ions from the base combine to form water (H₂O),
which is neutral.
The salt (NaCl) is formed from the combination of the positive ion from the base (Na+) and the
negative ion from the acid (Cl-).

Overall pH:

In a perfect neutralization reaction, the products are water and salt, which have a neutral pH of 7
(assuming no excess acid or base is present).

Summary:
Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 25/32
 Neutralization reactions produce salt and water.
The acid and base neutralize each other’s properties, resulting in a neutral solution with a pH of 7.
In the example of NaOH + HCl, water and NaCl (salt) are produced.

Application of Neutralization reaction- i. Tooth Decay :

Alkalis like baking soda (NaHCO3)

used in toothpaste to neutralize

acids on our teeth. So tooth decay

is prevented, ii:Soil Treatment iii.Factory Waste iv:Indigestion 2HCl + Mg(OH)2 = MgCl2 +

2H2O

3HCl + Al(OH)3 = AlCl3 + 3H2O

Applications of Neutralization Reactions

Neutralization reactions play an important role in various everyday processes and industrial
applications. Here are some examples:

i. Tooth Decay

Problem: Tooth decay occurs when acids produced by bacteria in the mouth attack the enamel of
the teeth. This can lead to cavities.
Solution: Alkalis, like baking soda (NaHCO₃), are used in toothpaste to neutralize the acids on our
teeth.
The baking soda reacts with the acids to form water and a salt, thereby reducing the acidity
in the mouth.
This helps prevent tooth decay and maintains oral health by neutralizing harmful acids.

ii. Soil Treatment

Problem: Soil can become too acidic, which affects plant growth and agricultural productivity.

Solution: Lime (calcium carbonate, CaCO₃) is often added to acidic soil to neutralize the acidity.
The neutralization reaction helps to raise the soil’s pH to a more neutral or slightly alkaline
level, improving nutrient availability for plants.

iii. Factory Waste Treatment

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 26/32
 Problem: Some industrial processes produce acidic waste that can harm the environment if not
properly treated.
Solution: Neutralizing acids with bases is a common method used to treat acidic industrial waste.
For example, alkali solutions like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂)
can be used to neutralize acidic effluents before being released into water bodies, reducing
environmental damage.

iv. Indigestion

Problem: Indigestion can occur due to excess acid (hydrochloric acid, HCl) in the stomach, causing
discomfort and pain.
Solution: Antacids are often used to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
Common antacids contain bases like magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂) or aluminum
hydroxide (Al(OH)₃), which neutralize stomach acid through neutralization reactions.

Examples of Neutralization Reactions in Indigestion:

1. Magnesium Hydroxide and Hydrochloric Acid:

2HCl + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2 + 2H2 O

​ ​

Magnesium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid in the stomach to form magnesium chloride
(MgCl₂) and water.

2. Aluminum Hydroxide and Hydrochloric Acid:

3HCl + Al(OH)3 → AlCl3 + 3H2 O

​ ​ ​

Aluminum hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) and water.

Summary of Applications:

1. Tooth Decay: Alkalis like baking soda neutralize acids to prevent tooth decay.
2. Soil Treatment: Lime neutralizes acidic soil, improving plant growth.
3. Factory Waste: Neutralization of industrial waste helps in treating acidic effluents.
4. Indigestion: Antacids neutralize excess stomach acid to relieve discomfort.

These applications highlight how neutralization reactions are essential in maintaining balance and
preventing damage in both biological and industrial processes.

Explain acids and bases according to Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis

concepts with examples.

Discuss about Strong and weak acids and bases with example. Show
ionization reactions for both.

Describe the adverse effects of acids (carbonation/weathering) on concrete.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 27/32
 How to minimize carbonation?

For the following issues: what are the adverse effects and how to treat:

Tooth decay

Indigestion

Acidic and basic soil

Acidic liquid waste of factories

Clogged (by oil and hair) drain and sinks.

Acids and Bases According to Different Concepts

1. Arrhenius Concept

Acid: An Arrhenius acid is a substance that produces H+ ions (protons) when dissolved in water.
Example: HCl (Hydrochloric acid) in water dissociates as follows:

HCl → H+ + Cl−

Base: An Arrhenius base is a substance that produces OH- ions (hydroxide ions) when dissolved in
water.
Example: NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) in water dissociates as follows:

NaOH → Na+ + OH−

2. Brønsted-Lowry Concept

Acid: A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a substance that donates a proton (H+) in a reaction.

Example: HCl donates a proton to water:

HCl → H+ + Cl−

Base: A Brønsted-Lowry base is a substance that accepts a proton (H+) in a reaction.

Example: NH₃ (Ammonia) accepts a proton from water:

NH3 + H2 O → NH+
​ ​

4 + OH
−
​

3. Lewis Concept

Acid: A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept an electron pair.

Example: AlCl₃ (Aluminum chloride), which accepts an electron pair from ammonia (NH₃):

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 28/32
 AlCl3 + NH3 → AlCl3 ⋅ NH3
​ ​ ​ ​

Base: A Lewis base is a substance that can donate an electron pair.

Example: NH₃ (Ammonia) donates an electron pair to AlCl₃:

NH3 + AlCl3 → NH3 ⋅ AlCl3

​ ​ ​ ​

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

Strong Acids

Strong acids completely ionize in water, meaning they dissociate fully into their ions.
Examples:
HCl (Hydrochloric acid):

HCl → H+ + Cl−

H₂SO₄ (Sulfuric acid):

H2 SO4 → 2H+ + SO2−

​ ​

4 ​

HNO₃ (Nitric acid):

HNO3 → H+ + NO−
3 ​ ​

Weak Acids

Weak acids only partially ionize in water, meaning only a small fraction of the acid molecules
dissociate into ions.
Examples:
CH₃COOH (Acetic acid):

CH3 COOH + H2 O ↔ CH3 COO− + H3 O+

​ ​ ​ ​

H₂CO₃ (Carbonic acid):

H2 CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO−
​

3 ​ ​

HF (Hydrofluoric acid):

HF ↔ H+ + F−

Strong Bases

Strong bases completely dissociate in water.

Examples:
NaOH (Sodium hydroxide):

NaOH → Na+ + OH−

KOH (Potassium hydroxide):

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 29/32
 KOH → K+ + OH−

Weak Bases

Weak bases partially dissociate in water.

Examples:
NH₃ (Ammonia):

NH3 + H2 O ↔ NH+
​

4 + OH
−
​ ​

Mg(OH)₂ (Magnesium hydroxide):

Mg(OH)2 ↔ Mg2+ + 2OH− ​

Adverse Effects of Acids on Concrete (Carbonation/Weathering)

Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the air dissolves in water to form carbonic acid
(H₂CO₃), which slowly reacts with calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) in concrete to form calcium
bicarbonate (Ca(HCO₃)₂), weakening the concrete structure.
Equation:

CO2 + H2 O ↔ H2 CO3
​ ​ ​ ​

CaCO3 + H2 CO3 → Ca(HCO3 )2

​ ​ ​ ​

The process leads to cracks and allows water to reach the steel reinforcement, causing rusting
and further weakening the structure.
How to Minimize Carbonation:
Use alkaline-resistant concrete and coatings to protect the surface.
Incorporate pozzolanic materials (like fly ash) that reduce the rate of carbonation.

Adverse Effects and Treatment of Various Issues

1. Tooth Decay

Problem: Acids from food and bacteria cause demineralization of tooth enamel, leading to
cavities.
Solution: Baking soda (NaHCO₃) or other alkalis in toothpaste neutralize acids, preventing decay.

2. Indigestion

Problem: Excess stomach acid (HCl) leads to discomfort and acidity.

Solution: Antacids like Mg(OH)₂ neutralize the excess acid:

2HCl + Mg(OH)2 → MgCl2 + 2H2 O​ ​

3. Acidic and Basic Soil

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 30/32
 Problem: Acidic soil (low pH) harms plant growth, while basic soil (high pH) can prevent nutrient
absorption.
Solution:
Acidic soil: Add lime (CaCO₃) to neutralize the acidity.
Basic soil: Add sulfur or ammonium sulfate to lower pH.

4. Acidic Liquid Waste of Factories

Problem: Industrial processes produce acidic waste that can harm the environment.
Solution: Neutralize with alkaline solutions like NaOH before disposal.

5. Clogged Drains and Sinks (Oil and Hair)

Problem: Oil and hair clog drains and sinks.

Solution: Strong bases like NaOH (sodium hydroxide) break down oils and fats, while hair is
dissolved into salts and removed easily.

These concepts demonstrate how acids and bases affect various processes in both everyday life and
industrial settings, and the importance of neutralization reactions in resolving many of these issues.

compare- Arrhenius law vs Bronsted Lowry law vs Lewis law

Comparison of Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis Acid-Base Theories

Feature Arrhenius Theory Brønsted-Lowry Theory Lewis Theory

An acid is a substance
Definition of that produces H⁺ ions An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor in An acid is an electron pair
Acid (protons) when dissolved any proton transfer reaction. acceptor.
in water.
A base is a substance
Definition of that produces OH⁻ ions A base is a proton (H⁺) acceptor A base is an electron pair
Base (hydroxide ions) when in any proton transfer reaction. donor.
dissolved in water.
Can be applied to a wide
Limited to aqueous Can be applied to both aqueous range of reactions (proton
Scope
solutions. and non-aqueous solutions. transfer, covalent bonding,
etc.).
AlCl₃ + NH₃ → AlCl₃·NH₃
Reaction HCl (aq) + H₂O (l) → NH₃ (aq) + H₂O (l) → NH₄⁺ (aq) +
(formation of a coordinate
Examples H₃O⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq) OH⁻ (aq)
bond)
More generalized; can
Only applicable to Focuses only on proton explain reactions not
Limitations
aqueous solutions. transfer reactions. involving protons (such as
coordination complexes).

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 31/32
 Feature Arrhenius Theory Brønsted-Lowry Theory Lewis Theory
HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃
Examples of HCl, H₂SO₄, NH₄⁺ (donate AlCl₃, FeCl₃, BF₃ (accept
(produce H⁺ ions in
Acids protons in reactions). electron pairs).
water).
Examples of NaOH, KOH (produce NH₃, H₂O (accept protons in NH₃, H₂O, PCl₃ (donate
Bases OH⁻ ions in water). reactions). electron pairs).
Strength is defined by the
Strength of Defined by the degree Strength is based on proton
ability to donate/accept
Acid/Base of dissociation in water. donation/acceptance ability.
electron pairs.
Simplifies acid-base Extends acid-base behavior
Extends the concept to all
Simplification interactions by focusing to electron pair
proton transfer reactions.
on H⁺ and OH⁻ ions. interactions.
Explains reactions like
Example of Cannot explain reactions Cannot explain reactions where
formation of coordinate
Non- like metal oxides electron pair donation is
covalent bonds (e.g., NH₃ +
Applicability reacting with acids. involved without protons.
BF₃).

Key Differences and Advantages

1. Scope of Application:
Arrhenius: Only applicable in aqueous solutions.
Brønsted-Lowry: More general than Arrhenius, applicable in aqueous and non-aqueous
solutions.
Lewis: Most general theory, explaining all types of acid-base reactions, even those without
protons, including coordination chemistry and reactions between electron pairs.
2. Focus of Reaction:
Arrhenius: Focuses on H⁺ (acid) and OH⁻ (base) ions in water.
Brønsted-Lowry: Focuses on proton transfer (H⁺).
Lewis: Focuses on electron pair transfer.
3. Application in Complex Reactions:
Arrhenius: Limited to simpler reactions in water.
Brønsted-Lowry: Can handle more complex proton transfer reactions but still limited in
scope.
Lewis: Capable of explaining reactions involving coordination complexes, electron pair
donations, and reactions not involving H⁺/OH⁻ ions.

Conclusion

Arrhenius theory is best for explaining acid-base reactions in water, especially for beginner-level
understanding.
Brønsted-Lowry theory expands on this by introducing the concept of proton transfer, making it
more versatile in various solvents.
Lewis theory is the most generalized and comprehensive, explaining not only proton transfers but
also reactions involving electron pair donation and acceptance. It applies to a broader range of
chemical processes, including coordination chemistry.

Printed using ChatGPT to PDF, powered by PDFCrowd HTML to PDF API. 32/32