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 START
PROGRAMMING
using HTML, CSS,
and JAVASCRIPT
 CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC
TEXTBOOKS IN COMPUTING

Series Editors

John Impagliazzo Andrew McGettrick

Professor Emeritus, Hofstra University Department of Computer
and Information Sciences
University of Strathclyde

Aims and Scope

This series covers traditional areas of computing, as well as related technical areas, such as
software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer engineering, information systems, and
information technology. The series will accommodate textbooks for undergraduate and gradu-
ate students, generally adhering to worldwide curriculum standards from professional societ-
ies. The editors wish to encourage new and imaginative ideas and proposals, and are keen to
help and encourage new authors. The editors welcome proposals that: provide groundbreaking
and imaginative perspectives on aspects of computing; present topics in a new and exciting
context; open up opportunities for emerging areas, such as multi-media, security, and mobile
systems; capture new developments and applications in emerging fields of computing; and
address topics that provide support for computing, such as mathematics, statistics, life and
physical sciences, and business.

Published Titles

Paul Anderson, Web 2.0 and Beyond: Principles and Technologies

Henrik Bærbak Christensen, Flexible, Reliable Software: Using Patterns and Agile Development
John S. Conery, Explorations in Computing: An Introduction to Computer Science
John S. Conery, Explorations in Computing: An Introduction to Computer Science and Python
Programming
Iztok Fajfar, Start Programming Using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
Jessen Havill, Discovering Computer Science: Interdisciplinary Problems, Principles, and
Python Programming
Ted Herman, A Functional Start to Computing with Python
Pascal Hitzler, Markus Krötzsch, and Sebastian Rudolph, Foundations of Semantic Web
Technologies
Mark J. Johnson, A Concise Introduction to Data Structures using Java
Mark J. Johnson, A Concise Introduction to Programming in Python
Lisa C. Kaczmarczyk, Computers and Society: Computing for Good
Mark C. Lewis, Introduction to the Art of Programming Using Scala
Efrem G. Mallach, Information Systems: What Every Business Student Needs to Know
Bill Manaris and Andrew R. Brown, Making Music with Computers: Creative Programming in
Python
Uvais Qidwai and C.H. Chen, Digital Image Processing: An Algorithmic Approach with MATLAB®
David D. Riley and Kenny A. Hunt, Computational Thinking for the Modern Problem Solver
Henry M. Walker, The Tao of Computing, Second Edition
 Chapman & Hall/CRC
TEXTBOOKS IN COMPUTING

START
PROGRAMMING
using HTML, CSS,
and JAVASCRIPT

Iztok Fajfar
University of Ljubljana
Slovenia
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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To my family
 Contents

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction xiii

About the Author xvii

1 Content and Structure 1

1.1 Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Introducing HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Minimal HTML Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Formatting a Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Building a Sound Structure 15

2.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Lists and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Generic <div> and <span> Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Sectioning Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Hyperlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Character Entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Presentation 35
3.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Setting up a Web Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Introducing CSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 CSS Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 CSS Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 CSS Pixel Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4 More Control over Style 51

4.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

vii
 4.2 Class Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 ID Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Grouping Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 Nesting Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.6 The HTML Ancestry Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7 Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.8 Determining Style Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.9 Relative Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.10 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

5 Understanding CSS Boxes 71

5.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 CSS Box Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.3 Element Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.4 Positioning and Element Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.5 Containing Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.6 Hiding Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.7 Floated Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.8 Special Selectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.9 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

6 Behavior 101
6.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Server Side Includes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.3 Introducing JavaScript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Values and Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.5 Operators and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.6 Concluding Remarks and Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

7 Controlling Program Flow 127

7.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.2 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.3 Design a Simple Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4 Type Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

8 Introducing Objects 147

8.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.2 switch Conditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.3 Math Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.4 do/while Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.5 Date Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.6 Concluding Thoughts and Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

9 Understanding Arrays and Strings 165

9.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
9.2 Array Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.3 for Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.4 Array Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

viii Contents
 9.5 String Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.6 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

10 Understanding Functions 187

10.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.2 Writing Function Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.3 References to Function Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.4 Variable Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.5 Passing Function Arguments by Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.6 The Scope Chain and Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.7 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

11 Building Your Own Objects 205

11.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.2 JavaScript Objects Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
11.3 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.4 Constructor Overloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.5 Factory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.6 The prototype Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
11.7 More on Setting and Querying Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.8 Sudoku Puzzle Helper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.9 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

12 Using JavaScript to Control the Browser 227

12.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.2 Deeper into the Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
12.3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
12.4 Scripting Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.5 Timer Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.6 Scripting Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.7 Introducing Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.8 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

13 User Interface 245

13.1 Homework Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
13.2 Using Family Relations to Manipulate Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.3 Completing Math Worksheet Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.4 Completing Sudoku Puzzle Helper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
13.5 Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

A Solution to the Last Homework: Sudoku Generator 265

B Ways to Continue 271

B.1 Graphics with Canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.2 Local Data Storage through Web Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
B.3 Ajax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
B.4 jQuery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
B.5 Go Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Contents ix
C HTML Mini Reference 305
C.1 Root Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
C.2 Document Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
C.3 Scripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
C.4 Sections and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
C.5 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
C.6 Text-Level Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
C.7 Embedded Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
C.8 Tabular Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
C.9 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
C.10 Global Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
C.11 Event-Handler Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

D CSS Mini Reference 339

D.1 CSS Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
D.2 inherit keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
D.3 Text Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
D.4 List Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
D.5 Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
D.6 Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
D.7 Background Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
D.8 Table Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
D.9 Size Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
D.10 Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
D.11 Pseudo-Classes and Pseudo-Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

E JavaScript Mini Reference 373

E.1 Operator Precedence and Associativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
E.2 arguments[] (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
E.3 Array (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
E.4 Boolean (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
E.5 console (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
E.6 Date (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
E.7 document (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
E.8 Element (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
E.9 Event (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
E.10 Function (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
E.11 Global Variables, Functions, and Objects (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . 406
E.12 Math (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
E.13 Node (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
E.14 Number (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
E.15 Object (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
E.16 String (Core JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
E.17 window (Client-Side JavaScript) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

x Contents
 Acknowledgments

A huge thank you goes to the guys at Taylor and Francis, especially to my editor Randi
Cohen for her enthusiasm for the whole project, my project coordinator Ashley We-
instein, who oversaw production attentively, and technical reviewers for their detailed
comments making the whole book more enjoyable. Many thanks also to the proof-
reader for correcting typos and grammar. Indeed, it was a great pleasure to work with
such a professional team.

Honestly, all this wouldn’t have happened were it not for Igor and the other guys from
the morning-coffee crew, who suggested that I should really write a book. Thanks,
chaps, it cost me a year of my life. Thank you to all my amazing students for sitting
through my programming lectures and asking nasty questions. Man, how should I
know all that? I shall not forget to also thank the other teaching staff from the team.
The joy of working together is immeasurable. I’m deeply indebted to Žiga, who had
painstakingly read the whole manuscript before releasing it to the wild. (I sincerely
hope you spotted all the silly mistakes so I don’t make a fool of myself.) Thank you,
Andrej, for technical advice on preparing the camera-ready PDF. Those are really
details that make a difference. A thousand thanks go to Tanja and Tadej for that little
push that did the trick. You are terrific!

I also wish to extend my considerable gratitude to everyone that gave away their pre-
cious time, energy, and invaluable expertise answering questions on forums, posting
on blogs, and writing all those wonderful LATEXpackages. It’s impossible to list you
all by name because I’m contracted for only 400 or so pages.

A colossal thank you goes out to my mom and dad for instantiating and personalizing
me. It wasn’t the easiest assignment in the world but you did a marvelous job! Many
thanks to my second parents, Dana and Ivo, for telling me that I should also eat if I am
ever to finish the book. A zillion thanks go out to my close family. Thank you, Erik, for
patiently checking which page I am on with an I-want-my-daddy-back determination;
and thank you, Monika, for tons of understanding and supportive coffee mugs. I love
you!

I am also thankful for the support of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Sport of
the Republic of Slovenia within the research program P2-0246—Algorithms and Opti-

xi
mization Methods in Telecommunications, which made possible some of the research
for this book.

And, of course, thank you, the reader. Without you, this book wouldn’t make much
sense, would it?

—Iztok Fajfar (iztok.fajfar.eu), March 2015

xii Acknowledgments
 Introduction

Easy to Use
Normally, putting honey in my tea is not a particularly demanding task, but that morn-
ing my hand was paralyzed in astonishment, trying to do its routine job of pouring
some honey in the steaming cup. Honey labels usually say things like “All Natural,”
“Contains Antioxidants,” or “With Grandma’s Recipe Book.” Over time, I’ve got used
to more absurd labels like “Improved New Flavor” or “Gathered by Real Bees.” The
label that knocked me out was surprisingly plain, with an award-winning message
printed on it: “Easy to Use.” I don’t recall honey ever being hard to use, except maybe
when it crystallizes, or when I was six months old, but that’s probably not exactly
what the author of the message had in mind.

You can also buy programming books that promise easy and quick learning, even as
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xiii
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
XXII
 THE GENERAL THEORY

Fragments of Particular Merit on This Phase of the Subject

BY VARIOUS CONTRIBUTORS

When Dorothy was carried by the cyclone from her home in Kansas to the
land of Oz, together with her uncle’s house and her little dog Toto, she
neglected to lower the trap door over the hole in the floor which formerly
led to the cyclone cellar and Toto stepped through. Dorothy rushed to the
opening expecting to see him dashed onto the rocks below but found him
floating just below the floor. She drew him back into the room and closed
the trap.

The author of the chronicle of Dorothy’s adventures explains that the same
force which held up the house held up Toto but this explanation is not
necessary. Dorothy was now floating through space and house and dog
were subject to the same forces of gravitation which gave them identical
motions. Dorothy must have pushed the dog down onto the floor and in
doing so must herself have floated to the ceiling whence she might have
pushed herself back to the floor. In fact gravitation was apparently
suspended and Dorothy was in a position to have tried certain experiments
which Einstein has never tried because he was never in Dorothy’s unique
position.]188

* * *

The Principle of Equivalence, of which Einstein’s suspended cage

experiment is the usual illustration, and upon which the generalized theory
of relativity is built, is thus stated by Prof. Eddington: “A gravitational field
of force is precisely equivalent to an artificial field of force, so that in any
small region it is impossible, by any conceivable experiment, to distinguish
between them. In other words, force is purely relative.”

This may be otherwise stated by going back to our idea of a four-

dimensional world, the points of which represent the positions and times of
events. If we mark in such a space-time the successive positions of an
object we get a line, or curve, which represents the whole history of the
object, inasmuch as it shows us the position of the object at every time. The
reader may imagine that all events happen in one plane, so that only two
perpendicular dimensions are needed to fix positions in space, with a third
perpendicular dimension for time. He may then conceive, if he may not
picture, an analogous process for four-dimensional space-time. These lines,
“tracks of objects through space-time,” were called by Minkowski “world-
lines.” We may now say that all the events we observe are the intersections
of world-lines. The temperature at noon was 70°. This means that if I plot
the world-line of the top of the mercury column and the world-line of a
certain mark on the glass they intersect in a certain point of space-time. All
that we know are intersections of these world-lines. Suppose now we have a
large number of them drawn in our four-dimensional world, satisfying all
known intersections, and let us suppose the whole embedded in a jelly. We
may distort this jelly in any way, changing our coordinates as we please, but
we shall neither destroy nor create intersections of world-lines. It may be
proved that a change from one system of reference, to which observations
are referred, to any other system, moving in any way with respect to the
first system, may be pictured as a distortion of the four-dimensional jelly.
The laws of nature, therefore, being laws that describe intersections, must
be expressible in a form independent of the reference system chosen.

From these postulates, Einstein was able to show such a formulation

possible. His law may be stated very simply:—All bodies move through
space-time in the straightest possible tracks.

The fact that an easy non-mathematical explanation can not be given, of

how this law is reached, or of just why the straightest track of Mercury
through space-time will give us an ellipse in space after we have split
space-time up into space and time, is no valid objection to the theory.
Newton’s law that bodies attract with a force proportional to their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance is simple, but no
one has ever given an easy non-mathematical proof of how that law
requires the path of Mercury to be an ellipse, with the sun at a focus, instead
of some other curve.]182

* * *

One of the grave difficulties we have in gaining a satisfactory

comprehension of Einstein’s conceptions, is that they do not readily relate
themselves to our modes of geometrical thought. Within limits we may
choose our own geometry, but it may be at the cost of unwieldy
complication. If we think with Newton in terms of Euclidean geometry and
consider the earth as revolving around the sun, the motions of our solar
system can be stated in comparatively simple terms. If, on the other hand,
we should persist in stating them, as Ptolemy would have done, from the
earth as a relatively stationary center, our formulas will become
complicated beyond ready comprehension. For this reason it is much
simpler in applying the theory of relativity, and in considering and
describing what actually happens in the physical universe, to use
geometrical conceptions to which the actual conditions can be easily
related. We find such an instrument in non-Euclidean geometry, wherein
space will appear as though it were projected from a slightly concave
mirror. It is in this sense that some speak of space as curved. The analogy is
so suggestive it tempts one to linger over it. Unless there were material
objects within the range of the mirror, its conformation would be
immaterial; the thought of the space which the mirror, as it were,
circumscribes, is dependent upon the presence of such material objects. The
lines of light and of all other movement will not be quite “straight” from the
view-point of Euclidean geometry. A line drawn in a universe of such a
nature must inevitably return upon itself. Nothing therefore, can ever pass
out of this unlimitedly great but yet finite cosmos. But even now, since our
imaginary mirror is only very slightly concave, it follows that for limited
regions like the earth or even the solar system, our conception of geometry
may well be rectilinear and Euclidean. Newton’s law of gravitation will be
quite accurate with only a theoretical modification drawn from the theory of
relativity.]82

* * *

The way in which a curvature of space might appear to us as a force is

made plainer by an example. Suppose that in a certain room a marble
dropped anywhere on the floor always rolled to the center of the room;
suppose the same thing happened to a baseball, a billiard ball, and a tennis
ball. These results could be explained in two ways; we might assume that a
mysterious force of attraction existed at the center of the floor, which
affected all kinds of balls alike; or we might assume that the floor was
curved. We naturally prefer the latter explanation. But when we find that in
the neighborhood of a large material body all other bodies move toward it
in exactly the same manner, regardless of their nature or their condition, we
are accustomed to postulate a mysterious attractive force (gravitation);
Einstein, on the contrary, adopts the other alternative, that the space around
the body is curved.]223

* * *

In the ordinary “analytical geometry,” the position and motion of all the
points considered is referred to a rigid “body” or “frame of reference.” This
usually consists of an imaginary room of suitable size. The position of any
point is then given by three numbers, i.e., its distances from one side wall
and from the back wall and its height above the floor. These three numbers
can only give one point, every other point having at least one number
different. In four-dimensional geometry a fourth wall may be vaguely
imagined as perpendicular to all three walls, and a fourth number added,
giving the distance of the “point” from this wall also. Since “rigid” bodies
do not exist in gravitational fields the “frame of reference” must be “non-
rigid.” The frame of reference in the Gaussian system need not be rigid, it
can be of any shape and moving in any manner, in fact a kind of jelly. A
“point” or “event” in the four dimensioned world is still given by four
numbers but these numbers do not represent distances from anywhere; all
that is necessary is that no two events shall have exactly the same four
numbers to represent them, and that two events which are very close
together shall be represented by numbers which differ only slightly from
one another. This system assumes so little that it will be seen to be very
wide in its scope; although to the ordinary mind, what is gained in scope
seems more than that lost in concreteness. This does not concern the
mathematician, however, and by using this system he gains his object,
proving that the general laws of nature remain the same when expressed in
any Gaussian coordinate system whatever.]220

* * *

Einstein enunciates a general principle that it is possible to find a

transformation of coordinate axes which is exactly equivalent to any force,
and in particular one which is equivalent to the force of gravitation. That is
by concentrating our attention on the transformation which is a purely
mathematical operation we can afford to neglect the force completely. To
get a better idea of this principle of equivalence as it is called, let us
consider a relatively simple example (which actually has nothing to do with
gravitation, but which will serve to make our notions clearer.) A person on
the earth unconsciously refers all his experiences, i.e., the motions of the
objects around him to a set of axes fixed in the earth on which he stands.
However, we know that the earth is rotating about its axis, and his axes of
reference are also rotating with respect to the space about him. From the
point of view of general relativity it is exactly because we do refer motions
on the surface of the earth to axes rotating with the earth that we experience
the so-called centrifugal force of the earth’s rotation, with which everyone
is familiar. If we could find it convenient to transform from moving axes to
fixed axes, the force would vanish, since it is exactly equivalent to the
transformation from one set of axes to the other. However, we find it
unnatural to refer daily experiences to axes that are not placed where we
happen to be, and so we prefer to take the force and rotating axes instead of
no force and fixed axes.]272
 * * *

We seem to have a direct experience of force in our muscular sensations. By

pushing or pulling we can set bodies in motion. It is natural to assume, that
something similar occurs, when Nature set bodies in motion. But is this not
a relic of animism? The savage and the ancients peopled all the woods and
skies with Gods and demons, who carries on the activities of nature by their
own bodily efforts. Today we have dispossessed the demons, but the ghost
of a muscular pull still holds the planets in place.]141

* * *

The general theory is an extension of the special theory which enables the
law of gravitation to be deduced. Not in Newton’s form, it is true, but in a
better form, that is, one that accounts for two important facts otherwise not
explained. But it is a far more general theory that indicated above. It is a
complete study of the relations between laws expressed by means of any
four coordinates (of which three space and one time is a special case), and
the same laws expressed in the four coordinates of a system having any
motion whatever with respect to the first system. By restricting this general
study in accordance with certain postulates about the nature of the universe
we live in, we arrive at a number of conclusions which fit more closely with
observed facts that the conclusions drawn from Newton’s theory.]221
 Colophon
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Metadata

Title: Einstein’s Theories of Relativity and

Gravitation: A Selection of Material from the
Essays Submitted in the Competition for the
Eugene Higgins Prize of $5,000
Editor: James Malcolm Bird (1886–1964) Info
Contributor: A. d’Abro
Contributor: L. M. Alexander
Contributor: Prof. Joseph S. Ames
Contributor: Prof. E. N. da C. Andrade
Contributor: Lieut. W. Mark Angus
Contributor: Paul M. Batchelder
Contributor: E. T. Bell
Contributor: Lyndon Bolton
Contributor: Dr. George de Bothezat
Contributor: Charles A. Brunn
Contributor: Charles H. Burr
Contributor: Dorothy Burr
Contributor: Elwyn F. Burrill
Contributor: Professor A. E. Caswell
Contributor: Edward A. Clarke
Contributor: Harold T. Davis
Contributor: R. F. Deimel
Contributor: C. E. Dimick
Contributor: Saul Dushman
Contributor: Hugh Elliot
Contributor: Earl R. Evans
Contributor: E. P. Fairbairn, M.C., B.Sc.
Contributor: Francis Farquhar
Contributor: Montgomery Francis
Contributor: J. Elias Fries, Fellow A.I.E.E.
Contributor: H. Gartelmann
Contributor: James O. G. Gibbons
Contributor: Norman E. Gilbert
Contributor: Dean W. P. Graham
Contributor: D. B. Hall
Contributor: George Frederick Hemens, M.C., B.Sc.
Contributor: C. W. Kanolt
Contributor: Frank E. Law
Contributor: R. Bruce Lindsay
Contributor: Rev. George Thomas Manley
Contributor: George F. Marsteller
Contributor: John G. McHardy
Contributor: L. F. H. de Miffonis. B.A., C.E.
Contributor: Col. John Millis
Contributor: Dr. M. C. Mott-Smith
Contributor: Dr. Francis D. Murnaghan
Contributor: Edward A. Partridge
Contributor: Professor Andrew H. Patterson
Contributor: Professor William H. Pickering
Contributor: William Hemmenway Pratt
Contributor: Kenneth W. Reed
Contributor: James Rice
Contributor: Edward Adams Richardson
Contributor: Walter van B. Roberts
Contributor: C. E. Rose, M.E.
Contributor: T. Royds
Contributor: Prof. Henry Norris Russell
Contributor: Prof. Moritz Schlick
Contributor: Leopold Schorsch
Contributor: Prof. J. A. Schouten
Contributor: Frederick W. Shurlock
Contributor: W. de Sitter
Contributor: Prof. William Benjamin Smith
Contributor: Robert Stevenson
Contributor: Prof. W. F. G. Swann
Contributor: Prof. Arthur Gordon Webster
Contributor: L. L. Whyte
Contributor: Prof. R. W. Wood
Language: English
Original 1921
publication
date:

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distance
vii is made is made is made 8
viii btween between 1
xiii Chiselhurst Chislehurst 2
28 attriuting attributing 1
38 axis axes 1
46,
327 [Not in source] , 1
48 [Not in source] ” 1
59 assums assumes 1
61 II III 1
74 follows follow 1
74 parellel parallel 1
96 inadmissable inadmissible 1
110 apposite opposite 1
114 synonomous synonymous 1
123 indepedent independent 1
125 Descartean Cartesian 6
126 propostions propositions 1
127 ’ ” 1
144 incomphehensible incomprehensible 1
151 hypothenuse hypotenuse 1
153 dimension dimensions 1
156 Betelguese Betelgeuse 2
169,
282,
282 coördinates coordinates 1/0
170 [Not in source] . 1
181 Michelsen Michelson 1
182 Michelsen-Morley Michelson-Morley 1
185 that: [Deleted] 5
205 gometry geometry 1
206 and und 1
213 distroyed destroyed 1
219 wells walls 1
228 indisolubly indissolubly 1
231 signficance significance 1
240 amazinging amazing 3
244 dimsensions dimensions 1
249 Relativitatstheorie Relativitätstheorie 1 / 0
254 oberservers observers 2
260,
345 co-ordinates coordinates 1
262 or of 1
279 Poincairé Poincaré 1
291 Jean Jeans 1
298 methematicians mathematicians 1
305, Asso. Assoc. 1
305,
305
305 Astro. Astron. 1
312 axactly exactly 1
315 . , 1
319 acrross across 1
322 us use 1
327 BY [Deleted] 3
329 waste wasted 1
330 analagous analogous 1
335 rotatons rotations 1
340 imbedded embedded 1
343,
343 co-ordinate coordinate 1
344 gravitaton gravitation 1
345 line live 1
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