Module l - SPECIAL EDUCATION ESSENTIALS

Lesson 1.1 Meaning of Special Education (SPED)

Overview
The meaning of special education is clearly defined in the given explanations
from different sources. The salient features of special education in the Philippines
together with the milestones in its history and the laws that provide the legal bases for
special education in the country are discussed in this module.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. Define special education and explain the meaning of individually planned,
systematically implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction for children
with special needs
b. Discuss the difference between special education as essentially instruction
and as a purposeful intervention
c. Enumerate the four standpoints about special education and describe each
in one paragraph using own words.
d. Analyze and compare the features of SPED education from regular
education.
Content
Let us start the lesson with these simple motive questions:( See to it that you can say
anything related to each of these with a partner)
 Is there special education? What makes education special?
 Why is it called special education?
 Who are the students enrolled? Who is the teacher in a special education class?
 Where is special education taught?

What is special education?

There are different strides in the development and sustenance of Special
Education for more than a century now. The last fifty years were marked boldly
developments in legislation, teacher training and organization of special classes and
support services in all regions not only in our country but in other countries as well.
We need to define what is special education, what makes it special ….
The Department of Education Bureau of Elementary Education manages the

1
program through the Special Education Division. The scenario in most of our schools
in the country is that a number of children with special needs are mainstreamed in
regular classes. A SPED teacher assists the regular teacher in planning class activities
that would enable both regular and special children to learn together in the regular
school.
Correspondingly, there are children who are enrolled in special schools,
residential schools and special classes in the community. Special education extends
as well to hospitals and homebound instruction. Future teachers will find children with
special needs in regular schools, that is the reason why they should know what is
special education is all about.
From the Special Education Primer, Special education is known to many as
SPED or Special Ed. It is a set of educational programs or services designed to meet
the unique needs of learners with disabilities that cannot be sufficiently met using
traditional educational programs or techniques. Special education programs may be
provided one-on-one or in a group with other learners with similar educational needs.
Special education is in one sense of profession, with its own tool, techniques
and research efforts all focused on improving instructional arrangements and
procedures for evaluating and meeting the learning needs of children, youth and
adults with special needs.
Heward and Orlansky (1988) define SPED at a more practical level , as the
individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of physical settings,
special equipment and materials, teaching procedures, and other interventions
designed to help exceptional children
As cited in the book, Introduction to Special Education of Inciong, et.al.(2001,
Current literature defines SPED as individually planned instruction, systematically
implemented, and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional children achieve
the greatest possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future
environments, (Heward,2003)
Special education is the practice of educating students in a way that addresses
their individual differences and special needs. Ideally, this process involves the
individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching
procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. (Wikipedia)
FacebookTwitterShare17 that Special education provides students with
identified disabilities specialized instruction designed to meet their unique learning
needs, giving them the opportunity to develop to their fullest potential. In the United
States, special education is delivered, free of charge, through the public education
system, thanks to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
To dig out understanding of the definition here are some insights to elaborate:

2
  Individually planned instruction . The US law on Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) requires that an individualized education program (IEP)
be developed and implemented for every special education student between
the ages 3 and 21.
 Systematically implemented and evaluated instruction . Each type of children
with special education needs requires particular educational services,
curriculum goals, competences and skills, educational approaches, strategies
and procedures in the evaluation of learning and skills.
 Personal self-sufficiency . An important goal to SPED is to help the child
become independent from the assistance of adults in personal maintenance
and development, homemaking, community life, vocational and leisure
activities and travel.
 The present environment. This refers to the current conditions in the life of a
child with a disability. The present environment includes the family, the school,
the community where he lives, the institutions in society that extend assistance
and support to children and youth with special needs such as the government,
non-government organizations, socio-civic organizations and other groups.
 The future environment . It is a forecast of how the child with a disability can
move to the next level of education, from elementary to secondary school and
on to college or vocational programs onto the workplace where the child can
be gainfully employed. SPED helps the child in the transition from a student
wage earner so that s/he can lead a normal life even if s/he has a disability.

There are four standpoints about special education by Heward (2003)

1. Special education is a legislatively governed enterprise.
This point of view is expressed in the legal bases of special education that are
discussed in the Philippine Constitution of 1987, Chapter1, Article lV, Section 1 states
that the State shall protect and promote the rights of all citizens to quality education at
all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education available to all. The
State shall provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and other skills. The State shall adopt an integrated and
comprehensive approach to health and other social services available to all people at
affordable costs. There shall be priority to the needs of the underprivileged, the sick,
the elderly, the disabled, women and children.
R.A. 7277: The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons –provides for the
rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance of disabled persons and their
integration into meanstream society.
The Philippine Policies and Guidelines for Special Education provides that every

3
child with special needs has a right to an educational program that is suitable to
his/her needs. Special education shares with regular education basic responsibilities
of the educational system to fulfil the right of the child to develop his/her potential.

2. Special education is a part of the country’s educational system.

Special Education has been part of the DEPED’s basic education program
through its Bureau of Elementary Education which formulates policies, plans and
programs, develops standards of programs and services. There are special education
programs in public and private schools in all the regions of the country. In-service
education programs are conducted to upgrade the competences of administrators,
teachers and non-teaching personnel. Scholarship to deserving school administrators
and teachers to pursue graduate degrees in prestigious universities in the country are
also granted. Networks and linkages in the country and oversees are sustained.
3. Special education is teaching children with special needs in the least restrictive
environment.
From this perspective, teaching is what special education is all abo ut. SPED is
defined in terms of thewho, what, how and where of its implementation .
WHO : The exceptional children or the children or youth with special education needs
are the most important persons in special education.
The school administrators, the special education teachers, the regular teachers,
the interdisciplinary teams of professionals such as the guidance counsellors,
the school psychologists, the speech therapists, the physical and occupational
therapists, medical doctors and specialists are individuals who help provide the
specific services that exceptional child needs.
WHAT : Every exceptional child needs access to a differentiated and modified
curricular
Program to enable him/her to learn the skills and competencies in the basic
education curriculum, The individualized education program (IEP) states the
annual goals, quarterly objectives the strategies for teaching and evaluation of
learning and the services the exceptional child needs.
HOW : Gifted children are provided with enrichment activities and advanced content
knowledge so that they can learn more than what the basic education
curriculum offers. Most of them are in accelerated classes where they finish
elementary in less than six years. Mentally retarded or children with down
syndrome are taught adaptive skills and basic academic content that are
suitable to their mental ability, blind learn braille and orientation and mobility or
travel techniques and deaf learn sign language and speech reading.

4
WHERE : There are several educational placements for these children. The most
preferred is inclusive education where they are mainstreamed in regular
classes. Other types of educational placements are special schools, residential
schools, self-contained classes, home-bound and hospital instruction

4. Special education is purposeful intervention

Special education may be best described as a purposeful intervention

designed to overcome or eliminate the obstacles that keep children with disabilities
from learning. In other words, it is about providing children with disabilities with
individualized plans of instruction to help them succeed.

Intervention eliminates, prevents and/or overcome the obstacles that might

keep the individual with disabilities from learning, from full and active participation in
school activities, and from engaging in social and leisure activities.

Preventive intervention - is designed to keep potential or minor problem from

becoming a disability.Special education in this form seeks to either stop something
from happening or reduce a condition that has been identified

 Primary intervention- designed to eliminate or counteract risk factors so that

disability is not acquired.
 Secondary intervention- is aimed at reducing or eliminating the effects of
existing risk factors.
 Tertiary intervention- is intended to minimize the impact of a specific condition
or disability among those with disabilities.

Remedial intervention –attempts to eliminate the effects of disability. It is generally

used to teach children with disabilities skills that allow them to function successfully
and independently. It may be aimed at academic, social, personal , and/or vocational
goals.

Compensatory Intervention- Compensatory intervention involves teaching special

skills or using special devices to improve functioning. Compensatory intervention may
be best identified as teaching a child to perform a task or conquer a skill in spite of a
disability. It involves providing children with disabilities an asset that non-disabled

5
children do not need.
To further understand the variance between special education and regular/general
education, analyse carefully the matrix.
Matrix Showing the Difference Between Special Education and Regular (General) Education
SPECIAL EDUCATION REGULAR EDUCATION
Kind of Learners Children with Special Needs Regular Learners
(CSN) who necessitate
individualized program
Number of Learners For one-on-one: 1 Private School: 35- 50
For group: 3 to 4 Public School: 50 – 60 or
For resource group: 5 to 10 more
Emphasis On the given intervention On the curriculum and mastery
of skills established within the
curriculum
Curriculum  Attention Skills (ADHD)
 Memory Skills (MR)
 Braille (VI)
 Sign Language (HI)
 Auditory and Visual
Perception Skills (LD) English, Reading, Math,
 Anger Management Makabayan…
(Emotional/Behavior
Disturbance)
 Creative and Critical
Thinking Skills (Giftedness)
 Functional Academics
(Autism)
Who dictates the Individual needs of the child School system (DepEd)
curriculum?
Instruction Intensive Systematic General Instruction
Instruction
Received instruction SPED Teachers
from? Occupational Therapist Regular Teachers
Physical Therapist (Subject Teachers)
Speech Therapist
Primary function Of SPED Teachers Of Regular Teachers
-To meet the goals and - To teach the
objectives established in the IEP curriculum
Type of Classroom SPED Classroom
Self-contained Room Regular classroom
Resource Room
Mainstream Classroom

Summary
Special education is a set of educational programs/services designed to meet the
unique needs of children with special needs or exceptional children.

6
SPED focuses on the improvement of instructional arrangements/ procedures for
evaluating and meeting the learning needs of CSN.
It is an avenue to reach out and help CSN or exceptional children achieve the greatest
possible personal self-sufficiency and confidence in his move, life in the environment.
SPED is considered a legislatively governed enterprise, an important part of
educational system, teaching CSN in the least restrictive environment and as
purposeful intervention. From these standpoints, teaching is the heart of SPED in
which defined as the who, what, how and where of the implementation of SPED.
SPED as intervention: it eliminates, prevents, and overcome obstacles that keep the
CSN and other exceptional students from learning. SPED teachers and regular
teachers collaborate- help one another to counteract and minimize CSN’s conditions
potential problems from becoming a disability and collegially attempts to eliminate
disabilities.
Suggested Reading / Enrichment Activity
Read the vignettes shared to you and submit insights through a reaction paper
to be submitted on ___________. (Please see attached Vignettes in our moodle
account. If in case it is inaccessible, we cant have them from our group chat in
messenger)

References

Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for

College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning

Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education

Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_education Wikipedia Twitter Share17

ACTIVITY 1.1

7
 Self-Assessment Questions (Respond and Reflect)
1. Directions: Respond scholarly to these questions using the insights you have
learned.
a. Define special education in your own understanding based on what you
read
b. Discuss substantially the difference between special education as essentially
instruction and as a purposeful intervention.
c. Enumerate the four standpoints about special education and describe each .
d. Compare the features of SPED education from regular education. Describe
the salient variance.
2. You can do this:
1. Which of the vignettes you consider most challenging and inspiring? Why?
2. What characteristics of these children empress you most? Why?
3. Write one paragraph of not less than 10 run- on sentences for your simple
analysis.

8
 Lesson 1.2 SPED Vision, Policies, Goals, and Objectives
Overview
This lesson starts with the definition of children with special needs in order for
you to understand for whom is special education programs and services for followed
by the vision for children with special needs, policy, goals and objectives of special
education set by the Department of Education.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
a. identify the different categories of children and youth with special needs
b. explain the vision for children with special needs
c. discuss the policy of Inclusive Education for All
d. enumerate the goals and objectives of SPED
e. describe the features of inclusive education and contrastingly relate it to
special education
Content:
Children with special needs (CSN) are the exceptional children (Kirk, Gallagher and
Anastasiow,2000) who differ from the average child to such an extent that they
require either a modification of school practices or special educational services to
develop their unique capabilities.
The University of the Philippines Categories of Exceptionalities:
1.The gifted and the talented
 With superior cognitive abilities, specific academic aptitudes, creative
and productive thinking, leadership, psychomotor abilities, multiple,
emotional and other intelligences

9
2. Those with developmental disabilities
 Mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism. attention deficit
disorder(ADD)/Attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), and similar
others
3.Those with sensory, physical and health disabilities
 Visual impairment, hearing impairment, both V1-H1, orthopaedic
handicap, chronic ill health, severe and multip[le disabilities and similar
others.
4.Those with behaviour disorders
 Social delinquency, substance abuse, emotional disturbance and similar
others.
Children and youth who have one or more of the conditions mentioned above
are called exceptional children. The exceptional children are those with mental
retardation, giftedness and talent, learning disabilities, emotional and behavioural
disorders, communication disorders, deafness, blindness and low vision, physical
disability, health impairments, and severe disabilities (Inciong, et.al. 2007).These are
children and youth who experience difficulties in learning the basic education
curriculum and need a modified and functional curriculum, as well as those whose
performance is so superior that they need a differentiated special education
curriculum to help them attain their full potential.
The labelling and classification of children with special needs are controversial
issues because it may have administrative and political benefits but seem to have a
negative effect on the individual child who is labelled. It is highly advised that we must
be very careful with labelling the child with disability. In the field of SPED labels
continue to be used although they are more and more humane and less stigmatizing
or defaming. For example, “autistic child” is not used but instead, child with autism;
down syndrome but not Mongolian.
The Vision for Children with Special Needs (CSN)
The DepEd clearly states its vision for children with special needs in consonance with
the philosophy of inclusive education.
“ The State, community and family hold a common vision for the Filipino child with
special needs. By the 21 st century, it is envisioned that s/he could be adequately
provided with basic education. This education should fully realize her/her own
potentials for development and and productivity as well as being capable of self-
expression of her/his rights in society. More importantly s/he is God-loving and proud
of being a Filipino”.
It is also envisioned that the child with special needs will get full parental and

10
community support for her/his education without discrimination of any kind. This CSN
should also be provided with a healthy environment along with leisure and recreation
and social security measures” (DepEd Handbook on Inclusive Education,2000)
Policy, Goal and Objectives of Special Education
The policy on Inclusive Education for All is adopted in the Philippines to
accelerate access to education among children and youth with special needs.
Inclusive education forms an integral component of the overall educational system
that is committed to an appropriate education for all children and youth with special
needs.
DepEd strongly advocates inclusive education as a basic service for all types of
exceptional children. In a conference held in Salamanca, Spain in 1994 on Special
Needs education, participants reaffirmed the right to education of every individual to
education as enshrined in the 1984 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The
reaffirmation served as a renewal of the pledge made by the world community during
the 1990 World Conference on Education for all. Because of this declarations and
urgency of the need for early intervention, DepEd adopted the policy of inclusive
education in 1997. The trainings in the national, regional and division-wide on
Inclusive Education were conducted to promote the concept of inclusive education
aside from the issuance of A Handbook on Inclusive Education as the main reference
and guide to the practice ofinclusive education.
To put together insights, let’s define formally inclusive education.
Inclusion describes the process by which school accepts children with special
needs for enrolment in regular classes where they can learn side by side with their
peers. The school organizes the SPED program and includes a special education
teacher in its faculty. The school provides the mainstream where the regular teachers
and special education teachers organize and implement appropriate programs for
both special and regular students.
Salient Features of Inclusive Education
 Inclusion means implementing and maintaining warm and accepting
classroom communities that embrace and respect diversity or
differences. Teachers and students take active steps to understand
individual differences and create an atmosphere of respect.
 Inclusion implements multi-level, multimodality curriculum. This means
that special needs students follow an adapted curriculum and use
special devices and materials to learn at a suitable pace.
 Inclusion prepares regular teachers and special education teachers to
teach interactively . The classroom model where one teacher teaches an
entire group of children single-handedly is being replaced by structures

11
 where students work together., teach one another and participate
actively in class activities. Students tend to learn with and from each
other rather than compete with each other.
 Inclusion provides continuous support for teachers to break down
barriers of professional isolation . The hallmarks of inclusive education
are co-teaching, team teaching, collaboration and consultation and
other ways of assessing skills and knowledge learned by all the students.

Goal of SPED
Article 1, Section 5 of Child and Youth Welfare Code (PD No. 603) states that the
ultimate goal of SPED shall be the integration or mainstreaming of learners with
special needs into the regular school system and eventually in the community.
To meet the individual educational needs of the learners and, to the extent
possible, prepare them for going to a more regular classroom setting. To achieve this,
special education programs must focus on helping the learners develop academic
skills, self-help skills, social proficiency, a positive attitude and self-confidence
(Raven’s Guide to SPED)
The goal of SPED programs of the DepEd all over the country is to provide CSN
appropriate educational services within the mainstream of basic education. The two-
pronged goal includes the development of key strategies on legislation, human
resource development, family involvement and active participation of government
and non-government organizations. Similarly, there are major issues to address on
attitudinal barriers of the general public and effort towards the institutionalization ans
sustainability of SPED programs and services.
SPED Objectives are to:
1. provide flexible and individualized support system for children and youth with
special needs in a regular class environment in school nearest the student’s home.
2. provide support services, vocational program and work training, employment
opportunities for efficient community participation and independent living.
3. implement a life-long curriculum to include early early intervention and parent
education, basic education and transition programs on vocational training or
preparation for college, and
4. make available an array of educational programs and services: the SPED Center
built on ‘a school within a school concept’ as the resource center for children and
youth with special needs: inclusive education in regular schools, special and
residential schools, homebound instruction, hospital instruction and community-
based programs: alternative modes of service delivery to reach the disadvantaged

12
children in far-flung towns, depressed areas and underserved barangays.
Summary:
Children with special needs, CSN are exceptional children who experienced difficulty
in learning the basics and needed modified school curriculum and services to
develop their unique capabilities.
There are categories of exceptional children or CSN: a. the gifted and the talented,
those with developmental disabilities,those with sensory, physical and health
disabilities, and those with behavioural disorder. Labeling and classification of CSN
were debatable and provocative, since that issue have impact on the individual child
who is labelled, it is highly demanded to carefully label CSN/exceptional children so
to avoid defamation and conflict.
The State mandates that CSN should be provided with basic education coupled with
strong parental and community support, in a healthful environment so as to develop
the child’s potentials and capabilities to express himself and his rights as a member
of society.
The Inclusive Education for All as an integral part of the overall Education system for
CSN.
Inclusive education salient features hallmarks co-teaching, collaboration, consultation,
evaluation and knowledge learned by all the students.
The focus of SPED is to help CSN develop academic skill, self-help skills, social
proficiency, a positive attitude and self - confidence to provide CSN appropriate
educational services within the mainstream of basic education.
Suggested Reading
Read the Historical Perspectives and Legal Bases of SPED
(Introduction to Special Education, By Teresita Inciong, et.al. pages 14 to 22)

References

Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning

Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils
Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

13
 ACTIVITY 1.2
Respond and Reflect!
1.Directions : Scholarly answer, write responses of the given items in the activity
sheets provided.
a. In a graphic organizer, categorize children and youth with special needs
b. Explain the vision for children with special needs
c. Discuss the policy of Inclusive Education for All
d. Enumerate the goals and objectives of SPED
e. Describe the features of inclusive education and contrastingly relate it to
special education

2. Creativity Challenge
Start clipping stories and articles from newspapers and magazines about
people with disabilities who became successful by going to school. Before the
midterm exam you can submit your clippings through online.
Have your reference/source indicated in your clipping.

14
 Lesson 1.3 Historical, Philosophical, Theoretical, and
Legal Bases of SPED/Inclusive Education
Overview
The philosophical and theoretical foundations will give the future teachers a
working background to understand and deal successfully diverse children in his/her
class. In this module you will be learning the events and facts as bases of special and
inclusive education.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. Cite important events relevant to the implementation of special education in
the Philippines.
b. Discuss the philosophical and theoritical foundations of special education in
the country.
c. Understand the role played by psychology in special education.
d. Debate why should special education teachers understand educational
psychology.

Content/Focus
Brief History of SPED in the Philippines

15
 SPED in the Philippines started in 1908 where the School for the Deaf in
Harrison, Pasay City was established and marked the official government recognition
of its obligations towards the education of the handicapped children.
Republic Act No. 3562 date June 1963 – An Act to Promote the Education of
the Blind in the Philippines which established teacher training course and Philippine
National School for the Blind.
Philippine Normal College offered courses in SPED for teaching the blind in
1964 wherein 14 elementary school teachers were selected for training.
In 1952, a pilot school for the SPED at the Philippine Women University of the
mentally handicapped children was started. All children from this school were
transferred to the Special Child Study Center in Cubao, QC in 1957.
(For information about history of special education in other countries, visit this
website: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_education and read the suggested
reading “Historical Perspective”which material is provided for you).

Philosophical and Theoritical Foundations of SPED and Inclusive Education

Special education is a form of instruction that's designed to meet the needs of
students with disabilities, so that they can learn the same skills and information as
other children in school. The term special education is used interchangeably with
special needs, and the disabilities may be physical, emotional, or behavioral.
Philosophy of SPED
The general philosophy of special education is that all people have the ability to
learn, regardless of their particular disabilities. The trend in public education has
shifted from isolating special education students in separate classrooms to
mainstreaming them in the regular classroom for at least part of the day.(Sep 17, 2015,
study.com/lesson/specialeducation) This is in keeping with the Department of
Education's mission to achieve full integration and participation in society of people
with disabilities by ensuring equal opportunity and access to, and excellence in,
education, employment, and community living.'
The special education philosophy posits that everyone has the capability to
learn.
Inclusive Education Philosophy
Participation of students with exceptional needs in inclusive settings is based
on the philosophy of equality, sharing, participation and the worth and dignity of
individuals. This philosophy is based on the belief that all children can learn and reach
their full potential given opportunity, effective teaching and appropriate resources.
(https://www.pallisersd.ab.ca/inclusive-education/inclusive-education-philosophy).

16
 The regular classroom is viewed as the most enabling environment for the
student with exceptional needs because of the increased opportunity to participate
with same-aged peers without exceptional needs. Inclusion, by definition, refers not
merely to setting, but to specially designed instruction and support for students with
special supports and service needs in regular classrooms and community schools.
Often, meeting the learning needs on either end of the spectrum improves the quality
of education for everyone in the classroom, as well as promoting the awareness and
acceptance of diversity. Determination of the most enabling environment and
individual program planning is a consultative, collaborative process involving the
student (when appropriate), parents, principal, teachers, learning assistants,
specialized support service professionals and community members, as appropriate.
The regular classroom is viewed as the most enabling environment for the
student with exceptional needs because of the increased opportunity to participate
with same-aged peers without exceptional needs. Inclusion, by definition, refers not
merely to setting, but to specially designed instruction and support for students with
special supports and service needs in regular classrooms and community schools.
Often, meeting the learning needs on either end of the spectrum improves the quality
of education for everyone in the classroom, as well as promoting the awareness and
acceptance of diversity. Determination of the most enabling environment and
individual program planning is a consultative, collaborative process involving the
student (when appropriate), parents, principal, teachers, learning assistants,
specialized support service professionals and community members, as appropriate.
What are the components of special and inclusive education?
These components are (a) teachers, (b) family, (c) school staff, (d) inclusive
students, (e) other students, (f) supportive special education services and (g)
instructional adaptations.
Inclusive education means that all students attend and are welcomed by their
neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular classes and are supported to
learn, contribute and participate in all aspects of the life of the school.
What is the foundation of special and inclusive education?
Inclusive education programs provide educational services for all students
including those with special needs. These programs serve all children in the regular
classroom on a full-time basis. If a student requires extra services such as speech
therapy, these services are brought into the classroom.(Sep 13, 2013, www.special-
education-degree.net › what-are-inclusive-sp)

Inclusive education is a widely accepted pedagogical and policy principle, but

its genesis has been long and, at times, difficult.
In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights included statements about
rights and freedoms that have, over the decades, been used to promote inclusive

17
 educational practices. Article 26 of the Declaration stated that parents “have a prior
right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. ” This
declaration later helped some parent groups and educators to advocate for equal
access to schooling in regular settings, and for parental choice about where their child
would be educated.
Following the widespread influence of the human rights-based principle of
normalization, the concept of inclusive education received major impetus from the
Education of All Handicapped Children Act in the United States in 1975, the United
Nations (UN) International Year of Disabled Persons in 1981, and the UN Convention
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006. A major focus of the UN initiatives
has been the right of people with a disability to participate fully in society. This focus
has obvious consequences for the way education is provided to students with a
disability or other additional educational needs. For many years, up to the last quarter
of the 20th century, the major focus for such students was on the provision of
separate specialized services, with limited attention to the concept of full participation
in society. Toward the end of the 20th century and into the 21st century, there has
been increasing acceptance, through parental action, systemic policy, and
government legislation, of inclusivity as a basic philosophical principle.
Both the type of instruction that should be provided to students with a disability
and the location of that instruction in regular or specialized settings have been topics
for advocacy and research, sometimes with mixed and/or controversial
conclusions.(https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1197)
Psychological Relate
All people have the ability to learn, regardless of disability.
It is so important for future teachers to apprehend that educational psychology
is rooted in the fact that all learners are unique and that students have different
abilities and educational needs. ... This is especially true in special education
classrooms, where students may struggle with physical or cognitive disabilities.
When special education teachers understand educational psychology, they
know how to create a learning environment that feels safe to each student. Because
noise, light or other children can easily overstimulate special needs children, the
learning environment becomes an important part of their learning experience.(Aug 9,
2017, degree.utpb.edu › articles › psychology-teaching-specia...)
Legal Foundations of Special Education in the Philippines
Care and Protection of The rights of every child in the Philippines to live in an environment
Disabled Children conducive to his physical, moral, and intellectual development and the
(C.A.3203) duty of the government to promote the full growth of every child.
Accessibility Law Requiring certain buildings, institutions, establishment and public
(Batas PambansaBlg. 344) utilities to install accessible facilities and other devices, including
transportation and communication devices.

18
Ammendments to the Providing stricter identification of specific individuals and offices liable
Accessibility Law for violations with increased penalty and the added accessibility
requirements with regard to public transportation.
White Cane Act Declared the first day of August each year as “White Cane Safety Day,”
(R.A. 6759) white cane being a symbol of the need of the blind persons.
Child and Youth Welfare Protects and supports CSN by addressing different areas where they
Code (Presidential can be assisted, improved and be developed to cope with life’s
Decree No. 603) demands and be integrated into society to become useful citizens of
the country
The Economic Requires that all government agencies, instrumentalities and
Independence of government owned and controlled corporations to source at least 10%
of their supplies and equipment requirements from cooperatives of
Disabled Persons Act PWDs that are engaged in the manufacturing and fabrication in order
(S.B. 1730) to support their economic independence.
The Magna Carta for Affirms the full participation and total integration of persons with
Disabled Persons disabilities into mainstream of our society by giving them equal
opportunities to develop their skills and potentials and affording them
(R.A. 7277) equal access to the basic services extended by the government.
Section 12, Chapter 2 The State shall ensure that disabled persons are provided with adequate
access to quality education and ample opportunities to develop the skills. It
of R.A. 7277, Access to shall take appropriate steps to male such education accessible to disabled
Quality Education persons. It shall e unlawful for any learning institution to deny a disabled
person admission to any course it offers by reason of handicap or disability.
The State shall take into consideration the special requirements of disabled
persons in the formulation of educational policies and programs. It shall
encourage learning institution to take into account the special needs of
disabled persons with respect to the use of school facilities, class schedules,
physical education requirements, and other pertinent consideration.
The State shall promote the provision by learning institutions, especially higher
learning institutions, of auxiliary services that will facilitate the learning process
of disabled persons.
To provide learners with special needs with access to basic education,
learning institution shall offer integrated education. In order to ensure that
quality education is accessible, the following components namely: curriculum,
educational programs, teaching methods and services shall be given
importance by learning institutions.

a. Any person who violates any provision of this Act shall suffer the following
Section 46 of R.A. penalties:
7277. Penal Code 1. for the first violation, a fine of not less than Php50 000 but not exceeding
Php100 000 or imprisonment ot not less than six months but not more than 2
years or both at the discretion of the court.
2. for subsequent violation, a fine not less than Php100 000 but not exceeding
Php 200 000 or imprisonment for not less than two years but not more than
six years, or both at the discretion of the court.
b.Any person who abuses the privileges granted herein shall be punished with
imprisonment of not less than 6 months or a fine of not less than 5 000 but not
more than 50 000 or both, at the discretion of the court.
c. If the violator is a corporation, organization or any similar entity, the officials
thereof directly involved shall be liable therefor.
d. If the violator is a foreigner, he shall be deported immediately after service
of sentence without further deportation proceedings.
The Philippine In this act, the need for vocational training is further enshrined.
Education Act of 1982
The Philippine Action In support for EFA has focused its policies and strategies to specific
Plan (1990-2000) groups of people that include the rural poor, those in the urban slums,
cultural communities, the disabled, and the educationally
disadvantaged as well as the gifted.

19
DECS Order No. 26, s.  Organize at least one SPED Center in the Region or Division
1997 Mandates which will cater to CSNs.
 Organize SPED programs in all districts in schools where there
are identified CSNs.
 Expand the role/functions of SPED Centers:
-Support CSNs who are integrated in regular schools
-Assist in the conduct of in-service training
-Conduct continuous assessment of CSNs
 Initiate and conduct regional/division/district-based training
 Plan incentives to sustain the continuing interest in the
implementation of the program the following initiatives:
- DECS Order No. 5 s 1998 – Reclassification of Regular
Teacher and Special School Principal Items
- R.A. No. 6758 (Prescribing a Revised Compensation and
Position Classification System in the Government
Considering the Influence of the US on Philippine Education, the following are
Lawful Acts enacted…
The Individuals with States that children with disabilities are to be educated to the
Disabilities Education maximum extent with children who do not h ave disabilities.
Act (IDEA) 1997
Americans with Prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in private sector
Disabilities Act (ADA) employment; services rendered by state and local government;
places of public accommodations; transportation;
telecommunications relay systems
Rehabilitation Act 504 No other qualified individual with disabilities in the United
States… shall solely by reason of his disabilities,” be excluded
from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected
to discrimination under any program, or activity receiving
Federal assistance…”
No Child Left Behind Signed on Jan 8, 2002whic reauthorized and replaced the
(NCLB) Act Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the federal
framework for how public education throughout the US is
provided. Its overall aim is to have all students performing at
proficient levels in the two educational cornerstones, Reading
and Math, by year 2014.
The Individuals with Outlined changes to IDEA 1997 wherein one of them states that
Disabilities Education benchmarks and short-term objectives written into IEPs are no
Act (IDEA 2004) longer required for many learners, reducing the amount of IEP
paperwork.

Suggested Reading
Historical Perspective, pp 14 to 21, Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students, 1st Edition, by Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al.,

References

20
Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning
Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils

Activity 1.3a
You can do this!

 Create a timeline of relevant events of SPED in the Philippines. Do this with a

classmate whose first letter of family name is the same as yours. Refer from the
Historical Perspectives found on pages 14 to 21 of Introduction to Special
Education by Teresita Inciong, et.al.
 Keep a copy and paste it in your E-Portfolio.

Activity 1.3b
Read, Respond, and Reflect!

Discuss briefly the philosophy and theory of special education…

What is the role of psychology in special education, explain…

(Write your output, consider it a part of your portfolio and send

me a soft copy for evaluating/checking/recording purposes) …

21
 Module ll - DIVERSITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION SETTING
Lesson 2.1 Diversity in the Classrooms
Overview
In this module, diversity in special education setting, and sources of learners
diversity in a typical classroom will be learned for the future teachers’ awareness and
give working background in dealing with children of different backgrounds.
Learning Outcomes
After working through this module, you are expected to:
a. Understand and define learner diversity
b. Enumerate and discuss sources of learners diversity in a typical classroom
c. Appreciate diverse classmates of different backgrounds and share their
rituals to show respect for one another.
Content/Focus
Diversity in the Classroom
Can you imagine yourself as a teacher facing more than 35 students in the classroom?
How would you make each one learn? How should you respond to there every need
in the class /sessions?
“Every teacher should value diversity”, Why?
The classroom is a center piece of a complicated social arrangement and
daunting challenges for the teacher. Having children with different backgrounds and
abilities has its challenges. We need to consider what each child needs to learn and

22
how one can learn best. We need to discover how to get all of the children, no matter
what disabilities they have, want to learn together happily. The most important
challenge of SPED teacher in a diverse educational setting is to deal with prejudices
and discrimination.
Diversity simply means recognizing the group or individual differences that we
see in our students. (Eggen& Kauchack,2010). It means looking at each student’s
profile-his biological challenges, his family patterns, and where he stands on the
developmental ladder(Greenspan &Weider, 1998). Clearly identified with race, gender,
age, physical attributes, religious and spiritual beliefs and social orientation.
Studies have shown that a teacher who is ill-prepared to understand the
diversity in the classroom tends to discriminate subtly students through certain facial
expressions, selective acknowledgement, or tolerating class monopolizers (Davis,
2001). The lack of understanding can also result to general labelling of students
increasing the incidence of incorrect assumptions about individual students.
Understanding diversity prepares us for a new cultural paradigm, a mainstream
culture that encourages, values and promotes tolerance for individual differences
Sources of Learner Diversity in a Typical Classroom

Learner diversity in a typical classroom can be attributed to culture, gender,

socioeconomic status, language and learning style.
Culture is an important consideration in understanding learner diversity. (Part of
culture: set of habits and values, clothes you wear, music you like, food you prefer,

23
family patterns, child-adult interaction). At times they complement and reinforce
classroom practices. Some children bring with them a resistance culture. These are
beliefs, values and behaviours that do not conform to the mainstream. This type of
culture can challenge the management skills of the teacher.
Cultural Dimensions and Considerations Influencing Learning
These items may guide a future teacher understand learner diversity by reflecting
each item. (Adapted from Vaughn, S., et.al. (2003) Teaching exceptional, diverse, and
at-risk students in the general education classroom)
Time How do students perceive time?
How is timeliness regarded in their culture?
Space What personal distance do students use in interactions with
other students and adults?
How does the culture determine the space allotted to boys and
girls?
Dress and food How does dress differ for age, gender and social class?
What clothing and accessories are considered
acceptable?
What foods are typical?
Rituals and What rituals do the students use to show respect?
Ceremonies What celebrations do students observe and for what reasons?
How and where do parents expect to be greeted when visiting
the class?
To what extent are students expected to work together?
Leisure What are the purposes for play?
What typical activities are done for enjoyment in the home and
community?
Gender Roles What tasks are performed by boys? By girls?
What expectations do parents and students hold for boys’ and
girls’ achievements and
how does this differ by subject areas?
Status What resources (study area and materials, study assistance
from parents and siblings)
are available at home and in the community?
What power do the parents have to obtain information about
the school and to
influence educational choices?
Goals What kinds of work are considered prestigious or desirable?
What role does education play in achieving occupational goals?
What education level do the family and student desire for the
student?
Education What methods for teaching and learning are used in the
home(modelling and imitation, didactic stories and proverbs,
direct verbal instruction)?

24
Communication What roles do verbal and nonverbal language play in learning
and teaching?
What roles do conventions such as silence, questions,
rhetorical questions, and
discourse style play in communication?
What types of literature (newspapers, books) are used in the
home and what
language/s are they written?
How is writing used in the home(letters, lists, notes) and in what
language /s?
Interaction What roles do cooperation and competition play in learning?
How are children expected to interact with teachers?

Gender differences, treating boys and girls differently. We identify roles dolls or
when girls play rough games. We assign math and science to the male domain and
languages to the females. These role identities have resulted to stereotype threats.
(Girls fear of playing football because they will be called tomboys or boys fear to be
seen alone in the company of of girls because they will be considered
sissies).Teachers may unintentionally reinforce gender stereotypes such as assigning
housekeeping tasks to girls and tool using tasks to bouys or give more responsibilities
to boys than girls(UNESCO,2004). In these ways they may be unaware that they treat
boys and girls differently.
Dialect can also make one different from the rest. The speech intonation,
pronunciation and rhythm makes one different. No matter how hard one tries to
imitate a second language there will always remain a trace of mother tongue.
Language makes a Bisaya different from Tagalog or an Ilocano, or any other
language.
Socioeconomic status has been considered in relation to school performance
and behaviour. Differences in behaviour are attributed to the extent parents are
involved in their child’s development, how the basic needs are met and the provision
of stimulating and developmentally appropriate experiences.
If we advocate that every child matters, we have also to pay attention to the
difference in the learning style, motivations and needs of the students. Learning styles
are the preferences individuals demonstrate in the ways in which they concentrate,
process, internalise and retain academic information. If we recognize the learning
styles of our students and the differences in learning between them this detection
helps us create ways for them to become effective learners.

Activity 2.1a
Try this!

25
Let us consider SPECIAL a singular distinctive word, and an acronym .

What word/s can you assign to each letter to form a statement that would give
meaning to it? (you may add them below)
S-_____________________________________
P-______________________________________
E-______________________________________
C-______________________________________
I- ______________________________________
A-______________________________________
L-______________________________________

Just like you, if you have a heart to teach children, your students will make you
SPECIAL!
You can write also the acronym you wanted your students totell what you are as a
SPED teacher in the future.

T ____________________________________
E _____________________________________
A ____________________________________
C ___________________________________
H __________________________________
E __________________________________
R __________________________________

Diversity in the Special Education Class

The classroom of children with special needs is a natural setting of diverse
needs and characteristics. Individual differences among children can be understood
well in terms of:
1. how the child reacts to sensations, process information, plans actions,
and sequences behaviour and thought
2. the level of functional emotional, s ocial and intellectual capacities
3. typical and necessary interaction patterns
4. family patterns

26
 The differences of every child’s development capabilities and special needs
make them unique individuals where a teacher can tailor intervention programs to
individual development needs.
The implications for understanding learner diversity are reflected in the
provisions of legal mandates and policies spelled out by the constitution, DepEd and
other agencies particularly the UNESCO.
Education Act of 1982 and Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines Art
XlV, Sec5, par 5 (1987) mandates that all people regardless of sex, age, creed,
socioeconomic status, physical and mental condition, social and ethnic origin, political
and other affiliations should be given access to quality education in line with the
national goals and conducive to their full development.
The global movement for Education for All (1990) was strongly reaffirmed by
the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action in (1994) in its principles and
policy ensuring the right to education for everyone regardless of individual differences.
The Philippine participation in this significant conference and in Dakar Framework
2000 inspired the Educ for All 2015 National Action Plan specifically to include in its
goals a strong declaration to provide basic quality education for all and eliminate
gender disparities in primary and secondary education (Philippines EFA 2015, Goals 1
and 5,2005)
Each of these developments seeks to respond to DepEd’s vision for Filipino
Children, both typical or with special needs, for discrimination-free quality education.
Special Education practitioners for the past 3 decades, discovered difficulty in
establishing demarcation line between the sources of diversity among typical learners
and those with special needs. As experienced there can always be bad days and
good days working with children with disabilities/with special needs and children with
gifts and talents. They make mistakes, they mess up… Situations make teachers
understand better their developmental needs, strengths and weaknesses and guided
them plan individual interventions that are more manageable on the teacher’s part.
Summary
 Learner diversity influences the way teachers manage the classroom.
 The teacher must be aware that individual differences in a typical classroom
are brought about by differences in culture, gender, language, socio economic
status and learning style.
 Among children with special needs, their unique profile is attributed to the
nature of developmental disorders, level of functional capacities, typical and
necessary interaction patterns, and family patterns in dealing with the special
needs.
 Teachers who are not prepared to understand individual differences are likely

27
 to have problems in classroom management.
 Of utmost significance are the legislative mandates and policies in support to
understanding learner diversity. Worthy of mention are the 1987 Phil
Constitution, Education Act of 1982, World Declaration on Education for All,
Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, Dakar Framework 2000 and
Phil Education for All Act 2015 National Action Plan.
Suggested Reading
 www.goguardian.com/blog/diversity-in-the-classroom (Cultural Diversity in the
Classroom | GoGuardian)
 equity.ucla.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2016/06/DiversityintheClassroom2014Web.pdf (Diversity in
the Classroom)
 blog.socialstudies.com/how-teachers-can-address-culture-in-the-
classroom(How Teachers Can Address Cultural Diversity in the Classroom)
 drexel.edu/soe/resources/student-teaching/advice/importance-of-cultural-
diversity-in-classroom
(The Importance of Diversity & Cultural Awareness in the Classroom)
 www.wgu.edu/blog/improving-diversity-classroom2005.html
(Improving Diversity in the Classroom - Western Governors University)

ACTIVITY 2.1b
You can DO THIS!
In your big notebook, write new insights taken from the readings, one
substantial paragraph will do for each.

References
 Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A
Textbook for College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
 Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs
(Learning Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc,
QC Phils
 Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils
For this set of activities, have your output typewritten, then send clip it in your big
notebook and wait until my signal to submit.. Please help me systematize recording

28
by indicating your time schedule after the subject in every output you will have.
Thanks.

ACTIVITY 2.1c
Read, Respond, and Reflect
1. Every Child Matters (Will share this item through our GC)
(Adapted)
 What types of children does Ms. Madelyn have?
 In what ways are the children diverse? Pick out two and make a comparison.
 Joshua G and RG were both assessed having some autism spectrum disorder.
What do you suppose make them different from each other although their
disabilities are similar?
 What will be your greatest challenge if you were in the shoes of Ms. Madelyn?

2. Write a Minute Paper which would prompt you on “Learner Diversity”.

3. How will you show your appreciation of a classmate who have different culture?
- What rituals you do to show respect for one another?
- Why a future teacher need to do this?

Lesson 2.2 – Basic Terms in Special Education

Overview
In this module under diversity in special education setting, some important
terms will be defined for us to be on the same page of understanding and be guided
of the technical terms used in the subject.This module also includes identifying
Common Disorders/Learning Disabilities, and Categories of Exceptionalities.
Understanding who are the active professionals involved in special education of
children with special needs.

Learning Outcomes
After working through this module, you are expected to:
a. Define and explain the following terms: exceptional children, special
education, disability or impairment, handicap, and at risk.

29
 b. Understand ways special education as:
b1. legislatively governed enterprise
b2. part of basic education
b3. process of teaching children and youth with special education needs
b4. intervention process
c. Differentiate learning and behavior characteristics of the categories of CSN
Content

Children With Special Needs (CSN)

Children with special needs are the exceptional children (Kirk, Gallagher and
Anastasiow, 2000) who differ from the average child to such an extent that they
require either a modification of school practices or special educational services to
develop their unique capabilities.

Children and Youth with Special Needs

Children and youth who have one or more of the conditions mentioned in the
vignettes you worked on, among others, are called exceptional children.
The term exceptional children and youth covers those with mental retardation,
giftedness and talent, learning disabilities, emotional and behavioral disorders,
communication disorders, deafness, blindness and low vision, physical disabilities,
health impairments, and severe disabilities.
These are children and youth who experience difficulties in learning the basic
education curriculum and need a modified or functional curriculum, as well as those
whose performance is so superior that they need a differentiated special education
curriculum to help them attain their full potential.
Exceptional children are also referred to as children with special needs (CSN).
Like the children and youth in elementary and secondary schools, the mental ability of
exceptional children or CSN may be average, below or above average.
There are four points of view about special education (Heward, 2003).
1. Special education is a legislatively governed enterprise.
This point of view is expressed in the legal bases of special education that are
discussed in Chapter 1. Article IV, Section 1 and Section 5, Article XIII, Section
11 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution guarantee that the State shall protect and
promote the rights of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take
appropriate steps to make such education available to all. The State shall
provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and other skills. The State shall adopt an integrated
and comprehensive approach to health and other social services available to all

30
 people at affordable costs. There shall be priority to the needs of the
underprivileged, the sick, the elderly, the disabled, women and children.
R.A. 7277 - The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons - provides for the
rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance of disabled persons and their
integration into mainstream society.
The Philippine Policies and Guidelines for Special Education provides that every
child with special needs has a right to an educational program that is suitable to
his/her needs. Special education shares with regular education basic
responsibilities of the educational system to fulfill the right of the child to
develop his/her potential.
There are many other laws, memoranda and circulars that have been enacted
through the years in support of special education.
2. Special Education System
Special education is a part of the Department of Education's basic education
program. With its modest historical beginning in 1907, special education is now
a major part of the basic education program in elementary and secondary
schools. The Special Education Division of the Bureau of Elementary Education
formulates policies, plans and programs, develops standards of programs and
services. There are special education programs in public and private schools in
all the regions of the country. The government continues to grant scholarships
to deserving school administrators and teachers to pursue the graduate
degrees at the Philippine Normal University and the University of the Philippines.
In-service education programs are conducted to upgrade the competencies of
administrators, teachers and non-teaching personnel. Networks and linkages in
the country and overseas are sustained.
3. Special education is teaching children with special needs in the least restrictive
environment.
In the final analysis, teaching is what special education is all about. From this
perspective, special education is defined in terms of thewho, what, how andwhere of
its implementation.

WHO: The exceptional children or the children and youth with special education
needs are the most important persons in special education. Then there are the school
administrators, the special education teachers, the regular teachers, the
interdisciplinary teams of professionals such as the guidance counselors, the school
psychologists, the speech therapists, physical and occupational therapists, medical
doctors, and specialists who help provide the specific services that exceptional
children need.

WHAT: Every exceptional child needs access to a differentiated and modified

31
curricular program to enable him/her to learn the skills and competencies in the basic
education curriculum. The individualized education program (IEP) states the annual
goals, the quarterly objectives, the strategies for teaching and evaluation of learning
and the services the exceptional child needs.

HOW: Children with mental retardation are taught adaptive skills and basic
academic content that are suitable to their mental ability, Gifted children are provided
with enrichment activities and advanced content knowledge so that they can learn
more than what the basic education curriculum offers. Most of them are in
accelerated classes where they finish elementary education in five years instead of six.
Children who are blind learn braille and orientation and mobility or travel techniques.
Children who are deaf learn sign language and speech reading.

4. Special education is purposeful intervention.

Intervention prevents, eliminates and/or overcomes the obstacles that might

keep an individual with disabilities from learning, from full and active participation in
school activities, and from engaging in social and leisure activities

Preventive intervention is designed to keep potential or minor problems from

becoming a disability Primary prevention is designed to eliminate or counteract risk
factors so that a disability is not acquired. Secondary Intervention is aimed at reducing
or eliminating the effects of existing risk factors. Tertiary prevention is intended to
minimize the impact of a specific condition or disability among those with disabilities.
Remedial intervention attempts to eliminate the effects of a disability.

The Basic Terms in Special Education: Developmental Disability, Impairment or

Disability, Handicap and At Risk

Developmental disability refers to a severe, chronic disability of a child five years of

age or older that is:

 attributable to a mental or physical impairment of mental and physical

impairments;
 manifested before the person attains age 22;
 likely to continue indefinitely:
 Results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the areas of
major life activities such as self-care, language, learning. mobility, self-
direction, capacity for independent living and economic self-sufficiency, and
 reflects the person's need for a combination and sequence of special care,
treatment or other services that are lifelong or of extended duration and are
individually planned and coordinated (Beirne-Smith, 2002)

Impairment or Disability refers to reduced function or loss of a specific part of the

body or organ. A person may have disabilities such as blindness or low vision,

32
deafness or hard of hearing condition, mental retardation, learning disabilities,
communication disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders, physical and health
impairments and severe disabilities. These disabilities or impairments limit or restrict
the normal functions of a particular organ of the body. In the case of thehearing do
not function normally and restrict the person's seeing and hearing The speech
mechanism is impaired in communication disorders and causes the person to have
voice problems, improper rhythm and timing in speech and even stuttering. The
skeletal and nervous systems are impaired in cases of physical and health
impairments and severe disabilities. The results are crippling conditions, cerebral
palsy and other physical disabilities, Impairment and disability are used
interchangeably.

Some Common Disorders/Disabilities

Global Developmental Delay - implies that the child has delays in all areas of
development.

Mental Retardation – characterized by severe delayed development in the acquisition

of cognitive, language, motor, or social skills.

Down syndrome – is a form of mental retardation resulting from a genetic

abnormality – an extra twenty-first chromosome. Children with this condition have
forty-seven, instead of the normal forty-six chromosomes.

Autism – is a very serious lifelong developmental disorder characterized by severe

impairment in the development of verbal and nonverbal communication skills, marked
impairment in reciprocal social interaction (a lack of responsiveness to or interest in
people), and almost non-existent imaginative activity. Also known as infantile autism
or Kanner's syndrome.

Specific Learning Disability (SLD) – a severe learning problem due to a disorder in

one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in acquiring, organizing, or
expressing information that manifests itself in school as an impaired ability to listen,
reason, speak, read, write, spell or do curriculum.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – with a persistent pattern of

problems in the areas of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity that is more
frequent and severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of
development and also significantly inappropriate for their age levels.

Conduct Disorder – characterized by a persistent pattern of behavior that intrudes

and violates the basic rights of others without concern or fear of implications.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder – characterized by patterns of negativistic, hostile and

defiant behaviors with peers as well as adults, and with argumentative behaviors
towards adults. It is considered less serious than conduct disorder because of the

33
absence of serious behaviors that violate the basic rights of others.an insult to the
brain, not a degenerative or

Traumatic Brain Injury- congenital nature but caused by an external physical force,
that may produce a diminished or altered state of consciousness, which results in
impairment of cognitive abilities or physical functioning. It can also result in the
disturbance of behavioral or emotional functioning. These impairments may be either-
temporary or permanent.

Cerebral Palsy – a term used to describe a group of chronic conditions affecting body
movements and muscle coordination.

Tourette syndrome – an inherited neurological disorder that develops in childhood

characterized by tics - involuntary, rapid, sudden, repetitive muscle movements or
vocalizations and often accompanied by other disorder (e.g., ADHD and OCD), lack
of impulse control and other behavioural problems.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - the main characteristics associated with this
disorder are persistent obsessions (persistent thoughts, impulses or images) or
compulsions (repetitive and intentional acts) that significantly interfere with the
individual's normal daily social, educational, occupational, or environmental routines.

Hearing Impairments - also referred to as "hard of hearing" or "deaf."

Visual Impairments - a loss of vision that, even when corrected, affects educational
performance. It may be mild to moderate to severe in nature. Learners who are blind
are unable to read print and usually learn to read and write using Braille. Individuals
with low vision can usually read when the print is enlarged sufficiently.

Deaf-blindness - individuals in this category have moderate to severe impairments in

both vision and hearing. This is included as a separate category because of the
unique learning needs presented, and specialized services required.

Communication Disorder - a disorder of articulation, fluency, voice, or language that

adversely affects educational performance; or a severe communication deficit that
may require the use of an augmentative or alternative communication system such as
sign language, communication boards, or electronic devices.

Multiple Disabilities – these include any individuals with two or more disabling
conditions. However, this category. Often includes mental retardation as one of the
categories, and is usually used when disorders are serious and interrelated to such an
extent that it is difficult to identify the primary area of disability. It does not include deaf
-blindness.

Orthopaedic Impairments - associated with physical conditions that seriously impair

mobility or motor activity. This category includes individuals with cerebral palsy or

34
disease of the skeleton or muscles, and accident victims.

Serious Emotional Disturbance (SED) – includes individuals with a condition in one or

more of the following areas during an extended period of time:

a) inability to learn, not due to intellectual, sensory or health problems;

b) inability to build and maintain social relationships with peers and рeers teachers;
c) inappropriate behavior;
d) general pervasive depression or unhappiness;
e) tendency to develop fears or physical symptoms associated with school and
personal problems; and
f) Schizophrenia.

Other Health Impairments – have limited strengths, vitality, or alertness because of

chronic or acute health problems. Conditions that fall into this category include heart
conditions, asthma, Tourette syndrome, ADHD, diabetes and so on.

Handicap refers to a problem a person with a disability or impairment encounters

when interacting with people, events and the physical aspects of the environment.
For example, a child with low vision or blindness cannot read the regular print of
textbooks. The child either reads books that are published in large print or transcribed
into braille. A child who is hard of heating or who suffers from deafness cannot hear
regular conversation and uses a hearing aid and reads the lips of the speaker. A child
who has a physical disability such as a crippling condition cannot walk normally and
uses a wheelchair, braces or artificial limbs. However, it must be remembered that a
disability may pose a handicap in one environment but not in another. A wheelchair-
bound child with a physical disability may not be able to compete with his classmates
in the Physical Education class, but may excel in Mathematics, Science and other
academic subjects.

At risk refers to children who have greater chances than other children to develop
a disability. The child is in danger of substantial developmental delay because of
medical, biological, or environmental factors if early intervention services are not
provided. Down syndrome occurs during the early phase of pregnancy when one
parental chromosome fails to separate at conception resulting in the child's having
forty-seven chromosomes instead of the normal forty-six or twenty-three pairs. At
birth, the infant has abnormal physical characteristics and mental retardation. Ifa
pregnant woman contracts German measles or rubella during the first three months
of pregnancy, the fetus is at risk for blindness, deafness or mental retardation. The
fetus in the womb of a woman who consumes alcohol heavily and chain-smokes, or
takes prohibited drugs is at risk for brain injury that causes disabilities. If a disability
runs in the family, the fetus may inherit it and the infant will be born with a disability.
Children may meet accidents, suffer from certain diseases, malnutrition and other
environmental deprivations that can lead to disabilities.

Categories of Children at Risk

35
 Children with established risk are those with cerebral palsy, Down syndrome,
and other conditions that started during pregnancy. Children with biological risk are
those who are born prematurely, underweight at birth, whose mother contracted
diabetes or rubella during the first trimester of pregnancy, or who had bacterial
infections like meningitis and HIV. Environmental risk results from extreme poverty,
child abuse, absence of adequate shelter and medical care, parental substance
abuse, limited opportunities for nurturance and social stimulation.

What Are the Categories of Exceptionalities Among Children and Youth with Special
Needs?

1. Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is

characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing
concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable
adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills,
community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure
and work. Mental retardation manifests before age 18 (American Association of
Mental Retardation, 1992).

2. Giftedness and talent refers to high performance in intellectual, creative or

artistic areas, unusual leadership capacity, and excellence in specific academic
field (US Government). Giftedness refers to the traits of above-average general
abilities, high level task commitment, and creativity (Renzulli, 1978). Giftedness
emphasizes talent as the primary defining characteristic (Feldhusen, 1992).
Giftedness shows in superior memory, observational powers, curiosity,
creativity, and ability to learn (Piirto, 1994).

3. Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen,
think, speak, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations. The term
includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury. minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include
children who have learning problems which are primarily the result of visual,
hearing or motor handicaps, of mental retardation or of environmental, cultural,
or economic disadvantages (US Office of Education, 1977).

4. The term emotional and behavioral disorders means a condition exhibiting one
or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a
marked degree, which adversely affects educational performance:
(a) an inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, and
health factors
(b) an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with
peers and teachers
(c) inappropriate types of behavioror feelings under normal circumstances

36
 (d) a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
(e) a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with
personal or school problems.
The term includes children who are schizophrenic (or autistic). The term does
not include children who are socially maladjusted unless it is determined that
they are seriously emotionally disturbed (US Department of Education.

5. Speech and language disorders or communication disorders exist when the

impact that a communication pattern has on a person's life meets any one of
the following criteria(Emerick and Haynes, 1986).:
(a) the transmission and/or perception of messages is faulty
(b) the person is placed at an economic disadvantage
(c) the person is placed at a learning disadvantage
(c) there is negative impact on the person's emotional growth
(d) the problem causes physical damage or endangers the health of the
person

6. Hearing impairment is a generic term that includes hearing disabilities ranging

from mild to profound, thus encompassing children who are deaf and those
who are hard of hearing. A person who is deaf is not able to use hearing to
understand speech, although he or she may perceive some sounds. Even with
a hearing aid, the hearing loss is too great to allow a deaf person to understand
speech through the cars alone. A person who is hard of hearing has a
significant hearing loss that makes some special adaptations necessary (Paul
and Quigley, 1990, cited in Heward, 2003).

7. Students with visual impairment display a wide range of visual dis abilities -
from total blindness to relatively good residual (remaining) vision. There is a
visual restriction of sufficient severity that it interferes with normal progress in a
regular educational program without modifications (Scholl, 1986, cited in
Heward, 2003). A child who is blind is totally without sight or has so little vision
that he or she learns primarily through the other senses, such as touch to read
braille. A child with low vision is able to learn through the visual channel and
generally learns to read print.

8. Physical impairments may be orthopedic impairments that involve the skeletal

system - the bones, joints, limbs, and associated muscles. Or, they may be
neurological impairments that involve the nervous system affecting the ability to
move, use, feel, or control certain parts of the body. Health impairments
include chronic illnesses, that is, they are present over long periods and tend
not to get better or disappear.

9. The term severe disabilities generally encompass individuals with severe and
profound disabilities in intellectual, physical and social functioning. Because of
the intensity of their physical, mental or emotional problems, or a combination
of such problems, they need highly specialized educational, social,

37
 psychological and medical services beyond those which are traditionally
offered by regular and special education programs in order to maximize their
potential for useful and meaningful participation in society and for self-
fulfillment. Children and youth with severe disabilities include those who are
seriously emotionally disturbed, schizophrenic, autistic, profoundly and
severely mentally retarded, deaf-blind, mentally retarded-blind and cerebral
palsied-deaf (US Department of Education)

Labels and names that were derogatory were used in the past to describe
people with physical deformities, mental retardation and behavior problems.
These demeaning terms that are not used anymore are "imbecile, moron, idiot,
mentally dencient, aunceanu 1001. Even use words "mute" and "dumb" are
unacceptable and inappropriate to describe persons who manifest speech and
language problems as a result of deafness.

Is It Correct to Use Disability Category Labels?

There are two points of view regarding the use of labels to describe children
and youth with disabilities. The first point of view frowns on labeling these children as
mentally retarded, learning disabled, emotionally disturbed, socially maladapted, blind,
deaf or physically disabled. Use of disability labels calls attention to the disability itself
and overlooks the more important and positive characteristics of the person. These
negative labels cause the "spread phenomenon to permeate the mind of the able-
bodied persons. The disability becomes the major influence in the development of
preconceived ideas that tend to be negative, such as helplessness, dependence and
doom to a life of hopelessness. The truth is, persons with disabilities are first and
foremost human beings who have the same physical and psychological needs like
everybody else. They need to belong, to be loved, to be useful.

The second and less popular point of view is that it is necessary to use
workable disability category labels in order to describe the exceptional learning needs
for a systematic provision of special education services. Nevertheless, decades of
research and debates on the issue have not arrived at any conclusive resolution of the
labeling problem. A number of pros and cons have been advanced by various
specialists and educators (Heward, 2003).

Pros and Possible Benefits of Labeling

 Categories can relate diagnosis to specific types of education and treatment.
 Labeling may lead to "protective response in which children are more
accepting of the atypical behavior by a peer with disabilities than they would be
if that same behavior were emitted by a child without disabilities.
 Labeling helps professionals communicate with one another and classify and
assess research findings.
 Funding of special education programs is often based on specific categories of

38
 exceptionality, Labels enable disability-specific advocacy groups to promote
specific programs and to spur legislative action.
 Labeling helps make exceptional children's special needs more visible to the
public.
 Because labels usually focus on disability, impairment, and performance
deficits, some people may think only in terms of what the individual cannot do
instead of what he or she can or might be able to learn to do.
 Labels may cause others to hold low expectations for and to differentially treat
a child on the basis of the label, which may result to a "self- funneling
prophecy." For example, in one study, student teachers gave a child labeled
"autistic" more praise and rewards and less verbal correction for incorrect
responses than they gave a child labeled "normal." Such differential treatment
could hamper a child's acquisition of new skills and contribute to the
development and maintenance of a level of performance consistent with the
label's prediction.
 Labels that describe a child's performance deficit often mistakenly acquire the
role of explanatory constructs. For example, "Sherry acts that way because she
is emotionally disturbed."
 Labels suggest that learning problems are primarily the result of something
wrong within the child, thereby reducing the systematic examination of and
accountability for instructional variables as the cause of performance deficits.
This is especially damaging outcome when the label provides educators with a
built-in excuse for ineffective instruction. For example, "Jalen hasn't learned to
read because he's ").
 A labeled child may develop poor self-concept.
 Labels may lead peers to reject or ridicule the labeled child.
 Special education labels have a certain permanence; once labeled, it is difficult
for a child to ever again achieve the status of simply being "just another kid."
 Labels often provide a basis for keeping children out of the regular classroom.
 A disproportionate number of children from diverse cultural, ethnic and
linguistic groups have been inaccurately labeled as disabled especially under
the category mild mental retardation.
 Classification of exceptional children requires the expenditure of a great
amount of money and professional and student time that could better be spent
in planning and delivering instruction.

39
 ACTIVITY 2.2a
You can Do this by Group!
In our messenger chat room, group yourselves according to your family names:
 Group 1- Student’s family names start from letters A to E
 Group 2 - Student’s family names start from letters F to J
 Group 3- Student’s family names start from letters K to 0
 Group 4- Student’s family names start from letters P to T
 Group 5 - Student’s family names start from letters U to Z
From the net as your source, create an e-collage of pictures or images of the
different categories of CSN.
Once finishing touches are done, proudly post creation on our GC on October
15,2021. Indicate your names below the best title of your e-collage and tell something
about it.

Summary
Children with special needs are children who have a disability or a combination of
disabilities that makes learning or other activities difficult.

Special needs is a very broad term and every situation is unique.

Special-needs children include those who have: Mental Retardation, which causes
them to develop more slowly than other children. Speech and Language Impairment,
such as a problem expressing themselves or understanding others. Physical Disability,
such as vision problem, cerebral palsy, or other conditions. Learning Disabilities,
which distort messages from their senses. Emotional Disabilities, such as antisocial or
other behavioral problems.

There are categories of exceptionalities among children and youth with special needs,
they are:
mental retardation, giftedness and talent, specific learning disability, emotional and
behavioral disorders,
speech and language disorders or communication , hearing impairment, visual
impairment, physical impairments /orthopaedic impairments /neurological
impairments /health impairments, and severe disabilities

Special education is a legislatively governed enterprise, now a major part of the

DepEd’s basic education programs. An intervention designed to prevent, minimize if
not eliminate, or remedy children with special needs.

40
References

Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for

College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning

Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education

Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils

https://www.jamdeaf.org.jm/articles/who-are-the-children-with-special-needs

Suggested Reading

*Challenges and Issues for Special Needs Children @

https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-are-special-needs-3106002

ACTIVITY 2.2b
Read and Respond
1. Test on Content Knowledge( Write your answer using blue-ink pen in a short
bond paper, have a soft copy send it to my email)
2. Define and explain the following terms: exceptional children, special education,
disability or impairment, handicap, and at risk.
3. In what ways is special education:
 A legislatively governed enterprise?
 A part of basic education?
 The process of teaching children and youth with special education needs?
 An intervention process?
4. Fill in the following matrix with the definition, learning and behavioral
characteristics of the categories of CSN. You can add or revise the matrix when
necessary.

41
 CATEGORY OF CSN DEFINITION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTICS

ACTIVITY 2.2c
You Can Do This!
1. Check and locate a public or private elementary and secondary school where CSN
are enrolled in your community. Prepare a letter requesting the school principal's
permission to visit the SPED Teacher, and request a short interview (Don’t forget
to have social or physical distancing when doing this activity).
2. Ask the SPED teacher for information about the child/ren: the category of their
exceptionality, the causes, and personal data like their age, family background,
number of years in school and other relevant information.
3. If you can not do observation as face to face classes are not allowed, ask how
the SPED teacher goes about his or her job. You may ask how he or she feels about
teaching these children. You may also ask him or her about the future of these
children when they leave school.
4. Write a report on your visit and observation of CSN. Share your findings with your
classmates in the class’s group chat.

42
 Module lll- PROFESSIONALS INVOLVED IN SPED
Lesson 3.1 – Professionals Involved in Special Education

Overview

This module is sharing you about the “who” in the Special Education Programs. The
roles and responsibilities of active professionals involved in dealing children and
youth with special needs will be discussed.

Learning Outcomes
After working through this module, you are expected to:
a. understand the “who” of special education
b. describe roles of different professionals involved in special education
c. differentiate a special education teacher from a regular classroom teacher

Content
Before introducing to you the important people in the field of SPED and bring
you to them while you go through , remember that in every association there are key
players to face and win the battle. it helps to know who they are, what they do, and
where they're coming from. This will guide future teachers and to your children in
school with special needs.

What do you think of when you hear the word "team"? Working in Special
Education programs is working as a team. The team is composed of individuals
working hard toward a mutual goal. Do you imagine careful strategizing, intense
huddles, encouraging pats on the back, shared feelings of triumph over a job well
done?

Collaboration among teammates are expected and feelings be are actually on

the same side, trying to score on behalf of CSN and not against one another.

The roles and responsibilities of special education professionals are varied.

They are responsible for complying with many laws and regulations regarding the
treatment and well-being of people with disabilities. Their roles involve every aspect

43
of the educational process.

Teachers and Special Education Professionals

First, let's look at the roles of a teacher. In short, a teacher teaches, but they also
design the educational content to pass knowledge to students. Teachers are
responsible for assessing students' learning and skills through testing or other
assignments designed to illustrate the students' abilities. Through these assessments,
teachers are often expected to identify at-risk students and bring those students to
the attention of the proper departments within the school.

In short, a teacher is much more than a person who presents information.

Responsibilities of Special Ed Professionals

All special education professionals must comply with the rules and regulations
set forth in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Children and
Youth with Special Needs, and Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA).
All of these acts ensure that people with disabilities are given equal access to all
aspects of life and living as any non-disabled person, including education and the
right to personal privacy.

Special education professionals are also responsible for creating an

individualized education plan (IEP) for each of their students. An IEP is a document
specifying documented medical issues, accommodations, and educational goals
for each disabled student. A typical IEP might inform all education professionals
working with a particular student that the student has moderate autism, needs
additional testing time in an isolated area, as well as isolated downtime during the
day, and that the student's goal is to limit self-isolated sessions to five per day.
IEPs assist all educational professionals who work with the student with
accommodating the student's needs.

Additionally, special education professionals must follow ethical guidelines set

by the Council for Exceptional Children for the treatment of their students. These
guidelines include:

 Setting challenging but realistic expectations that allow students to strive for
their best
 Encouraging integration of students with disabilities into mainstream
activities whenever possible
 Remaining professional at all times when working with children with
exceptional educational needs
 Working well in teams to meet the broad needs of students with disabilities
 Working closely with families to achieve the best educational outcome for
students
 Ensuring a safe environment for students

44
  Using research and instructional data to develop educational plans (IEPs)
for students
 Following all laws and rules, both federal and local
 Continuing to learn and grow through professional development in order to
benefit students by using the most current methods of education

We can probably agree that special education professionals have a lot of

responsibilities, but what are their roles?

Roles of the Special Education Professional

There are many roles that a special education professional can have. Some are
identical to those of a non-special education teacher, while others have very little
to do with traditional concepts of what a teacher does. We can divide their roles
into categories: teachers and support service providers.

A special education professional's roles include those of a traditional classroom

teacher and of a support service provider. The difference between a special
education professional and a mainstream teacher is that the special education
professional performs all duties with and for students with varying degrees of
disability and not all duties are related to teaching. All teachers must be aware of
laws that regulate the education environment, but special education professionals
must also be aware of the laws pertaining to people with disabilities. As we discuss
special education professionals, we should first discuss their responsibilities to
their students as vulnerable individuals.

The Core Team Members

There is an impressive array of people who were considered key players who will
probably do the most significant legwork for students with special needs—though this
may vary based on each child's individual needs and circumstances.

Before the child/youth/student be identified as Child/ren with special needs,

the child has to be assessed thoroughly after a series of keen observations and
supported by the recommendation of the regular teacher and consent of the parent.

The Members of the Multidisciplinary Team Responsible for Formal Assessment

 Physical Therapist - evaluates a child who is experiencing problems in gross

motor functioning, living and self-help skills, and vocational skills necessary for
functioning in certain settings. This professional may screen, evaluate, provide
direct services, or consult with the teacher, parent, or school.

 Occupational Therapist - evaluates a child who may be experiencing problems

in fine motor skills and in living and self-help skills, for example. This
professional may screen, evaluate, provide direct services, consult with the

45
 teacher, parent, or school, and assist in obtaining appropriate assistive
technology or equipment.

 Speech Language Pathologist - screens for speech and language

developmental problems, provides a full evaluation on a suspected disability,
provides direct services,and consults with staff and parents.

 Audiologist - will evaluate a learner's hearing for possible impairment, and as a

result of the findings, may refer the learner for medical consultation or
treatment. The audiologist may also help learners and parents obtain
equipment, such as hearing aids, that may improve the child's ability to function
in school. - refers to a trained SPED Specialist who conducts

 SPED Diagnostician - refers to a trained SPED Specialist who conducts

Psychoeducational Assessment and strategies such as standardized tests,
checklists, records, forms, inventory, scales alongside interviews, observation
and informal skill survey and/or portfolio assessment. He also prepares the
intervention plan/priorities the service givers like tutors, therapists and SPED
Teachers used in addressing the needs of special children.

 Developmental Pediatrician - is a medical doctor who specializes in the

diagnosis and treatment of children with behavioral, communication or mental
problems. These include cerebral palsy, autism, learning disabilities, ADHD,
Learning Disability, and the like.

 Neurologist – is a medical doctor or osteopath who has trained in the diagnosis

and treatment of nervous system disorder, including diseases of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves and muscles.

 Psychologis t – evaluates and diagnoses learners with a wide range of learning,

social, emotional, or developmental problems. This professional may also
consult with parents and teachers to help develop the most appropriate
educational programs for learners with disabilities and other problems.

 Psychiatrist – is a physician who diagnoses and treats learners with

psychological, emotional, behavioral and developmental or organic problems.
This professional can prescribe medication. The psychiatrist usually does not
administer tests.

 Ophthalmologist – is a medical doctor who evaluates and treats learners with

vision problems. This professional may, for example, perform eye surgery,
prescribe glasses or medication, or suggest special modifications in teaching,
classroom materials, and seating arrangements.

 Special Education Teacher – conducts educational evaluations of learners with

suspected disabilities in specific categories. For example: a teacher of the

46
 visually impaired will evaluate the academic as well as mobility and orientation
skills of a referred learner.

Other Active Professionals Involved in Special Education

The School Administrator or Principal:

School Administrators or Principals who effectively manage special education
in their schools have to be one part lawyer, one part counselor—and a little bit fearless.
That’s the assessment from interviews with principals, educators in
administrator-prep programs, and researchers who have taken a deep look at
successful school leaders.
The need for legal expertise is obvious.They need to know the complex set of
rules and policies that govern the education of students with disabilities and often
carry the force of law.
The job also requires school leaders to support parents, students, and teachers,
many of whom see the principal as the primary arbiter in cases of disagreement.
District-level administrators may be a faceless character to most parents.
Principals, on the other hand, are the administrators that they know.
The importance and the complexity of the handling of special education
shouldn’t paralyze school leaders, their peers say. Principals are going to make
mistakes. It’s how they own up to those mistakes, and try to come up with ways to fix
them and improve for the next situation, that matters.

Roles and Responsibilities

 Promote successful collaboration between special and regular educators.

 Allow extra planning time for teachers who handle mainstreamed learners.
 Excuse teachers from some duties so they can meet with others.

 Provide time for teachers and auxiliary support personnel who work with the
same mainstreamed children to meet, discuss and coordinate their work.
 Encourage regular classroom teachers and supportive services personnel to
visit and observe each other while at work with the mainstreamed child.
 Provide faculty and other school personnel with general information
concerning children with special needs and how they could best help these
children in the regular school setting.
 Inform parents of regular school children of the school's supportive stance
toward mainstreamed learners.
 During faculty meetings or in service training activities, provide time for
teachers handling mainstreamed learners and/or supportive services
personnel to share their experiences with mainstreamed children.
 Limit the clerical and non-instructional tasks of teachers with mainstreamed
learners.
 Provide implementation and maintenance of effective collaborative
arrangements.
 Provide access to necessary training opportunities for staff members who are

47
 implementing the program.
 Maintain a good awareness of an individual teacher's strengths and
preference and should be able to make a good match for learners and
teachers.
 Address issues such as scheduling, class-sizing, funding, development and
adaptation of materials.
• Principals need to know the families of their special education students; it
builds tru
• Before a student’s IEP meetings, gather data and observe the child in class
• Regularly review the section of the IDEA that outlines a school’s legal obligations to
special education students
 Provide consultation with parents of mainstreamed children

The Child's Case Manager:

They're the ones who will send letters announcing scheduled meetings.
They're the ones who will hand the seemingly infinite number of copies of the
booklets on knowing child's rights. They'll be responsible for evaluating the CSN and
periodically thereafter. In addition to their evaluating and program-planning
responsibilities, they may actually be able to provide information and advice about
different situations that come up throughout the school year.

The School Psychologist or Guidance Counselor:

The psychologist is the person who will give the CSN IQ tests and other
psychological surveys as part of the evaluation portion of IEP planning. If a child has
mental health challenges, you may be more likely to have the psychologist as your
case manager, but that varies within school districts and workloads. The psychologist
may make observations during the meeting about the CSN psychological state or
concerns. If a child is having problems during the school year that require counseling,
this psychologist may be able to help, or there may be another school psychologist
who handles counseling of students.

Guidance Counselor: CSNcounselor may be pulled in to attest to problems,

coordinate class selections, or sign off on a plan. If you've already met and talked to
the counselor on a regular basis, this shouldn't be an issue, unless you've clashed
opinions Even then, though, you'll still know what to expect.

The School Psychologist or Guidance Counselor’s Roles and Responsibilities

 Carry out test related tasks - complete a thorough assessment Analyze and
interpret assessment data.
 Observe learners in class and review other professionals who work with the
learner.
 Assist classroom teachers in designing, implementing and evaluating

48
 intervention techniques and behavior management systems.
 Coordinate, assess and monitor the mainstreamed or included child and report
progress to other team members.

 Provide insights concerning the learner's social and emotional development -

self-concept, attitude towards school, and social interactions with others.

The Learning Specialist:

The learning specialist is the person who will give the child tests that assess
their level of educational achievement and ability. If a child has learning disabilities,
you may have the learning specialist as the case manager, but again, that varies with
school districts and workloads. The learning specialist is often an expert in child's
disability, and may make observations during the meeting about the appropriate
educational placement for a child. Should a child need special learning techniques,
modifications, and accommodations in the classroom, the learning consultant may be
able to strategize those with the parent and the teacher and help monitor progress.

The Special Education Teacher:

This teacher will be charged with outlining the child's educational progress and
prognosis for the IEP, and will gather opinions from other teachers as appropriate.
What the parents hear from the classroomteacher at the meeting should be
consistent throughout the year. If not, ask why. If the SPED teacher haven't been
talking with the classroom teacher throughout the year...well, there's no time like the
present. S/he shouldn’t be a stranger.

The Special Educator assumes the primary responsibility for preparing the learner for
entry into the mainstream.

 Assist the interdisciplinary team in developing an IEP by providing data

concerning the learner's academic and social skills, readiness for
mainstreaming and reactions to specific instructional techniques and materials.
 Consult with the regular classroom teacher concerning instructional
modifications, grading alternatives, teaching devices and peer acceptance.
 Prepare the learner for entry into the mainstream on inclusion program
(responsibility to the mainstream/inclusion teacher).
 Assist the regular teacher in assessing the characteristics of the learning
environment.
 Assist the regular teacher in assessing the characteristics of the personal and
social relations in the classroom.
 Provide suggestions for necessary modifications.
 Help in locating available resources. Be familiar with the regular class
curriculum.

49
  Align assessment procedures, curriculum and instructional strategies with
those employed in the regular classroom program.
 Offer knowledge of behavior management and ensure that similar behavior
management techniques are used by all members of the team.
 Teach study skills and learning strategies using the materials (c.g., textbooks)
of the regular education program.
 Communicate learner's progress and instructional goals to parents.
 Compile samples of the learner's work.
 Maintain records and exchange information with the classroom teacher on a
regular basis.
 Understand pertinent medical records concerning the children.
 Prepare and recommend appropriate materials for the mainstreamed child.
 Reinforce the work of the classroom teacher and do intensive teaching of
certain phases of a subject as needed.
 Participate in staff development sections to facilitate the coordination of
services.

The Regular Education Teacher:

Regular education teachers are supposed to be at IEP meetings—though they

aren't always able to attend. Deciding factors may include how much time the child
spends in the teacher's class and how directly the teacher works with the child.

Teachers should document the observations from a CSN throughout the year
so if they contrast with what you hear at the IEP meeting, teachers can cite the
misinformation.

The Regular Educator’s Roles and Responsibilities

 View the learner as a regular member of the class, not a visitor.

 Get to know all about children with exceptionalities.
 Obtain knowledge about specific handicapping conditions and special learner
capabilities.
 Specify the lesson's instructional goals.
 Plan the instructional program for the big classes.
 Assist in the design of supportive services programs. Share lesson plans and
materials with supportive services.
 Observe support service professionals' classrooms.
 Communicate instructional goals and learner's progress to parents.
 Use similar behavior management techniques as others in the team so that
everyone responds in the same manner to learner's behavior.
 Compile folders of learner's work for sharing with other members of the team.
 Participate in staff development sessions that facilitate the coordination of
services.
 Provide knowledge of the regular curriculum's scope and sequence. Provide

50
 knowledge of child development.
 Create a classroom environment that shows respect for all learners. Work
closely with other support services personnel.
 Select a group size that is most appropriate to the child and the lessons.
Observe learner interactions to ensure that the learning situation is running
smoothly.
 Identify the roles of professional team members and plan for the use of for
available resources.
 Adapt materials and instructional methodologies.
 Physically arrange the classroom.
 Provide appropriate learning materials.
 Modify teaching techniques, course content, evaluation and grading
procedures to accommodate the learner's learning needs.
 See and use the expertise of others in making necessary adaptations.
 Incorporate IEP goals into typical activities and interactions according to the
team's instructional plans.

The Social Worker:

The social worker is the person who will take down a family history during the
evaluation process. If a child has had behavioral problems or personal struggles at
school, the social worker may be assigned as the case case manager The social
worker may make observations during the meeting about the child's relationships with
other students as well as general participation in the school experience. Should the
child or CSN need special assistance with their peer relationships and conflicts, the
social worker may be able to arrange appropriate programs.

Of all the people you'll work with in planning your child's IEP, these core team
members, while they won't necessarily work with your child on a day-to-day basis,
are charged with carrying out the district's policies. At times, they may seem heavy-
handed in the way they conduct meetings and make decisions, but their main goal is
to ensure everything stays on track to keep things running smoothly.

Therapists:
Therapy is often an important component of an IEP—what kind a CSN gets,
how long, how often, and to what good effect. Therapists have to submit specific and
measurable goals to account for the time they spend with CSN, and they're usually
supposed to be at the IEP meeting to discuss. This can be tricky, though, if the
therapist's time is divided between different schools, or if the therapist is an employee
of an outside agency with specific time allotments.
The therapists in question aren't concerned with child's psychological
state—that would be the school psychologist's field of interest, and maybe the school
counselor's. These therapists are more concerned with how a CSN speaks,
understands, and moves. And technically, they can only be concerned with those
things inasmuch as they affect schoolwork.

51
The Speech Therapist: The speech therapist works with a child on receptive and
expressive language. This refers to whatever a child is able to discern from what
they're told, how they're able to make that understanding clear, and how they're able
to make themself understood. This includes both types of articulation—the proper
production of speech sounds and the proper forming of thoughts into words. Be sure
all your concerns for the child's language usage and understanding are being
addressed.

The Physical Therapist (PT): The physical therapist works on CSN gross motor skills,
which pertain to the movement of major muscle groups to make big movements such
as walking, running, and catching a ball or kicking it. Once a child is in school, there
may be a particular emphasis on skills that enable a student to make it through a
typical school day, such as walking without jumping or flailing, participating in gym
class, or carrying a lunch tray or a binder without dropping it. Listening to the goals set
by the PT and making sure that they're meaningful to the child's life and priorities.

The Occupational Therapist (OT): As the PT looks at gross motor, the OT deals
with fine motor skills, those small precise movements we tend to take for granted.
Things like printing and handwriting clearly. Tying shoes. Coloring inside the lines.
Turning a combination lock. The occupational therapist will help the child with their
fine motor skills, and writing is likely one of the things that will pop up in OT goals. If
the school therapist happens to be trained in sensory integration therapy, you may be
able to have some of that calming, organizing activity written into your child's plan as
well. It will probably have to be undertaken in such a way that pertains to your child's
education, however. (Like being able to remain seated or keep from disrupting the
class.)

Working out With the Therapists

Staying in close contact with child's therapists can reap all sorts of benefits.
They can give suggestions for ways to work with the child at home. They can pass on
materials and resources that can be useful in strategizing IEP proposals. As a bonus,
they can also tell really sweet stories about the kid.

The fact that therapists are often not employed by the schools but by private
agencies means that while they may be less available for meetings, they're far less
likely to be tied to certain school district politics. By building a good relationship with
the child's therapists and parent might get some helpful insight.The aforementioned
personnel will almost always be invited to and involved in the IEP meeting.

The Support Service Personnel (in the fields of OT, SP, IT, Psychology and Medicine)

 Discuss with classroom teachers therapy concepts relating to the child that
may be reinforced in the mainstreamed setting.

 Determine specific area needs of children through assessment (i.e., OT, PT).

52
  Provide services to teach child and family based on their individual needs.

 Deliver direct services so that they may maximize the child's independence and
development in a variety of areas.

 Train family members in providing appropriate living and learning environment

for the child.

 Help parents access relevant community services. Evaluate the effectiveness

of services delivered.

 Use similar behavior management strategies as others in the team.

 Participate in sessions that facilitate the coordination of services.

 Ensure functional approaches to addressing therapy needs in typical activities

and interactions.

 Deliver services to remediate problems - such as speech, gross-motor skills

and adaptive skills.

 Assist both regular and special educators.

Transition Coordinator: If a CSN is moving from one school to the next, a

representative of the future school may opt to be in the planning meeting.

Paraprofessional: The good news is having a child's aide in the meeting can provide
another firsthand source of information from someone who likely has the child's best
interests at heart. The not so good news is if a child's aide is in a meeting, that means
the child's aide is not with the child (unless the child is in the meeting as well). If you
invite the child's aide to the meeting, be sure a replacement aide is put in place in
their absence.

Other School Folks: Sometimes, other decision-makers from the school district are
brought in to intervene when there are disagreements. Whether this individual has any
particular knowledge of the CSN and their personal needs is another matter entirely.
Regardless, parents should be notified if additional school district personnel are
attending the IEP meeting so they can be prepared.

ACTIVITY 3a

For you to DO!

53
Respond honestly. Write your answers in your notebook and send a soft copy to the
one assigned from your class to collect online and hard copy.

a. Consider yourself a Parent of a Child or Youth with special needs. How will you
make yourself a professional presentation?
b. Consider yourself a friend to the child or youth with special needs. How will you
sympathize companion to the CSN?
c. Be in the shoes of a Paid Advocate and hired to attend to a CSN. How will you deal
with the CSN during uncontrollable times?

Summary

There is an impressive array of people considered key players of the most

significant legwork for students with special needs—though this may vary based on

each child's individual needs and circumstances .

Special education professionals have varied and a lot of roles and

responsibilities.

References:

Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for

College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning

Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education

Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils

https://www.jamdeaf.org.jm/articles/who-are-the-children-with-special-needs
https://study.com/academy/lesson/roles-responsibilities-of-special-education-
professionals.html

ACTIVITY 3b
Test on Content Knowledge

54
( Write your answer using blue-ink pen in a short bond paper, have a soft copy send
it to my email and keep your file in your e portfolio)
A. Create a Comprehensive Matrix on the professionals/paraprofessionals involved
in special education. Indicate the roles and responsibilities of each.
B. List the multidisciplinary team of assessors and the CSN to be assessed.

55
 Module lV- INFORMATION PROCESSING
Lesson 4.1- Learning Disabilities
Overview

This module is so important for every teacher to fully understand the learners in
his class. It has been said that every teacher is a special education teacher, hence this

module is really meant for you to open your heart and love every child who seemed
learning disabilities. How children with information processing disabilities be

understood, and assisted. Unlocking learning disabilities, is one way and the best
experience to help regular teachers meet the needs of the learners with learning
problems in the classroom.

Learning Outcomes

After working through this module, you are expected to:

a. define learning disabilities
b. enumerate characteristics of children with LD
c. discuss causes of LD
d. compare and contrast variations of LD
e. trace events in the historyof LD
f. identify strategies of teaching children with LD

Content Focus
Basic Concepts on Learning, Mental Ability and Learning Disabilities
Let us start with two main concepts in the term learning disabilities:
1st: Learning disabilities described in the learning process
2nd: Explains the phenomenon about children who have average or even above
average ability to learn but who experience difficulties in learning.
The Conundrum (problem) in learners with specific learning disability is believed to be
learners with high perceptual power and low ability to read, write and spell; have
strong with words and weak in numbers; and have great artistic talent but flounder or
struggles in academics. Also we look at learner’s level of intellectual functioning or
mental ability
What is Learning?
Learning is the process by which experience and practice result in a stable
change in learner’s behaviour. The permanent change in behaviour is not the result of
growing up/maturation through the years or because of increase in chronological age.

56
Rather it results from efficient teaching that develops the learner’s genetic capacity to
learn to the maximum in an environment that is conducive to an effective teaching-
learning process. Thus, the learner manifests an understanding of content knowledge
and demonstrates the ability to perform skills.

What are the Stages of Learning?

Learning is not simple process moving from a state of not knowing to a state of
knowing content/skills.
The Stages of Learning (Idol, !989, Cited in Polloway, 1997)
___________________
INVENTING
5. Adaptation (creates new uses
by
adapting learned skills)
________________
USING
4. Generalization (uses in novel settings)
3. Maintenance (hi rate and accuracy over time)
_______________
KNOWING
2. Proficiency and automaticity (hi rate and accuracy)
1. Acquisition and reversion(0-85% accuracy)

Effective learning takes place when a teaching episode is planned very well.
The objectives are matched with appropriate activities and experiences
together with suitable instructional materials and strategies provide explicit
attention and conscious effort to ensure that the learner moves satisfactorily
through each of the 3 stages of learning.

 In the knowing stage, Acquisition of knowledge and skills takes place

when the instructional goals and objectives, skills and competencies,
strategies and materials match the learning ability of the the student. In
reversion the content and skills earlier are further strengthened to
increase accuracy and mastery. Correct practice, drill, review and
similar strategies are used with immediate feedback and reinforcement.

 In the Maintenance stage, When the student continues to use the skills
thus cquired with proficiency and automaticity over time without explicit
instruction, coaching, prompt help or reinforcement, then maintenance
is achieved. Class activities are organized to continuously apply the skill

57
 at home or in other environment and appropriate feedback and
reinforcement strengthened the maintenance of a skill.Once the skill is
learned proficiently, it should be available for use in any appropriate
situation. The ability to apply generalization is a major indicator of
learning.

 The Inventing Stage. The student recognizes the need to apply learned
skills in situations outside the school, he introduces changes or
modifications in the skills and applies them to meet the new situation
without help/assistance/coaching.

Definition of Learning Disabilities (LD)

The term learning disabilities was introduced in 1963 by Dr. Samuel Kirk( well-
known American SPED Expert)
Children with learning disabilities have relatively average or even above
average intelligence who experience severe learning or academic problems in
school . These are not children with mental retardation whose mental ability fall
within below average in the normal distribution curve. There are three
behaviour problems are present:
a. inattention
b. hyperactivity
c. impulsivity

The American National Joint Committee on LD (NJCLD) which is composed of several

professional organizations issued the following definition in 1989.
 LD is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening,
speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders
are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous
dysfunction.
 LD may appear across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviour,
social perception and social interaction may exist in learning disabilities but do
not themselves constitute a learning disability.
 LD may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (blindness,
deafness, serious emotional disturbance, etc) or with extrinsic influences such
as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction, LD is not a result
of these conditions.
Learners with Disabilities have difficulty acquiring basic skills or academic content. LD
are characterized by intra-individual differences, usually in the form of discrepancy
between a learner’s ability and his achievement in areas such as reading, writing
mathematics or speaking.

58
To fully understand this definition here are briefs to support your learning:

… the group of disorders is heterogeneou s… means there is not only one but several
disorders that occur at the same time. No two learning disabled are alike in mental
and behavioural characteristics.

…IQ achievement discrepancy …the phenomenon which is explained as, the child
does not learn knowledge and skills in accordance with his potential to learned as
measured by a standardized mental ability test. While the child’s mental ability is
appropriate to his chronological age, the child’s performance in school shows that
achievement is two or more years below the grade level. Thus a 10 year old with a
normal IQ for 10 year old fails to pass the grade level although he has the ability to do
so.

…LD is intrinsic to the individual … this means that the causes of LD are organic,
biological, genetic or environmental. Organic and biological factors are traceable to
the nervous system particularly the brain… in most cases the cause of LD remains a
mystery.
… Disorders not included… The term does not include learning problems that are
primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of
emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, economic disadvantage.

How many children have learning disabilities?

- Authorities estimates range from 0.5% to 30%, Various studies have put the
prevalence around 6-8% of the school-age population.
- In the US School Year 1989-1999 4.5% of 6-21 year olds (2.8 million) in school
had been identified as having learning disabilities.
- LD manifests itself a marked discrepancy between ability and academic
achievement. This small group, less than 3% of the school population exhibits
chronic problems in mastering the basic academic skills of reading, writing,
spelling, and mathematics.
- The most widely recognized disability is dyslexia which is present in
approximately 1 to 2 % of the school population. Among the learning disorders,
90% are on reading problems prevalent among learners with learning disability.

Three Criteria in Determining the Presence of LD

The following criteria must be present when assessing children to have learning
disability:

1. Severe discrepancy between the child’s potential and actual achievement

2. Exclusion or absence of mental retardation, sensory impairment and other
disabilities

59
3. Need for special education services

Learning and Behavior Characteristics of Children with LD

1999 results of studies show that at least 99 separate characteristics of children

with LD. More than half a million combinations of cognitive or socio-emotional
problems associated with the condition are possible. The large number of learning
characteristics makes it difficult to interpret research findings that can provide the
basis for recommending effective teaching strategies. LD may occur within the life
span, symptoms and characteristics can be manifested immediately after birth,
during pregnancy, through the school years, and adulthood.

There is a great deal of inter-individual differences and variations in their

characteristics. No two individuals with LD are found to be alike.
There is also a great deal on intra-individual variations within the profiles of groups of
these children. Uneven profiles are found that is a child who is two or three years
above the grade level in reading may be 2 or 3 years behind in mathematics.

1. Reading problems
Reading problems are ushered in by deficiencies in language skills specially
the phonological skills. This skills develop the ability to understand the rules how
various sounds go with certain letters to make up the words called grapheme-
phoneme correspondence. The difficulty in breaking words into their component
sounds results to difficulties in reading and spelling.

Dyslexia refers to the disturbance in the ability to learn in general and the ability to
learn to read in particular.

2. Written language

Written languageposes severe problems in one or more of the following areas:

handwriting, spelling, composition, and writing which is illegible and slow. Engelbert,
et.al. 1987 studies show that these children are not aware of the basic purpose of
writing as an act of communication. They approach writing as a test taking task,
writing lacks fluency, write shorter sentences and stories. They don’t write use writing
strategies spontaneously, their written work show lack of planning, organizing,
drafting and editing.

Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing abilities.

3. Spoken language
Spoken language poses problems on the mechanical uses of language syntax
or grammar, semantics or word meanings and phonology or the breakdown of words

60
into their component sounds and blending individual sounds to compose words.

Developmental Aphasia is a condition characterized by loss of speech functions,

often, but not always due to brain injury.

4. Pragmatics or social uses of language

Pragmatics or social uses of language poses problems on the ability to carry on

conversation. Children with LD are found to be unable to engage in the mutual give-
and-take in carrying on a conversation while they are often agreeable and
cooperative, many times they find it difficult to understand ideas. Conversations are
marked by long silences and inability to respond to the other person’s statements or
questions. They tend to answer their own questions before the other parson has the
chance to respond. They also tend to make irrelevant comments that make the other
person uncomfortable.

5. Mathematics problems
Mathematics problems are recognized as second to deficiencies in reading,
language and spelling.

Dyscalculia is a severe difficulty in learning math concepts and computations.

6. These children tend to fail and be retained in a grade level.

The level of academic achievement tends to decrease progressively as the
grade level increases. They find their studies to be more difficult as they go up the
grades.

7. Behavior Problems

Behavior problems remain consistent across grade levels both in school, in the
community and at home. The common behaviour problems are already mentioned
above (inattention, hyperactivity,
and impulsivity).

8. In general, social acceptance is low, but some can be popular.

Perceptual, Perceptual-Motor, and General Coordination Problems

1. Children with LD exhibit visual and or auditory perceptual disabilities. The problem
is not lack of acuity or sharpness in vision or audition in responding to visual and
auditory perceptual stimulation. The disturbance is in organizing and interpreting
visual and auditory stimuli. Thus, they have problems in seeing or remembering visual
shapes that lead to reversals of b and d.

61
 Example: Difficulty in discriminating two words that sound alike, such as meat
and neat, or in following oral instruction.

2. They have difficulty with physical activities that involve gross and fine motor skills,
Thus, they tend to drop things, as though they are “all thumbs” or have two left feet.

3. They have problems with attention and hyperactivity.

Memory, Cognitive, and Metacognitive Problems

Memory, Cognitive, and Metacognitive Problems are areas related. If there is a

problem in memory then there are also problems in understanding or cognition. The
problems show in difficulties in remembering assignments and appointments. Though
smart, the students forget the lessons easily and show deficits in memory because
they do not use memory strategies like rehearsals, categorizing and use of
mnemonics. There are problems in cognition that cover different aspects of of
thinking and problem solving. Disorganized thinking occurs as a result of problems in
planning and organizing their lives at home and in school. Difficulties in metacognition
result from lack of awareness of skills, strategies and resources to perform tasks
effectively.

A child with mild LD manifests deficits in cognitive functioning that show in poor
academic performance in the different areas of learning. Reading, Language and
Math are the subjects areas where they find the most difficulties.

The areas in cognitive functioning that are the most affected are attention,
memory and thingking or the executive functions of the mind.

Attention Deficits

Selective attention, or the ability to focus on the relevant details of the lesson is
the first requirement for learning to take place. Children who can not pay attention can
not focus on the teaching episode for a particular subject. The deficit in attention
results to inefficient learning or no learning at all.
 They can not scan all the sensory stimuli like the instructional aids used
by the teacher, and instead are distracted by extraneous or unrelated
things.
 They appear to lack the ability to sort information as shown by the
wrong responses that they often give when asked questions about the
lesson.
Selective attention can be increased through coaching and efficient selective
attention strategies.

62
Poor Memory

Poor ability to store and retrieve informationor previous learning is very evident
among children with learning disabilities. They find difficulty in remembering math
facts, spelling words, vocabulary meaning, content knowledge and information.
Studies show that these children lack the ability to organize information for recall.
Common strategies for storing and recalling information are verbal or written
rehearsal, coding or associating new item with a concept already in memory, imagery
and mnemonics are either absent, immature or inefficiently used.

To help students with AD the teacher frequently calls him back to attention,
provide the student with study guides and summaries of the lessons. He has to
increase his ability to process information, develop selective and sustained attention,
use rehearsal memory strategies and self-monitoring strategies to keep track and
continue to improve his own learning.

Causes of LD

a. Errors in Fetal Brain Development (Innate)

Throughout pregnancy brain development is vulnerable to disruptions. If the
disruptions occurs early, the fetus may die or infant may bbe born with widespread
disabilities and possibly metal retardation. If disruption occurs later, when the cells are
becoming specialized and miving into place, it may leave errors in the cell make-up,
location, or connections. Some scientists believe that these errors may later show up
as learning disorders.

b.The causes of LD are attributed to genetic and environmental factors.

Genetic factors Environmental factors

- These refer to the Tobacco, Alcohol, and other Drug use
characteristics that are -Research show that a mother’s use of
inherited through the genes, cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs during
chromosomes and DNA pregnancy may have damaging effects on the
( deoxyribonucleic acid) unborn child.
They tend to run in families -When pregnant mothers take Alcohol it
- Heredity is a possible cause of distorts the developing neurons, is linked to
inherited diseases or brain fetal alcohol syndrome ) a condition that can
damage lead to low birth weight, intellectual
- Congenital or constitutional, impairment, hyperactivity, and certain physical
indicating that biological defects.
influences have originated -Any alcohol use during pregnancy may
during the process of gestation influence child’s development and lead to
problems with learning, attention, memory, or

63
 or development in the prenatal, problem solving.
perinatal, or postnatal periods of -Drugs like cocaine in smokable form or as
development. crack affects the normal development of brain
-Other possible causes of LD receptors(cells that transmit messages to the
involve complications during brain). Drug abuse is a possible cause of
pregnancy. In some cases, the receptor damage. children affected have
mother’s immune system reacts difficulty understanding speech sounds or
to the ferns and attacks it as if it letters, are learning disabled, with ADHD,
were an infection. This disruption which are related to faulty receptors.
seems to cause newly formed
brain cells to settle in the wrong Toxins in the Child Environment
part of the brain. Or during the Environmental toxins that may lead to LD and
delivery, the umbilical cord may brain damage.
become twisted and temporarily -Cadmium is used in making steel products
cut off oxygen to the fetus. This can get into the soil and contaminates the food
too can impair brain functions we eat, and lead common in paint and
and lead to LD. gasoline are still present in our water pipes.
-Chemotherapy or radiation at an early age

Biochemical imbalance
-In a study of Feingold in 1975, Artificial food
colors, flavors, preservatives, salicylates, and
megavitamins in many foods that children eat
can cause LD and hyperactivity.

Do Children Outgrow LD?

A true learning disability never goes away. But with understanding and effort
they can learn to use their many strengths to compensate for weaker processing skills.
They may be able to strengthen their weak processing skills so that their LD is not as
severe.
Many LD people are highly creative and gifted in many ways. Even very famous and
very successful people have learning disabilities.

Among the Famous people who have/had LD

 Thomas Edison
 Albert Einstein
 Tom Cruise
Can you name some other people who have LD?

Facts about Learners with LD

 LD are often referred to as “hidden handicaps”
 These disabilities may go unrecognized by parents, teachers, and physicians
 IQs of identified learners are near average, average, above average

64
  LD may affect different areas of a person’s life
 Given labels such as “underachievers”, “ lazy”, or “weird”
 Work harder to succeed, yet receive more negative feedback about their work
 Often identified by third or fourth grade
 More learners are identified because of deficits in reading and language arts
than in math
 Tend to be “inactive learners” (non-participatory, bored, defeated)
 Present more diverse learning characteristics than any other special group
 Need early identification, remedial teaching for their needs, and personal and
family counselling
 There are numerous ways for teachers to elicit interest and participation to
engage learners with LD
 As many as 50% will drop out of school prior to high school graduates
 More likely to encounter trouble with the law

LD’s History Timeline

Year Milestone/Events
1940 Medical research limited to studying the function of brain-inured
people
1963 -LD was a newly coined term
-Formation of Association for Children with Learning Disabilities
(ACLD)
1968 Definition of LD was written
1970 -Medical research wanes
-Terms used: Neurologically Impaired, Minimal Brain
Dysfunction,Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Aphasia, Perceptually
Handicapped, Hyperactive
-Learners with LD served in resource rooms
1975 Public Law 94-148 passed-“All children be provided free and
appropriate, public education in the least restrictive environment”.
1990 -Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) extends and refines
services to individuals with disabilities.
-Medical research has renewed interest in learning disabilities as a
result of the availability of new technologies.
- Genetic Studies begin.
-Terms used: Reading disability, Writing Disability, Math disability
-Learners with LD served in inclusive settings

How does a person with LD process information?

If one could trace the flow of information from the moment sensed from one’s
environment through the entire sequence of how the brain processes that stimulus,
we would consider this learning cycle from stimulus through response.
The following phases of the learning cycle can be referred to as complete act of

65
 learning when taken full cycle. Each phase is then discussed and then related to
instructional design implications.
1. One or more of the body’s Receptors (sight, smell, touch, hear, taste) sense the
information.
2. Immediately after the sensing information, the act of selective perception takes
place within the Sensory Register.
3. The information may then be stored, temporarily, in Working Memory (Short-Term
Memory).
4. After existing in Working Memory for less than one second in the form of auditory,
articulator, or visual data, the information is subject to rehearsal and may be moved to
Long-Term Memory Storage.
5. Semantic encoding takes place upon rehearsal of the information to be stored and
the information is permanently stored in Long-Term Memory (LTM) and is subject to
search and retrieval.
6. The processes od search and retrieval are performed by the Response generator,
which can initiate recall directly from LTM or move to the information into working or
conscious memory,
7. The Response Generator then tells the Effectors or muscles what action to to take
and the response can be emitted back to the environment.

From the Environment to Working Storage

The environment is where the learner receives stimulation that activates the
human sensors, or Receptors. The receptors transform the perceived data into neural
information. The body's nervous system then acts as a wiring harness to transmit the
data to the brain. Once received at the brain, the data first enters the Sensory
Register. At this point, in a matter of milliseconds, or just long enough for the
information to be processed further, a determination is made to ignore and purge the
information or may last long enough for pattern recognition and selective perception
to occur.
Pattern recognition refers to the process whereby environment stimuli are
recognized as exemplar of concepts and principles already in memory. Patterns can
take the form of shapes, sounds and textures that the learner matches to previously
learned and encountered patterns in his or her environment.
The process of selective perception is how an individual screens out non-
relevant information. This screening process allows the user to concentrate or focus
on signals that provide the information sought.
Working Memory (Short-Term Memory) Processing
If you consider working storage as a filter, then once information passes
through the filter it enters Working Memory. This stage of the model serves as both
temporary storage and a place for conscious thought to be pondered by the learner.

66
Concepts from Long-Term Memory will be activated for use in making sense of the
incoming data. The learner's previously learned experiences can be compared to the
new information to determine the feasibility of permanently retaining the information
for future recall. Information resides here for as little as twenty seconds unless
rehearsed by the learner. If data is chunked in units of 7 +/- 2, will the expansion of
the digits used in present phone numbers pose a memory challenge? With a
consensus effort and rehearsal, and possibly geographically picturing arca codes in
one's mind to aid this process, successful encoding can occur. Chunking data is key
to learning expanded numbers. Working Memory prepares information for transfer to
Long-Term Memory by encoding the information.
The very act of learning is the successful encoding of the information to be
learned into LTM. If meaningful encoding does not take place, we can say that
learning did not occur. It is suggested that learners could employ strategies,
determined by he or she, to aid in rehearsal for subsequent retrieval of information.
Instruction must be designed to observe the size limits of working storage. You
will recall that the encoding process occurs in working storage. This critical point in
the Information Processing Model could be considered the bottleneck of the
information flow from sensory input to ITM. With this limitation in mind, instructional
materials should be chunked into sets of data that can be accommodated by Working
Memory
Long-Term Memory
It is inevitable to compare Long-Term Memory (LTM) to a hard drive on a
computer. This is where permanent storage occurs. The critical point to mention here
is how the memory is encoded from working memory and stored or filed in LTM. "The
way knowledge is stored is a function of the way it is taught." This statement sums up
the importance of designing the sequence of instruction to achieve a desired learning
outcome. This takes issue if there were many strategies for encoding data and they
are very simple cognitive strategies. The issue, specifically, was that on the surface,
but suggests there is a difference between knowing what those cognitive strategies
are, and putting them together in a meaningful sequence. To be stored in LTM,
information must be semantically encoded and placed into LTM in an organized
manner.
Encoding can take many forms:

 Propositions, as hierarchical tree structures

 Topically, as in paragraphs

 Spatially, as in matrices or diagrams

 Detailed pictures or images

67
 Various theories suggest alternate forms of how LTM is organized with the final
conclusion that much more research remains to be done. What we do know is that
information is stored in an organized manner and that many interconnections exist
between various pieces of that stored data. As mentioned in The Conditions of
Learning." some evidence suggests that LTM storage is permanent and does not
suffer loss through time. However, practical experience indicates that stored
information may be inaccessible after long periods of time. This inaccessibility may be
due to interference between old and new memories. Instruction should utilize
strategies for minimizing and counteracting interference.

Search and Retrieval

If learning occurred, information is retrievable from LTM. Cues are used to
locate and copy matched information from LTM to Working Memory for conscious
review. Available cues, and the quality of those cues, depend on those used when the
information was initially stored. Knowing how memories were stored in the past is
essential if memory recall is to be effective. Forgetting information, or the inability to
locate and retrieve information, may be attributable to the way it was initially
sequenced and encoded. Subsequently learned information may interfere with recall
of older data and is referred to as retroactive interference. The opposite is called
proactive interference.

Response Generator
The Response Generator handles the way a learner organizes a response. The
response can be verbal and/or physical. This generator tells the effectors (i.c.,
muscles) what to do, and the response is emitted to the environment. It further
determines the performance of an action:
 Pattern of Performance
 Sequence of Movement
 Timing of Movement

Feedback
To bring the learning event full circle, feedback is the form affecting the
environment. It is important for the learner to be cognizant of the result as to the
correctness of the performance. If the resultant performance has the desired result,
confirmation provides reinforcement and thus affects the learner's behavior.
Brain Matters
In unlocking the mystery behind specific learning disability, it is significant to
unlock the facts and open the black box of the brain and trace how the information
68
processing problems occur. We can literally look inside a brain and see which areas
are most active while the person is engaged in various mental activities.
When learningareas of the brain are activated, these can be measured by the
following technologies:
• X-Rays
• Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scans
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Technology
• Electroencephatolography (EEG)

How Does the Brain Learn?

The brain is made up of approximately 100 billion neurons or nerve cells When
actively engaged in learning, the neurons grow dendrites or fibers. They bring
information to the cell body. Each dendrite is activated by the activity that made them
grow. When two dendrites grow close, a connection is formed called a synapse. T
connection grows stronger each time you practice the same thing. The connection is
weakened if you do not use them. Experiences that involve the familiar simply
strengthen the existing connections. However, in order to strengthen the connection,
elaboration on the learning experience is needed. This we can do by taking the
learning experience to a deeper level. We learn from reading and hearing the two
most common forms of classroom instruction, but reading about something doesn't
change the brain. The strongest connections are made through concrete experience
that change the brain a great deal Through hands-on, interactive activities, the brain
has opportunities for deeper learning
Visual Processing involves how well your brain can use visual information. When you
see something, especially something complex, you understand it quickly and easily. It
is the ability to "visualize" things like pictures, shapes, words) and remembering
information.
Visual Processing includes:
 seeing differences between things
 filling in missing parts in pictures
 remembering general characteristics
 organization of your room, desk, and other areas
 art
 remembering visual details
 visual-motor coordination
 visualization and imagination

People with a general visual processing disability often experience most learning

69
difficulty in the areas of math and spelling because they have trouble visualizing
words, letters, and symbols.
Specific difficulties may include:
 writing
o poor handwriting
o poor spelling (cannot visualize the words)
 math
o difficulty visualizing problems
o difficulty with cluttered worksheets
 reading
o slow speed
o poor comprehension
 general
o poor organization/planning/neatness
o difficulty rechecking work for accuracy
o difficulty learning by demonstration
o difficulty learning by video

Auditory processing involves how well you can understand auditory information. It is
the ability of using auditory skills such as "keeping up when people talk very fast,
telling voices apart casily (even on the phone), imagining voices of familiar people,
and remembering information heard.
Auditory Processing Includes:
 hearing differences between sounds/voices
 remembering specific words or numbers understanding even when you miss
some sounds
 remembering general sound patterns
 blending parts of words together
 music
People with a general auditory processing disability usually have the most difficulty
with general reading, general writing, and language (understanding and expressing).
Specific difficulties may include:
 reading

70
 o poor decoding of new words

o poor comprehension

 writing

o poor spelling mechanics

o poor sentence structure

 communication

o difficulty with expression

o poor receptive language

 general

o difficulty following oral directions

o difficulty learning in lectures

Do not forget!!! Auditory and visual processing involves much more than whether you
can see or hear .
What is important is how well your brain is able to understand and use the information
after you see and hear it.
The two main cognitive processing channels:
After information is processed through the sensory channels, it is passed along to the
cognitive processing areas for further understanding, storage (memory), and later
retrieval. Although there are thoughts to be many different specific types of cognitive
processing, research about the brain suggests that two of the most important
processing areas are found in the two sides or "hemispheres" of the brain. Let us look
closely at these processing areas.
The Hemispheres of the Brain
Left Hemisphere Right MUSIC
details Hemisphere thoughts
A B Logical Random --------
C Sequential Intuitive ART
D E Rational Holistic ideas
F  Analytical Synthesizing --------- BIG
1 2 Objective Subjective STUFF
3 Look at parts Look at whole thoughts
4 5 OTHER STUFF

71
6
F a c
ts

Areas of Difficulty
 Handwriting  Reading
o Speed/clarity o Understandng irony
o Letter reversals o Inferences
o Spelling mechanics o Sarcasm
o Letters in wrong sequence o General Comprehension
(order)
 Math  Math
o Remembering formulas/steps o Generalizing to new situations
 Communication o Story problems
o Finding words for written or
verbal expression
 General  Written Language
o Planning lengthy assignments o Creative language
o Remembering details
o Paying attention-easily distracted
by surroundings
o Remembering names of people
or objects
o Following specific directions

Left-brain:
Sequential/organizational processing is the main filing system in your brain and is
done in the left hemisphere. It involves organizing and memorizing specific bits of
information including facts, figures and formulas.
This is very much like a computer which organizes and stores information. How well
do you remember details (like names, addresses, facts)? How organized are you
Sequential/Organizational (LB) processing includes:
 Short-term memory for details
 Long-term retrieval of details
 Fine-motor coordination
 Finding the words you want to say or write

72
  Organization of your thoughts and materials
 Writing mechanics(spelling. Punctuation)
 Reading speed/sounding out new words
 Attention to details
 Putting words and thoughts in order
People experiencing a general sequential/ organizational disability often have most
learning difficulties in the areas of basic reading, math computation, expressive
language and writing mechanics.
Specific difficulties may include.
 Handwriting
 Speed/clarity
 Letter reversals
 Spelling/mechanics
 Letters in wrong sequence order
 Reading
 Decoding ( sounding out words)
 Speed/fluency
 Remembering details
 Attention/concentration
 Math
 remembering formulas/steps
 Communication
 Finding words for verbal or written expression
 General
 Planning lengthy assignments
 Remembering details
 Paying attention-easily distracted by sorroundings
 Remembering names of people or object
 Following specific directions

73
Is sequential/organizational processing a strength or weakness for you?
Right-brain:
Conceptual/holistic processing involves looking for the big picture, overall patterns
and underlying concepts for use in higher order thinking, creating, and reasoning.
Conceptual/holistic filing is like throwing things into boxes with very general
labels. Do you see “the big picture? Do you understand general ideas? Are you
creative and inventive?
In general RB does most of thinking and reasoning and creating, LB organizes
these thoughts and ideas for efficient storage and expression. Both RB and LB work
together very well. But for LD students one half of the brain works much better than
the other half. This causes problems in learning certain kinds of information
Examples:
RB works much better than LB, you have a lot of wonderful ideas but cannot
get them organized well for expression especially in writing.
LB works better than RB, you are very good at memorizing and organizing
details but have trouble generalizing new ideas or understanding concepts
Conceptual/holistic (RB)processing includes :
o Memory for general themes or ideas

o Reasoning

o Spatial awareness

o General knowledge

o Inferential thinking

o Estimation/approximation

o Conceptual understanding

o Creativity/Inventiveness

o Reading comprehension

o Use of context

o Rhythm

o Music

74
 o Art

People experiencing general conceptual/holistic processing disability often

perform quiet well during early school years but later experience much difficulty with
reading comprehension, math reasoning, and creative writing.
Specific difficulties may include:
 Written language
 Creative writingr
 Reading
 Understanding irony, inferences, sarcasm
 General comprehension
 Math
 Generalizing to new situations
 Story problems
 Communication
 General language comprehension
 Understanding humor
 General
 Global/general awareness
 Attention- may focus too much on a specific area

Processing Speed
The final processing area for us to explore is Processing Speed which refers to
how fast information travels through your brain.
All LD learners experience some processing speed difficulty when required to
process information through their weakest channel or modality. But for other LD
learners, a general weakness in processing speed causes difficulty in all modalities.
It is like having your brain work at 40 miles per hour when the rest of the world
(and all the info around you)is going 55 miles per hour. You just cannot keep up.
Processing Speed Affects
 Short-term memory (with time pressure)

75
  Long-term retrieval (with time pressure)
 Talking speed, word finding
 Writing speed
 Reading speed
 Attention
 Reasoning (with time pressure)
 General response speed
People experiencing a general processing speed disability often have learning
difficulties in all academic areas due to their ability to process all types of information
quickly.
Specific difficulties may include:
 Written language
 Writing speed
 Mechanics
 Clarity (with time pressure)
 Reading
 Reading speed
 Ability to stay focused while reading
 Math
 Completing a series of problems
 Communication
 Delay in responding
 Slow, deliberate speech
 Word finding difficulties
 General
 Always a step ‘behind’
 Coping with implied or expressed time pressures
 Difficulty maintaining attention to tasks
 Exceeding time limits during tests

76
  Trouble with social pressures to perform ‘faster’

Sensory-Cognitive Perfect Partnership

Important!
Every task that you do requires a combination of sensory and cognitive
processing. Remember, all information first enters the brain through at least one of
your senses, then goes on to the cognitive processing areas for understanding and
storage. So both types of processing are used.
Example:
If you look up a phone number in the telephone book, you first use visual
processing to get the information into your brain, then sequential processing to
remember the order of the specific numbers.
So, if you have a problem with this task, it could be processing weakness
caused by either visual or sequential processing weakness.
On the other hand, if you have trouble remembering numbers that someone
says to you, that problem could be caused by either auditory or sequential weakness.
Another example :
Pretend you have just witnessed a bank robbery.
Let us list the different things you might have "witnessed" along with the type of
processing you would have used:
What You Witnessed Processing Used
 A man running visual + conceptual
 Wearing green sweater visual + sequential
 And a mask visual + sequential
 He was short and thin visual + conceptual
 He said, "out of my way!" auditory + sequential
 He had a gruff voice auditory + conceptual
 Sounded like he was limping auditory + conceptual

Looks like your "witnessing" helped to capture this dangerous criminal. You can see
from this example that specific observations involve sequential processing but
general observations are more conceptual."
As these examples demonstrate that you actually use several different processing
areas for most tasks, the overlap between processing areas may make it seem that
you experience difficulty in several areas.

77
 We have learned that every learning task requires a combination of at least one
area of sensory processing and one area of cognitive processing. Some tasks
actually require several different types of processing at the same time.
Haptic Processing
Many LD specialists refer to haptic processing as being very important for LD
learners. Haptic processing involves learning through touch, feel, and movement. And
indeed, many LD learners are able to learn very well through their "haptic" channel.
But haptic processing is not really a separate processing area but is actually a
combination of the sense of touch and the conceptual/holistic processing modality.
In other words, a learner with strong conceptual/holistic processing and a
good sense of touch will learn very well "haptically." But, since very little "haptic
information is available in school, haptic processing is not considered an area of
disability. But you certainly may be a very good "haptic learner."

Summary

-Learners with Disabilities have difficulty acquiring basic skills or academic content.
LD are characterized by intra-individual differences, usually in the form of
discrepancy between a learner’s ability and his achievement in areas such as reading,
writing, mathematics or speaking.

-These are not children with mental retardation whose mental ability fall within below
average in the normal distribution curve. There are three behaviour problems are
present: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

-LD may occur within the life span, symptoms and characteristics can be manifested
immediately after birth, during pregnancy, through the school years, and adulthood.

-There is a great deal of inter-individual differences and variations in their

characteristics. No two individuals with LD are found to be alike.
-There is also a great deal on intra-individual variations within the profiles of groups of
these children. Uneven profiles are found that is a child who is two or three years
above the grade level in reading may be 2 or 3 years behind in mathematics.

-People with a general auditory processing disability usually have the most difficulty
with general reading, general writing, and language (understanding and expressing).

-People with a general visual processing disability often experience most learning
difficulty in the areas of math and spelling because they have trouble visualizing
words, letters, and symbols.

78
- RB does most of thinking and reasoning and creating, LB organizes these thoughts
and ideas for efficient storage and expression. Both RB and LB work together very
well.

- LD students, one half of the brain works much better than the other half.

-Auditory and visual processing involves much more than whether you can see or
hear. What is important is how well the brain is able to understand and use the
information after you see and hear

-People experiencing a general processing speed disability often have learning

difficulties in all academic areas due to their ability to process all types of information
quickly.

-Every task requires a combination of sensory and cognitive processing. All

information first enters the brain through at least one of your senses, then goes on to
the cognitive processing areas for understanding and storage. So both types of
processing are used.

-Every learning task requires a combination of at least one area of sensory

processing and one area of cognitive processing. Some tasks actually require several
different types of processing at the same time.

References

Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for

College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning
Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils

ACTIVITY 4

Scholarly answer each item given.( Write your answer using blue-ink pen in a yellow
lined-paper, have a soft copy send it to my email and keep your file in your e-
portfolio)
79
Set 1 (30 points)
a. define learning disabilities
b. enumerate characteristics of children with LD
c. discuss causes of LD
d. compare and contrast variations of LD
e. briefly trace events in the history of LD
f. describe haptic processing and sensory-cognitive processing partnership

Set 2 (20 points)

Write a prompt on the “Two Main Cognitive Processing Channels”

Set 3 (50 points)

Create a matrix organizing specific difficulties manifested among LD children
who have different processing disabilities.

Note: This is considered a long written test. Submit on time. Thanks…

Module V - ON LEARNING DISABILITY

Lesson 5.1- Dyslexia
Overview

80
 This importance of this module is so beneficial for every teacher as one of the
problems in class is the inability of a child read, and that every part of the topic is a
must to understand. Reading is a tool subject, once a child can not read, it would
escalate the problem in him or her.
Every teacher has to know the facts and some ways to help a dyslexic child.
Learning Outcomes
After working through this module, you are expected to:
a. define dyslexia
b. enumerate characteristics of dyslexic children
c. discuss causes and types of dyslexia
d. tell the signs and symptoms of dyslexia
e. identify strategies of teaching children with dyslexia
f. discuss other ways to treat dyslexia

Content Focus
Dyslexia Facts
Primary dyslexia: This is the most common type of dyslexia, and is a dysfunction of,
rather than damage to, the left side of the brain (cerebral cortex) and does not change
with age.
 Dyslexia is a difficulty in learning to read.
 Dyslexia can be related to hereditary factors or other factors that affect brain
development.
 The precise cause of dyslexia is not fully understood.
 Diagnosis of dyslexia involves reviewing the child's processing of information
from seeing, hearing, and participating in activities.
 Treatment of dyslexia ideally involves planning between the parent(s) and the
teachers.
What is dyslexia?
Dyslexia has been around for a long time and has been defined in different
ways. For example, in 1968, the World Federation of Neurologists defined dyslexia as
"a disorder in children who, despite conventional classroom experience, fail to attain
the language skills of reading, writing, and spelling commensurate with their
intellectual abilities." The International Dyslexia Association offers the following
definition of dyslexia:
"Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is
characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor
81
spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the
phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other
cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary
consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading
experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. "
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children and persists
throughout life. The severity of dyslexia can vary from mild to severe. The sooner
dyslexia is treated, the more favorable the outcome. However, it is never too late for
people with dyslexia to learn to improve their language skills.
Dyslexia can go undetected in the early grades of schooling. Children can
become frustrated by the difficulty in learning to read. It is important to note that other
problems can disguise dyslexia such as a child may:
 Show signs of depression and low self-esteem
 Have behavior problems at home, as well as at school that often manifest
 Become unmotivated and develop a dislike for school, and their success may
be jeopardized if the problem remains untreated
Characteristics
Dyslexia's main manifestation is a difficulty in developing reading skills in
elementary school children. Those difficulties result from reduced ability to associate
visual symbols with verbal sounds. Advanced brain scans could identify children at
risk of dyslexia before they can even read, although it is thought that simple tests of
balance could do the same.
Characteristics appear in a range of severity, ranging from extreme to
borderline. Not all characteristics will appear with all learners having dyslexia:
1. Poor ability to discriminate visual likenesses or differences in words even
though vision is normal.
2. Confusion in orientation of letters (p, d, b) or number (6, 9)
3. Reversals of: concept (top for bottom), geographical orientations (west for cast;
up for down), or time (first for last; yesterday for tomorrow)
4. Poor ability to copy, particularly from the blackboard or from the book to paper
5. There may be omissions, insertions or substitutions in reading
6. Poor ability to recall whole words or sounds within words
7. Speech and language disorders such as delayed speech and poor sentence
construction

82
 8. Difficulty with word retrieval, as in recall of people's names or objects
9. Difficulty in following directions
10. May work slowly and/or fail to finish their work
11. Writing vocabulary may be meager because of difficulty in producing the letters
or recall of correct spelling in organization of thoughts
12. Delay in adequate use of arithmetic, even though many dyslexics have superior
math ability. Math problems may be caused by reversals, transpositions and
poor visual recall, which makes memorization of math facts difficult.
13. Organization is often a problem. Paperwork will often appear messy.
14. Inconsistency. The most consistent aspect of dyslexia is its inconsistency. A
child may read a word in one sentence, but not recognize it in the next; or write
it correctly one day, but not the next. Inconsistency often causes a child to be
incorrectly labeled as lazy. This inconsistency is not only frustrating for the
teacher and parent, but also for the child.

Dyslexia Symptoms and Signs

What are the signs of a child learning disability?
There is no one sign that shows a person has a learning disability. Experts look
for a noticeable difference between how well a child does in school and how well he
or she could do, given his or her intelligence or ability. There are also certain clues that
may mean a child has a learning disability. We've listed a few below. Most relate to
elementary school tasks, because learning disabilities tend to be identified in
elementary school. A child probably won't show all of these signs, or even most of
them. However, if a child shows a number of these problems, then parents and the
teacher should consider the possibility that the child has a learning disability.
What causes dyslexia?
Children with dyslexia have difficulty in learning to read despite traditional
instruction, at least average intelligence, and adequate motivation and opportunity to
learn. It is thought to be caused by impairment in the brain's ability to process
phonemes (the smallest units of speech that make words different from each other).
It does not result from vision or hearing problems. It is not due to mental
retardation, brain damage, or a lack of intelligence.
The causes of dyslexia vary with the type. In primary dyslexia, much research
focuses on the hereditary factors. Researchers have recently identified specific genes
identified as possibly contributing to the signs and symptoms of dyslexia. This
research is very important because this may permit the identification of those children

83
at risk for developing dyslexia and allow for earlier educational interventions and
better outcomes.
What are the six different types of dyslexia?
Here are the three main types of dyslexia.
 Primary dyslexia: This is the most common type of dyslexia, and is a
dysfunction of, rather than damage to, the left side of the brain (cerebral cortex)
and does not change with age. There is variability in the severity of the disability
for Individuals with this type of dyslexia, and most who receive an appropriate
educational intervention will be academically successful throughout their lives.
Unfortunately, there are others who continue to struggle significantly with
reading, writing, and spelling throughout their adult lives. Primary dyslexia is
passed in family lines through genes (hereditary) or through new genetic
mutations and it is found more often in boys than in girls.
 Secondary or developmental dyslexia: This type of dyslexia is caused by
problems with brain development during the early stages of fetal development.
Developmental dyslexia diminishes as the child matures. It is also more
common in boys.
 Trauma dyslexia: This type of dyslexia usually occurs after some form of brain
trauma or injury to the area of the brain that controls reading and writing. It is
rarely seen in today's school-age population.
Other types of learning disability include:
 The term visual dyslexia is sometimes used to refer to visual processing
disorder, a condition in which the brain does not properly interpret visual
signals.
 The term auditory dyslexia has been used to refer to auditory processing
disorder. Similar to visual processing disorder, there are problems with the
brain's processing of sounds and speech.
 Dysgraphia refers to the child's difficulty holding and controlling a pencil so that
the correct markings can be made on the paper.
What are the signs and symptoms of dyslexia?
Classroom teachers may not be able to determine if a child has dyslexia. They
may detect early signs that suggest further assessment by a psychologist or other
healthcare professional in order to actually diagnose the disorder.
Signs and symptoms of dyslexia
 Delayed early language development
 Problems recognizing the differences between similar sounds or segmenting

84
 words.
 Slow learning of new vocabulary words
 Difficulty copying from the board or a book.
 Difficulty with learning reading, writing, and spelling skills
 A child may not be able to remember content, even if it involves a favorite video
or storybook.
 Problems with spatial relationships can extend beyond the classroom and be
observed on the playground. The child may appear to be uncoordinated and
have difficulty with organized sports or games.
 Difficulty with left and right is common, and often dominance for either hand
has not been established.

Auditory problems in dyslexia encompass a variety of functions.

 Commonly, a child may have difficulty remembering or understanding what he
hears.
 Recalling sequences of things or more than one command at a time can be
difficult.
 Parts of words or parts of whole sentences may be missed, and words can
come out sounding funny.
 The wrong word or a similar word may be used instead.
 Children struggling with this problem may know what they want to say but have
trouble finding the actual words to express their thoughts.

Many subtle signs can be observed in children with dyslexia.

 Children may become withdrawn and appear to be depressed.
 They may begin to act out, drawing attention away from their learning difficulty.
 Problems with self-esteem can arise, and peer and sibling interactions can
become strained.
 These children may lose their interest in school-related activities and appear to
be unmotivated or lazy.
 The emotional symptoms and signs are just as important as the academic and
require equal attention.

What should parents or caregivers do if they suspect a child has the signs and
symptoms of dyslexia?

It is important to consult your pediatrician if you are concerned about your

child's development. Additionally, meeting with your child's teachers is an important
step toward getting more answers.
Ideally, every school has a team that meets on a regular basis to discuss
problems a specific child might be having. These teams are made up of the principal,
classroom teacher, and one or a combination of the following depending on the
staffing of the school such as
85
  school psychologist,
 nurse,
 speech therapist,
 reading specialist, and
 other pertinent professionals.
A parent should always be included as a part of this team. The teams are commonly
referred to as
 Child Study Teams,
 Student Study Teams, or
 Student Support Teams.
Any parent or teacher who suspects a learning problem may request a meeting
with this team to discuss the child's problem. The parent may request this even if the
teacher feels the child is doing well. Sometimes a decision to test the child will be
made. The parent or teacher may request testing, but it cannot be done without the
parents' written permission.
If the child attends a private school which lacks the appropriate professionals to
evaluate a suspected learning problem, he should be referred to the public-school
system for evaluation. If testing is not satisfactorily conducted in the public-school
system for private or public school students, the parent will need to locate the
appropriate health professionals for assessment. A list of resources is provided at the
conclusion of this article.
Because testing can sometimes be stressful for children, especially if they are
unhappy about their school performance, alternative strategies are usually tried
before testing is done. Once the assessment plan has been discussed with the
parent(s) and they have granted permission, the school team completes the testing
and holds a meeting with the parent(s) to discuss the test results.
The assessment plan for each child depends on the specific problems the child is
having. Each plan should include testing in five areas:
1. cognition (intelligence)
2. academic performance
3. communication
4. sensory/motor
5. health and developmental
The testing will be done by the various members of the school team or the
professionals consulted by the parent. Typically, the school or clinical psychologist
determines whether or not the child has dyslexia. Since there are different forms of
dyslexia, such as learning disability in reading, written language, or math, the
psychologist diagnoses the specific type. Another form known as expressive
language delay can be diagnosed by a speech therapist.

What tests diagnose dyslexia?

86
 Dyslexia is a difficult disorder to diagnose. There are many factors the psychologist
or other health professional reviews to diagnose the disability. The testing determines
the child's functional reading level and compares it to reading potential, which is
evaluated by an intelligence test. All aspects of the reading process are examined to
pinpoint where the breakdown is occurring. The testing further assesses how a child
takes in and processes information and what the child does with the information. The
tests determine whether a child learns better by
 hearing information (auditory),
 looking at information (visual), or
 doing something (kinesthetic).
They also assess whether a child performs better when allowed to give information
(output), by saying something (oral), or by doing something with their hands (tactile-
kinesthetic). The tests also evaluate how all of these sensory systems (modalities)
work in conjunction with each other.
The tests administered are standardized and are considered highly reliable.
 The child should not feel as if there is something wrong because testing is
occurring.
 Many of the tests use a game-type or puzzle format which can help make the
child feel more comfortable.
 Children should get a good night's sleep prior to the testing and have a good
breakfast.
 If the testing is done in a school setting, the teacher can prepare the child by
talking about the person who will come and do special work with the child.
 With young children, the psychologist may visit the child's classroom before the
testing so that the child is familiar with him.
 Whether or not the testing is done at school, the parent may want to talk to their
child about a new person coming to work with them. However, parents should
not try to coach the child concerning the testing. It is recommended that
parents not be present during the testing.
A standard battery of tests can include, but is not limited to, the following:
1. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)
2. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC)
3. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
4. Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery
5. Peabody Individual Achievement Tests-Revised (PIAT)
6. Wechsler Individual Achievement Tests (WIAT)
7. Kaufman Tests of Educational Achievement (KTEA)
8. Bender Gestalt Test of Visual Motor Perception
9. Beery Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration

87
 10. Motor-Free Visual Perception Test
11. Visual Aural Digit Span Test (VADS)
12. Test of Auditory Perception (TAPS)
13. Test of Visual Perception (TVPS)
14. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised
15. Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test
16. Test for Auditory Comprehension of Language

What type of treatment is available for dyslexia?

Before any treatment is started, an evaluation must be done to determine the
child's specific area of disability. While there are many theories about successful
treatment for dyslexia, there is no actual cure for it. The school will develop a plan with
the parent to meet the child's needs. The plan may be implemented in a special
education setting or in the regular classroom. An appropriate treatment plan will focus
on strengthening the child's weaknesses while utilizing the strengths. A direct
approach may include a systematic study of phonics.
Techniques designed to help all the senses work together efficiently can also
be used. Computers are powerful tools for these children and should be utilized as
much as possible. The child should be taught compensation and coping skills.
Attention should be given to optimum learning conditions and alternative avenues for
student performance.
In addition to what the school has to offer, there are alternative treatment
options available outside the school setting. Although alternative treatments are
commonly recommended, there is limited research supporting the effectiveness of
these treatments. In addition, many of these treatments are very costly, and it may be
easy for frustrated parents to be misled by something that is expensive and sounds
attractive.
Perhaps the most important aspect of any treatment plan is attitude. Children
will be influenced by the attitudes of the adults around them. Dyslexia should not
become an excuse for a child to avoid written work. Because the academic demands
on a child with dyslexia may be great and the child may tire easily, work increments
should be broken down into appropriate chunks. Frequent breaks should be built into
class and homework time. Reinforcement should be given for efforts as well as
achievements. Alternatives to traditional written assignments should be explored and
utilized. Teachers are learning to deliver information to students in a variety of ways
that are not only more interesting but helpful to students who may learn best by
different techniques. Interactive technology is providing interesting ways for students
to get feedback on what they have learned, in contrast to traditional paper-pencil
tasks.

88
What is the prognosis for a person with dyslexia?
The prognosis for children with dyslexia is variable and dependent on the cause.
In the case of primary dyslexia, the earlier the diagnosis is made and intervention
started, the better the outcome. It is also important to focus on the child's self-esteem,
since dealing with dyslexia can be extremely frustrating. Lastly it is important to
recognize that many well-known and successful individuals have suffered from
dyslexia, including Albert Einstein and Steven Spielberg, just to name a couple.
Clinical Studies of Multisensory Structured Language Education for Learners with
Dyslexia and Related Disorders
(Multisensory Structured Language Programs/Content and Principles of Instruction)

Phonology and Phonological Awareness:

Phonology is the study of sounds and how they work within their environment.
A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a given language that can be recognized
as being distinct from other sounds in the language. Phonological awareness is the
understanding of the internal linguistic structure of words. An important aspect of
phonological awareness is phonemic awareness or the ability to segment words into
their component sounds.
Sound-Symbol Association:
This is the knowledge of the various sounds in the English language and their
correspondence to the letters and combinations of letters which represent those
sounds. Sound-symbol association must be taught (and mastered) in two directions:
visual to auditory and auditory to visual. Additionally, learners must master the
blending of sounds and letters into words as well as the segmenting of whole words
into the individual sounds.
Syllable Instruction:
A syllable is a unit of oral or written language with one vowel sound. Instruction
must include the teaching of the six basic types of syllables in the English language:
closed, vowel-consonant-e, open, consonant-l, r-controlled, and diphthong. Syllable
division rules must be directly taught in relation to the word structure.
Morphology:
Morphology is the study of how morphemes are combined from words. A
morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in the language. The curriculum must
include the study of base words, roots, and affixes. Syntax: Syntax is the set of
principles that dictates the sequence and function of words in a sentence in order to
convey meaning. This includes grammar, sentence variation and the mechanics of
language.

89
Semantics:
Semantics is that aspect of language concerned with meaning. The curriculum (from
the beginning) must include instruction in the comprehension of written language.
How It Is Taught?
 Simultaneous, Multisensory (VAKT):
Teaching is done using all learning pathways in the brain (visual/auditory,
kinesthetic-tactile) simultaneously in order to enhance memory and learning.

 Systematic and Cumulative:

Multisensory language instruction requires that the organization of
material follows the logical order of the language. The sequence must begin
with the casiest and most basic elements and progress methodically to more
difficult material. Each step must also be based on those already learned.
Concepts taught must be systematically reviewed to strengthen memory:
 Direct Instruction:
The inferential learning of any concept cannot be taken for granted.
Multisensory language instruction requires the direct teaching of all concepts
with continuous learner-teacher interaction.
 Diagnostic Teaching:
The teacher must be adept at prescriptive or individualized teaching. The
teaching plan is based on careful and continuous assessment of the
individual's needs. The content presented must be mastered to the degree of
automaticity
 Synthetic and Analytic Instruction:
Multisensory, structured language MSSL programs include both
synthetic and analytic instruction. Synthetic instruction presents the parts of the
language and then teaches how the parts work together to form a whole.
Analytic instruction presents the whole and teaches how this can be broken
down into its component parts.
 Descriptions of Some MSSL reading programs
From the original Orton-Gillingham method, many variations have been
developed. Some of the modified Orton-Gillingham methods written by Orton

90
students are the Slingerland Method, the Spalding Method, Project Read,
Alphabetic Phonics, the Herman Method, and the Wilson Method. Other works
included in which the authors of the programs used the tenets of Orton's work,
but were not directly trained by Orton-Gillingham personnel are the Alphabetic-
Phonetic-Structural Linguistic approach to Literacy (Shedd), Sequential English
Education (Pickering), and Starting Over (Knight). The Association Method
(DuBard), and the Lindamood-Bell Method (Lindamood-Bell) have as their
basis the research into hearing impaired and the language impaired individuals.
 Alphabetic Phonics evolved directly from Orton-Gillingham.

It combines all three learning modalities (auditory for spelling visual for
reading: kinesthetic for handwriting). The "Instant Spelling Deck for daily three-
minute drill focuses on the most probable spelling of each of the forty-four
speech sounds. The Initial Reading Deck is a set of 98 cards with 3D pictured
keywords (chosen by learners) to unlock each of the 44 speech sounds,
Bench Mark Measures geared exactly to the curriculum were added to provide
periodic proof of learners progress in reading spelling. handwriting, and
alphabetizing-designed both to guide the teachers' presentation pace and to
enhance the learner's confidence.
 The Association Method
It is a multisensory, phonetically based, systematic, incremental
instructional program for teaching and/or refining oral and written language.
Special features are multisensory teaching which includes the use of auditory,
visual, tactile and motor-kinesthetic cues for learning use of the Northampton
Symbol system for teaching sound symbol relationships for reading use of
cursive writing for initial instruction-children learn to read manuscript. but write
only in cursive: a slower temporal rate of speech is used to provide children
more time to process auditorily and more time to observe the speaker's lip
movements; precise articulation is required from the beginning and color
differentiation is used as an attention-getter, to differentiate phonemes within
words, and to highlight verbs and new concepts in language structures. An
individual child's book is made as he/she progresses through the method.
 The Herman Approach.
Renee Herman developed this sequence of instruction and a
methodology that started each learner at his point of deficit and sequentially
taught him mastery of each skill level, expanding those skill levels vertically and
horizontally as in an inverted pyramid. Multisensory strategies that link visual,
auditory, kinesthetic and tactile stimuli help dyslexic learners compensate for
visual and auditory processing problems. Kinesthetic and tactile exercises are

91
carefully sequenced and each activity is repeated until the response is
automatic. The Herman Method reading curriculum encompasses: decoding
and encoding skills, sight word recognition, structural analysis, use of
contextual dues, dictionary access skills, decoding of diacritical symbols, and
the complete spectrum of comprehension skills
 Lindamood-Bell.
The Lindamood- Phonetic Sequencing (LPS) Program (formerly called
the ADD Program, Auditory Discrimination in-Depth) successfully stimulates
phonemic awareness. Individuals become aware of the mouth actions which
produce speech sounds. This awareness becomes the means of verifying
sounds within words and enables individuals to become self-correcting in
reading and spelling, and speech. The Visualizing and Verbalizing for Language
Comprehension and Thinking (V/V) Program develop concept imagery through
a series of steps beginning with expressive language and extending from a
word to imaged paragraphs.
 Montessori and Sequential English Education Approach.
The Sequential English Education Program is a multisensory structured
language approach to teaching reading, writing, and spelling to learners at risk
for or diagnosed as dyslexic or having related disorder. The program initially
emphasizes the mastery of the code of the English language, the alphabetic,
and phonetic system. It is one of a few programs appropriate for age 5 and 6-
year-old children. The instruction is 1:1 or small group (1:7) and intensive.
Multisensory techniques are integral. In the SEE program, the memory board
(textured surface of masonite board) is used for visual-auditory-tactile and
kinesthetic input of new material being learned and any error being
Comprehension proceeds from word meanings to sentence paraphrasing.
 Orton-Gillingham
It is the structured, sequential multisensory teaching of written language
based upon the constant use of association of all of the following how a letter
or word looks, how it sounds, and how the speech organs or the hand in writing
feels when producing it. Children also learn the common rules of the English
language such as the final e rule and when to use -ck and -ch. Older learners
learn a variety of syllable patterns and common prefixes and suffixes, then
Latin and Greek word parts.
 Project Read
It is an alternative approach to teaching reading and written expression
concepts and skills to children/adolescents in mainstream classrooms as well
as in Special Education and Chapter One services. It began as a
decoding/encoding program, but it was soon very apparent that the majority of

92
these learners had more pervasive language learning problems and so the
program curriculum was expanded to include reading comprehension and
written expression. Thus the name "Language Circle," which describes the
integration of all the of language learning.

 The Slingerland Multisensory Approach

It’s a classroom adaptation of the Orton-Gillingham Approach. Originally

created for preventive instruction, it is used today both as a preventive and
remedial approach and is practiced in classrooms, in small groups, and in
one-on-one settings with students ranging from primary grade children to
adults. The Slingerland approach differs from more traditional approaches
in several ways. Simultaneous, multisensory teaching strategies are
incorporated into every facet of the lesson. The logic and structure of
English are taught using the alphabetic-phonic principle of beginning with
the smallest unit of sight, sound, letter. All the language arts skills oral
expression, decoding, reading spelling, handwriting and written expression
- are taught with the one integrated direct instruction approach. Learners
are given guided practice in functional use of these skills with the goals of
independent reading and written expression.
 The Spalding Method
It’s a total language arts approach consisting of multisensory instruction
in listening, speaking, writing, spelling, reading. These instructional elements
listening/reading comprehension, and provide the major language arts
strands. A fourth philosophical ensures consistency program
implementation. The Spalding principles which guide lesson plans,
instruction, and decisions are the following: 1) learning with child-centered
approach; 2) multisensory instruction: 3) encouraging higher level thinking:
4) achieving quality recognizing the value and importance of tasks; and,
integrating language arts into all curriculum areas.
 The Wilson Reading System
This is a 12-step remedial reading and writing program for individuals
with a language-based learning disability. This program is based on Orton-
Gillingham philosophy and principles and current phonological coding research.
It directly teaches the structure of words in the English language so that
learners master the coding system for reading and spelling. Unlike other
programs that overwhelm the learner with rules, the language system of

93
 English is presented in a very systematic and cumulative manner so that it is
manageable. The Wilson Reading System specifically teaches strategies for
decoding and spelling. However, from the beginning steps of the program, it
includes oral expressive language development and comprehension.
Visualization techniques are used for comprehension.

Starting Over Instruction diagnosis and remediation ( decoding spelling vocabulary,

handwriting and philosophy )
Here dyslexic children and adults can learn read, spell, and write.
1) dyslexic children and adults are diagnosed and taught using multisensory,
structured language approach
2) teachers can be taught to do both the diagnosis and the remediation:
3) dyslexics can be taught to surmount their primary problem-awareness of
differences among sounds, 4) critical thinking can be taught by giving dues and
asking questions:
5) teachers can be taught not to give answers or odd sounds;
6) memorization can be enhanced by daily review of previously introduced topics
7) sequenced steps for decoding and spelling serve to focus attention, activate and
slow down the learner, enhance memorization, and foster independence,
8) comprehension can be improved by merely improving decoding:
9) when decoding has been made automatic and fluent, aplicit comprehension
instruction can make reading a pleasure
10) writing can be mastered when taught alongside decoding and comprehension.

Summary
References
Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning
Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils
www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/chil…

94
(wikipedia.org/wiki/dysgraphia)
(https://www.bing.com/search?q=facts+about+dyscalculia&FORM=QSRE2)
.(https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/dyscalculia-facts)
(Dyscalculia Factsheet (for Schools) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth, What
teachers should know about dyscalculia? – Bing)
ACTIVITY 5.1
INTERVIEW
Have the guts to DO this!
From the insights you have learned on Dyslexia, select a partner. Set to interview an
elementary or high school teacher who experienced dilemma on reading skills of
his/her pupils.
Design an interview schedule good for a maximum of 10 minutes to find out what
were the activities, interventions, and approaches the teacher had been adopted to
accommodate dyslexic learners.
Submit the following:
a. interview plan of activities
b. interview schedule/questionnaire
c. documentation

95
 Lesson 5.2 DYSCALCULIA
Overview
Teachers are in the best position to help students struggling with dyscalculia to
become aware of their strengths and weaknesses. To prepare future teachers to help
students understand their students learning styles, deal with them and to use
alternative approaches… this lesson can surely empower them to achieve confidence
and cater dyscalculic’s needs to success in learning maths.
Learning Outcomes
After working through this module, you are expected to:
a. define dyscalculia
b. enumerate characteristics of dyscalculic children
c. discuss causes and types of dyscalculia
d. tell the signs and symptoms of dyscalculia
e. identify strategies of teaching children with dyscalculia
f. discuss other ways to treat dyscalculia

Content Focus

For a child to have a tough time with math homework now and then is not unusual.
But if if s/he has problems with numbers or low math test scores yet does well in other
subjects, the child could have a math learning disability called dyscalculia.
What is Dyscalculia?
Dyscalculia is a disability resulting in difficulty learning or comprehending
arithmetic, such as difficulty in understanding numbers, learning how to manipulate
numbers, performing mathematical calculations and learning facts in mathematics. It
is sometimes informally known as "math dyslexia", though this can be misleading as
dyslexia is a different condition from dyscalculia.(https://www.webmd.com/add-
adhd/childhood-adhd/dyscalculia-facts)
 Dyscalculia is a severe difficulty in learning math concepts and
computations.

96
 It's a brain-related condition that makes basic arithmetic hard to learn. It
may run in families, but scientists haven't found any genes related to it.
 It can be associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) --
up to 60% of people who have ADHD also have a learning disorder, like
dyscalculia.

For you to know…

Is dyscalculia a challenge Dyslexia is a challenge with reading.
with reading? Dyscalculia is a challenge with math.
People don’t outgrow dyscalculia. Kids who
have a hard time with math may continue to
struggle with it as adults. But there are
strategies that can help them improve math
skills and manage the challenges. Difficulty
with math happens at all levels.
Up to 7% to 10% of elementary school
students have dyscalculia. Research
suggests it's as common as dyslexia -- a
reading disorder -- but not as well
understood. In fact, kids and parents
sometimes call it “math dyslexia,” but this can
be confusing because dyscalculia is a
completely different condition. Your school
or doctor may call it a “mathematics learning
disability” or a “math disorder.”

Is dyscalculia a learning Your school or doctor may call it a

disability? “mathematics learning disability” or a “math
disorder.”
It can be associated with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD) -- up to 60%
of people who have ADHD also have a
learning disorder, like dyscalculia. Kids with
dyscalculia may lose track when counting,
have difficulty adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing numbers, are slow
at performing mental math, and are likely to
have trouble with money-related tasks. It is
difficult for a child with dyscalculia to
understand and remember basic
mathematical facts and formulas.

97
11 Facts About the Math Disorder Dyscalculia (A.K. WHITNEY,2015)
Chances are you’ve heard of the reading disability dyslexia. It reportedly
affects up to 15 percent of the population, and public figures from the fictional Jaime
Lannister in HBO’s Game of Thrones to real-life comic Eddie Izzard have
grappled with the learning disorder. But have you ever heard of dyscalculia, the math
disability? It has probably not, even though up to six percent of elementary school
students in the U.S. may struggle with disability called dyscalculia. Can you recall a
personal experience in your math class of a problematic teacher who had low math
performance? How many of your classmates performed very low in math?
A big part of the general population's unfamiliarity with dyscalculia has to do
with our culture’s general discomfort with numbers, and our ingrained belief that
math—compared to reading—is just supposed to be hard.
Dr. Gavin Price, an assistant professor at Vanderbilt University who has
researched dyscalculia in several countries, says, "When I teach classes, I’ll ask at the
beginning, 'How many people think they’re not good at math, they’re bad at
math?' And half of them put their hands up. Then I ask, 'Are any of you bad at
reading?' And nobody puts their hand up."
. Edward Hubbard, an assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin-
Madison, echoes this sentiment, and adds that attitudes toward math may play a part
not just in our overall lack of dyscalculia awareness, but in the fact that dyscalculia
research is at least two decades behind dyslexia research.
“I think some of it iscultural attitudes towards math ,” says Hubbard, who has
researched dyscalculia in France and the United States and heads up his university’s
Educational Neuroscience lab, which is embarking on a new dyscalculia study. “If you
look around, the number of people who sort of say, 'I’m bad at math,' and laugh about
it, or will say, without batting an eye, 'I’m just not a math person,' is striking.”
So, in the interest of raising dyscalculia awareness, begin your crash course on
the little-known mathematical disorder with these 11 facts.
1. The term dyscalculia was coined in the 1940s, but didn’t really become fully
recognized until the 1974 work of Czechoslovakian researcher LadislavKosc.
Kosc defined the disorder as "a structural disorder of mathematical abilities" caused
by impairment to the parts of the brain used in mathematical calculations, without
simultaneous impairment to one's general mental abilities. (In layman's terms: You're
bad at math because parts of your brain aren't working properly, but you're not
otherwise mentally handicapped.) Today, some research communities also use the
terms “math dyslexia” and “math learning disability” to refer to the condition.
2. There are two types of dyscalculia.
Most people diagnosed with the disorder have developmental dyscalculia, which

98
means they were born with it. But, with what's known asacquired dyscalculia , the
disorder can also arise later in life, usually as the result of a stroke or injury.
3. Struggling with matrices in algebra or flunking calculus in college doesn’t usually
mean you have dyscalculia.
This disability tends to impede your most basic skills. “Somebody who has dyscalculia
will struggle with the most basic arithmetic facts, 5+2=7,” Hubbard says. “They will
struggle to tell you seven is larger than five. We’ll see them counting on their fingers
for basic addition.”
4. Dyscalculia may be rooted in the brain's parietal lobe.
What causes dyscalculia? To date, the most popular theory maintains
that dyscalculia is connected to an inability to judge quantities, a sense that is
concentrated in the parietal lobe.
“One of the theories that exists is that dyscalculia is really caused by an impairment in
what’s known as either the number sense or the approximate number system,” Price
says. “And that system is what allows us to know that, for example, a group of five
apples is more than three apples. It allows us to compare, and order, and process
quantities without the use of verbal symbols or labels."
"And so what we did [in a study in Finland]," Price continues, "was scan these
dyscalculic kids while they were doing those type of tasks, and we compared their
brain activation to the typically developing kids, and we found that indeed this region
in the parietal cortex, the intraparietal sulcus, behaved atypically in these kids when
they were processing these non-symbolic numerical magnitudes.”
5. Researchers have been able to induce dyscalculia in patients.
In 2007, a group of researchers at University College London were able to engender
temporary dyscalculia in people who don’t have the disorder by using transcranial
magnetic stimulation, or TMS. TMS is often used to treat depression, and involves
placing a large electromagnetic coil against the scalp.
In the study, researchers applied TMS to the right parietal lobe while their subjects
were comparing quantities, and found that the stimulation briefly made it hard for the
subject to tell if one quantity was bigger than the other.
6. Dyscalculia may manifest itself in different ways.
While the above research shows that dyscalculia is closely associated with problems
in the parietal lobe that affect one's understanding of the number system, researchers
like Hubbard think some people who suffer from dyscalculia might feel the disorder
differently.
“The problem may not be with number sense itself, but with linking number symbols
with number sense,” Hubbard says. “Maybe it differs across other people. Maybe

99
there is a subgroup of people for whom their difficulties are in the number system
itself, for other people it’s in symbols.”
7. Dyscalculia is represented in pop culture.
While dyslexic characters are much more common in popular culture, there are some
examples of dyscalculics to be found. Fans of Canadian teen drama Degrassi: The
Next Generation may remember Liberty Van Zandt having it, and X-Men fans may
know that Wolverine's sidekick Jubilee is a whiz at manipulating pyrotechnics but not
numbers.
8. Dyscalculia doesn't discriminate by gender.
You may have noticed that both our pop culture examples were female, but
dyscalculia, at least at this juncture, does not appear to have a gender gap.
“My sense is that it’s pretty even. But at the same time, I feel like the gender ratio has
been less a focus of investigation than it was for dyslexia,” Hubbard says, adding that
research saying boys are more prone to dyslexia than girls is “pretty well supported.”
Hubbard is aware that this flies in the face of the (offensive) stereotype that women
are worse at math than men—a generalization that seems to have little basis in fact.
“What we see is that the gender differences [in mathematical ability] have gotten
smaller and smaller. As we have better role models for girls in math, we’ve had
greater opportunities and fewer impediments to girls being able to do well. The
differences that we’re seeing are largely due to cultural differences.”
9. However, some groups are at greater risk of dyscalculia than others.
People with Turner syndrome, epilepsy, and Fragile X syndrome are more likely to
have dyscalculia. You are also at greater risk for dyscalculia if you have attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), if your mother drank during her pregnancy, or if
you were born prematurely.
10. It can be tough to diagnose.
“One of the problems, one of the challenges with dyscalculia, the reason that it hasn’t
gotten the same attention [as dyslexia], is that it is a highly co-morbid disorder,” Price
says. “Often, people who are bad at math are bad at a number of things.”
But while a diagnosis may be difficult to come by, treating a patient's other
conditions may also alleviate his or her dyscalculia. For example, one study of people
with ADHD who both were and weren’t dyscalculic found that putting them on a
stimulant improved their calculating ability, but not their basic numerical skills.
11. There is no cure for dyscalculia.
We don't lose hope! Dyscalculics can learn math, even if they may always struggle
with parts of it because of their neurological differences. Luckily, you use more than

100
the parietal part of your brain when doing math, Price says. “Multiple skills come
under the umbrella of math, and all of these things will engage all of the lobes of the
brain.”
Therefore,early detection is key in helping children cope with dyscalculia. And for
adults struggling with the disorder, a shift in attitude may be the first step in
overcoming the obstacles dyscalculia presents.
“When we think of struggling with reading, most adults would not think of going back
and listening to the sounds of language,” Hubbard says.“Similarly, if you recognize
that you’re struggling with math, your first thought isn’t probably that you should go
back to trying to see how much stuff is out there, use this basic sense of number that I
have, and try to link that to basic number symbol. People would probably try to work
at a higher level. What you should really be doing is going back and looking at these
foundational skills, things that most teachers, most parents, and most people assume
we all just have.”
(https://www.bing.com/search?q=facts+about+dyscalculia&FORM=QSRE2)
What are the symptoms of dyscalculia in students?
People with dyscalculia have difficulty understanding numbers and learning math
skills. Dyscalculia encompasses a wide range of learning disabilities related to math.
Students with dyscalculia may have trouble writing numbers, finding correct place
values, and lining up equations, have difficulty learning to count or have a poor
memory for numbers. have trouble writing numbers, finding correct place values, and
lining up equations, have trouble remembering math facts, be unable to follow a
sequence of steps(ijlter.org)
Characteristics
o Normal or accelerated language acquisition: verbal, reading, writing,
poetic ability. Good visual memory for the printed word. Good in the
areas of science (until a level requiring higher math skills is reached).
Geometry (figures with logic not formulas), and creative arts.

o Difficulty with the abstract concepts of time and direction. Inability to

recall schedules, and sequences of past or future events. Unable to keep
track of time. May be chronically late.

o Mistaken recollection of names. Poor name/face retrieval. Substitute

names beginning with same letter.

o Inconsistent results in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Poor mental math ability. Poor with money and credit. Cannot do
financial planning or budgeting. Checkbooks not balanced. Short-term,
not long-term financial thinking. Fails to see big financial picture. May

101
 have fear of money and cash transactions. May be unable to mentally
figure change due back, the amounts to pay for tips, and taxes.

o Made common mistakes when writing, reading and recalling numbers,

number additions, substitutions, transpositions, omissions, and reversals.

o Inability to grasp and remember math concepts, rules, formulas,

sequence (order of operations), and basic addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division facts. Poor long-term memory (retention and
retrieval) of concept mastery may be able to perform math operations
one day but draw a blank the next. May be able to do bookwork but fails
all tests and quizzes.

o Inability to comprehend or "picture" mechanical processes. Lack big

picture/whole picture thinking. Poor ability to visualize or picture the
location of the numbers on the face of a clock, the geographical
locations of states, countries, oceans, and streets.

o Poor memory for the "layout" of things. Gets lost or disoriented easily.
May have a poor sense of direction, lose things often and seem absent-
minded. (Remember the absent-minded professor?)

o Difficulty grasping concepts of formal music education. Difficulty sight-

reading music, learning fingering to play an instrument.

o Poor athletic coordination, difficulty keeping up with rapidly changing

physical directions like in aerobic, dance, and exercise classes Difficulty
remembering dance step sequences, rules for playing sports.

o Difficulty keeping score during games, or difficulty remembering how to

keep score in games, like bowling Often loses track of whose turn it is
during games, like cards and board games. Limited strategic planning
ability for games, like chess.
What can teachers do about dyscalculia?
If you suspect a student has dyscalculia, recommend seeking an educational
evaluation to a parent or guardian, an administrator, or a school counselor. Teachers
can help students struggling with dyscalculia to become aware of their strengths and
weaknesses.
-Dyscalculia: Symptoms & Treatment of the Math Learning Disability
(webmd.com)
What Teachers Should Know?
People with dyscalculia have difficulty understanding numbers and learning

102
math skills. Dyscalculia encompasses a wide range of learning disabilities related to
math.
Teachers typically observed in Students with dyscalculia that they may:
 have difficulty learning to count or have a poor memory for numbers
 have trouble writing numbers, finding correct place values, and lining up
equations
 have trouble remembering math facts
 be unable to follow a sequence of steps
 have difficulty understanding numbers, math symbols, and word problems
 find it hard to visualize patterns
 have difficulty measuring things
 have an exceptionally slow and difficult time solving math problems
 avoid games that require strategies involving math
 become extremely frustrated or anxious with schoolwork related to math

Diagnostic Teaching Methods

There are four critical factors affecting math learning, and they are all essential
components of a successful math curriculum. Each of these four factors is also a
critical diagnostic tool for evaluating learning difficulties in mathematics.
1.First, the learner's cognitive level of awareness of the given knowledge must be
ascertained.
There is a range in any class, of low cognition to high levels of cognitive
functioning. A teacher must determine each child's prerequisite
processing levels, and the strategies he brings to the mathematics task.
This information dictates which activities, materials, and pedagogy
(teaching theories) are used.

Differences in cognitive ability affect the learners' ability, facility, and

understanding and point to the difficulties they will have with specific
math concepts. A teacher must not base evaluations of learning mastery,
solely on a child's ability to arrive at a correct answer. More important
than results, are the level of cognition, and the strategies the learner uses
to get the answer. The teacher must interview the learner, searching out
causative factors like a scientist. What is the child thinking: How is the
child reasoning through the problem? Does the child have the
prerequisite skills? How did the child get a wrong answer? There may be

103
 a legitimate reason.

Qualitative learners dislike the procedural aspects of math, and have

difficulty following sequential procedures, or algorithms. Their work is
fraught with careless errors, like missing signs, possibly because they
avoid showing their work by inventing shortcuts, eliminating steps, and
consolidating procedures with intuitive reasoning. Their work is
procedurally sloppy, because they quickly tire of long processes. Their
performance is never fluent because they do not practice enough to
attain levels of automaticity. Eventually, the qualitative learners may
show disinterest in the mastery of mathematics, even though they are
able to make connections between math concepts more quickly than the
quantitative learners.

To effectively teach the entire class, the elements of both learning styles
must be integrated and accommodated. To teach with one style,
exclusively, is to leave out a great many learners. If math concepts are
not matched to learners' cognitive and skill levels, then failure will
inevitably result, and the learners will be forced into a position of needing
remedial services to overcome their academic deficiency in
mathematics.

By the age of 12, the academically neglected child has developed

anxiety, insecurity, incompetency, and a strong dislike for mathematics
because his experiences with it have been hit or miss. At this point, his
symptoms become causative factors in the cycle of failure, math
avoidance, and limited future educational and occupational opportunities.

2. Second, just like with reading-readiness skills, the teacher must assess the
existence and extent of math-readiness skills in each learner.
Seven prerequisite skills have a profound impact on the ability to learn
mathematics. These are non-mathematical in nature, but are extremely
important pre-skills that must be fully mastered before even the most
basic math concepts can be successfully learned.

Seven Prerequisite Math Skills

1. The ability to follow sequential directions

104
 2. A keen sense of directionality, of one's position in space, of spatial orientation
and space organization. Examples include the ability to tell left from right,
north/south/east/west, up/down, forward/backwards,
horizontal/vertical/diagonal.
3. Pattern recognition and its extension.
4. Visualization: key for qualitative learners. The ability to conguer up pictures in
one's mind and manipulate them.
5. Estimation: the ability to form a reasonable educated guess about site, amount
number, and magnitude.
6. Deductive reasoning the ability to reason from the general principle to a
particular instance, or reasoning from stated premise to a logical conclusion.
7. Inductive reasoning: a natural understanding that is not the result of conscious
attention or reasoning, easily seeing the patterns in different situations, and the
interrelationships between procedures and concepts.
For instance, if one lacks the ability to follow sequential directions, how can he be
presented with the concept of long division without failing miserably? Long division
requires retention of several different processes that are performed in a specific
sequence First, one estimates, then multiplies, then compares, then subtracts, then
brings down a number, and so on.
For the same situation, what if the learner has directional confusion? When setting
up math problems, he will be chronically unsure of which number goes inside the
division platform, or on top of the fraction. The mechanics of moving through the
problem will be painful. Consider the directional steps involved. One reads to the right
then records a number up, then multiplies numbers diagonally, then records the
product down below (taking into consideration place value), then brings a number
down, then divides diagonally and places the answer up above, then multiplies
diagonally, and so on.

If a child has poor perception for things in space, his writing may be disorganized
and jumbled. Numbers are not lined up adequately or formed legibly. Operational
symbols and notations are often mistaken for numbers in the problem. Geometry may
be equally perplexing. Frustration and confusion plague this learner.

3.Mathematics is a second language and should be taught as such. It is exclusively

bound to the symbolic representation of ideas .
Most of the difficulties seen in mathematics result from
underdevelopment of the language of mathematics. Teaching of the
linguistic elements of math language is sorely neglected. The syntax,

105
 terminology, and the translation from English to math language, and
from math language to English must be directly and deliberately taught!
Historically, mathematicians have operated as if math were an exclusive
club, whose members speak a secret language. They taught math in a
rigid, complicated manner, and were proud of it. Egotistically satisfying
their "fewer the better attitude." they happily weeded out underachievers.
The status quo in mathematics' education is unacceptable, especially in
an age where 90% of new jobs require more than a high school level of
literacy and math skills. And math educators have failed so miserably,
that although 90% of kids want to go to college, paradoxically, 50% of
them also want to drop out of math classes as soon as possible.
Every math concept has components:
 The first is thelinguistic, composed of the words (the specific terminology),
arranged in definite ways to convey meaning (the syntax), and the rules of
translation from English into math, and from math into English.
 The second component isconceptual , or the mathematical idea or mental
image that is formed by combining the elements of a class, into the notion of
one object or thought.
 Third, is theprocedural skill component of problem solving, which schools
focus on almost exclusively.
Examples of poor math language development:
Learners are frequently taught the concept of least common multiple, without
sufficient linguistic analysis of the words (definitions and how their order or
arrangement (syntax) affects their meaning. This can be demonstrated by asking the
learner to define the terminology. Several incorrect answers will be generated. This
proves that learners have memorized the term without understanding it linguistically.
Teachers do a great disservice to learners by treating math as a collection of recipes,
procedures, methods, and formulas to be memorized.

When introducing a mathematical term or concept, a teacher must create a

parallel English language equivalent. The new term must be related or made
analogous to a familiar situation in the English language. Learners must be taught the
relationship to the whole, of each word in the term, just as learners of English are
taught that a "boy is a noun that denotes a particular class. An adjective, like "tall" is a
descriptive word that restricts or modifies an element (boy) of a particular class (of all
boys). Adding another adjective, like "handsome," further restricts, narrows, or
defines the boy's place in the class of all boys. This can be graphically illustrated:
The language of mathematics has a rigid syntax, easily misinterpreted during
106
translation .
For example, "94 take away 7." might be written correctly, in the exact stated
order, as "94-7." But when the problem is presented as "subtract 7 from 94," the
learner following the presented order will mistakenly write, "7-94." Therefore, it is
extremely important that learners learn to identify and correctly translate math syntax.
Some learners are linguistically handicapped by teachers, parents, and textbooks that
use "command specific terminology to solicit certain actions .
For example, most children are told with informal language to "multiply," "add,"
"subtract," and "divide." They are clueless when they encounter formal terminology
prompting them to find the "product" or "sum of numbers.
To eliminate this problem, matter-of-factly interchange the formal and informal terms
in regular discourse. Seek to extend the expressive language set of the learner to
include as many synonyms as possible. Use at least two terms for every function
For example, "You are to multiply 7 and 3. You are to find the product of 7 and
3. The product of 7 times 3 is 21." Sharma (1989) proposes a standard minimum math
vocabulary for each stage of mathematics instruction.
The dynamics of language translation must also be directly taught. Two different skills
are required.
(1) Learners are usually taught to translate English expressions into mathematical
expressions. (2) But first they should be taught to translate mathematical language
into English expression.
Instead of story problems, Teacher should advocate giving the child
mathematical expressions to be translated into a story in English.
For example, present "7-4 saying, "write (or tell me) a number story using
these numbers in a way involving subtracting or reducing 7 by 4." The learner may
respond, "I got 7 candy bars last Halloween and this year I only got 4. How many
more candy bars did I get last Halloween than this Halloween?"NOTE: Only 5-10% of
7 to 9-year-olds use the phrase "how many more than" in their normal speech, and
with complete understanding. Now, to facilitate the child's discovery of extraneous
information, ask them to add the dates to each Halloween event in the story. The child
may respond. "On October 31, 1998, I got 7 big candy bars. But on October 31, 1999. I
only got 4. How many more candy bars did I get in 1998 than I got in 1999?" Then ask
them if the answer to the question has changed. Why not? The child will respond,
"Because I just added the dates in there. The number of candy bars did not change."

This important linguistic exercise in translation should be added to become the 4 main
method of facilitating language expression. The standard ways are to:

107
 1. Show a visual stimulus, or picture, and ask the child to write or talk about it.

2. Engage the learners in concrete experiences and activities, like field trips or
experiments, and ask them to describe their experiences.

3. Supply story starters, like "Once upon a time.." and have the child continue
and finish the story.

4. Supply a mathematical equation, like 6-3- and have the child construct an
example of this.

Before a mathematical concept is learned fully, the learner moves through six levels
of learning mastery.
1. Intuitive Connections:
 Learner connects or relates the new concept with existing knowledge
and experiences.
2. Concrete Modeling:
 Learner looks for concrete material with which to construct a model or
show a manifestation of the concept.
3. Pictorial or Representational:
 Learner draws to illustrate the concept. In this way, he connects the
concrete (or vividly imagined) example to the symbolic picture or
representation.
4. Abstract or Symbolic:
 Learner translates the concept into mathematical notation, using number
symbols, operational signs, formulas, and equations.
5. Application:
 Learner applies the concept successfully to real world situations, story
problems, and projects.
6. Communication:
 Learner can teach the concept successfully to others, or can
communicate it on a test. Learner can be paired up to teach one another
the concept (Sharma, 1989).
What Teachers Can Do?
If you suspect a student has dyscalculia, recommend seeking an educational
evaluation to a parent or guardian, an administrator, or a school counselor.

108
Extra math support in school and tutors outside the classroom can help students with
dyscalculia focus on specific learning difficulties. Reinforcing math facts and
practicing new skills can help make understanding math concepts easier.
Other strategies for inside and outside the classroom include:
 giving extra time to work on math-related assignments
 using graph paper for students who have difficulty organizing problems on
paper
 planning and organizing students' approach to math problems
 using estimating as a way to approach solving math problems
 using objects and visuals to help solve problems
 starting with concrete examples before moving to harder, more abstract
concepts
 explaining math concepts and terms clearly and encouraging students to ask
questions
 providing a quiet place to work with few distractions
(Dyscalculia Factsheet (for Schools) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth, What
teachers should know about dyscalculia? – Bing)

Summary

References:
Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning
Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils
www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/chil…
(wikipedia.org/wiki/dysgraphia)
(https://www.bing.com/search?q=facts+about+dyscalculia&FORM=QSRE2)
.(https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/dyscalculia-facts)
(Dyscalculia Factsheet (for Schools) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth, What
teachers should know about dyscalculia? – Bing)

109
 Lesson 5.3: DYSGRAPHIA
Overview
In this era, most children even adults are bound to typing. Handwriting and exercises
using pen and paper has becoming instinct. This benefits of the teacher’s background
knowledge on dysgraphia would prepare him/her in facing future challenges in the
classroom.
Dysgraphia as a transcription deficiency, a common disability among students may
also helped the future teachers improve their skill in handwriting so as to serve good
models to his/her students. To learn about this learning disability, hence this lesson.
Learning Outcomes
After working through this module, you are expected to:
a. define dysgraphia
b. enumerate characteristics of children with dysgraphia
c. discuss causes and types of dysgraphia
d. tell the signs and symptoms of dysgraphia
e. identify strategies of teaching children with dysgraphia
f. discuss other ways to help children dysgraphia

110
Content Focus
In a dictionary, Dysgraphia is an inability to write coherently, as a symptom of brain
disease or damage. It is not clear in whether or not writing refers only to the motor
skills involved in writing, or if it also includes orthographic skills and spelling.
Dysgraphia
The word dysgraphia comes from the Greek words dys meaning "impaired"
and graphía meaning "writing by hand".
Is dysgraphia a disability?
Dysgraphia is a childhood disorder that results in impaired handwriting,
impaired spelling, or both in a child of normal intelligence. It is not a mental health
disorder, but rather a learning disability marked by difficulty expressing thoughts and
ideas in writing.
(www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/dysgraphia
Is dysgraphia a learning disorder?
Dysgraphia is a transcription disability, meaning that it is a writing disorder associated
with impaired handwriting, orthographic coding, and finger sequencing (the
movement of muscles required to write). It often overlaps with other learning
disabilities such as speech impairment, attention deficit disorder, or developmental
coordination disorder.(wikipedia.org/wiki/dysgraphia)

Is handwriting part of dysgraphia?

Many experts view dysgraphia as an issue with a set of skills known as
transcription. These skills include handwriting, typing, and spelling. Trouble
expressing yourself in writing isn’t part of dysgraphia.
(www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/chil…)
Health insurers and most doctors call this condition "an impairment in written
expression ."
Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing abilities. It can manifest
itself as difficulties with spelling, poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on
paper. Because writing requires a complex set of motor and information processing
skills, saying a learner has dysgraphia is not sufficient. A learner with disorders in
written expression will benefit from specific accommodations in the learning
environment, as well as additional practice learning the skills required to be an
accomplished writer.

111
 Dysgraphia is a deficiency in the ability to write, primarily handwriting, but also
coherence.
Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability as well as a transcription disability,
meaning that it is a writing disorder associated with impaired handwriting,
orthographic coding, and finger sequencing. It often overlaps with other learning
disabilities such as speech impairment, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or
developmental coordination disorder.
In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, dysgraphia is
characterized as a learning disability in the category of written expression when one's
writing skills are below those expected given a person's age measured through
intelligence and age-appropriate education. The DSM is not clear in whether or not
writing refers only to the motor skills involved in writing, or if it also includes
orthographic skills and spelling.
Causes
Learning to write words and sentences clearly and correctly is a key focus of a
child's elementary school years. All young kids have some difficulty when it comes to
writing or perfecting penmanship. But if your child's handwriting is consistently
distorted or unclear, that may be caused by a learning disability called dysgraphia.
This is a nervous system problem that affects the fine motor skills needed to write. It
makes it hard for a child to do handwriting tasks and assignments.
Scientists aren't sure why dysgraphia happens in children. In adults, it's
sometimes related to a brain injury, like a stroke. In kids, this learning disorder usually
occurs along with other learning disabilities such as ADHD and dyslexia.
Symptoms
Kids with dysgraphia have unclear, irregular, or inconsistent handwriting, often
with different slants, shapes, upper- and lower-case letters, and cursive and print
styles. They also tend to write or copy things slowly.
Parents or teachers may notice symptoms when the child first begins writing
assignments in school. Other signs of dysgraphia to watch for include:

o Cramped grip, which may lead to a sore hand

o Difficulty spacing things out on paper or within margins (poor spatial
planning)
o Frequent erasing
o Inconsistency in letter and word spacing
o Poor spelling, including unfinished words or missing words or letters
o Unusual wrist, body, or paper position while writing

112
This learning disability also makes it hard to write and think at the same time. Creative
writing tasks are often especially hard.
Diagnosis
 The first step is for your child's pediatrician to rule out any other diseases or
conditions that could cause writing difficulties.
 A licensed psychologist trained in learning disorders can diagnose dysgraphia.
This could be your child's school psychologist. The specialist will give your child
academic and writing tests that measure their ability to put thoughts into words
and their fine motor skills.
For Instance, they may be asked to tap their fingers or turn their wrist a certain
way.
 Your child also may be asked to write sentences or copy words and letters. The
specialist will look at their:
• Finished work
• Hand and body position
• Pencil grip
• Posture
• Writing process

Warning Signs
Just having bad handwriting does not mean a person has dysgraphia. Since
dysgraphia is a processing disorder, difficulties can change throughout a lifetime.
However, since writing is a developmental process - children learn the motor skills
needed to write, while learning the thinking skills needed to communicate on paper
difficulties can also overlap.
If a person has trouble in any of the areas below, additional help may be beneficial.
 Tight, awkward pencil grip and body position
 Illegible handwriting
 Avoiding writing or drawing tasks
 Tiring quickly while writing
 Saying words out loud while writing
 Unfinished or omitted words in sentences
 Difficulty organizing thoughts on paper
 Difficulty with syntax structure and grammar
 Large gap between written ideas and understanding demonstrated through
113
 speech
There are many ways to help a person with dysgraphia achieve success. Generally,
strategies fall into three categories:
 Accommodations:providing alternatives to written expression
 Modifications:changing expectations or tasks to minimize or avoid the area of
weakness
 Remediation:providing instruction for improving handwriting and writing skills
Each type of strategy should be considered when planning instruction and support.
A person with dysgraphia will benefit help from both specialists and those who are
closest to the person. Finding the most beneficial type of support is a process of
trying different ideas and openly exchanging thoughts on what works best.
Below are some examples of how to teach individuals with dysgraphia to overcome
some of their difficulties with written expression.
Treatment
There's no cure for dysgraphia. Treatment varies from child to child and
depends on whether they have any other learning disabilities or health
conditions. Medication used to treat ADHD has helped with dysgraphia in
some kids who have both conditions.
How Can We Help Children with Dysgraphia?
Here are some tips that can help them:
 Have your child use wide-ruled paper, graph paper, or paper with raised lines
to help with letter and word alignment.
 Try pencil grips or other writing aids for comfort.
 Let them use a computer to type instead of write, and teach typing skills early.
 Don't criticize sloppy work. Praise their hard work and offer positive
reinforcement.
 Acknowledge the condition and talk to your child about it.
 Teach them ways to relieve stress before writing. For example, have them
shake or rub their hands together quickly.
 Let them squeeze a stress ball to improve hand-muscle strength and
coordination.

Talk to your child's teacher about their condition and needs at school. They may
qualify for special education services and an Individualized Education Program (IEP)
or other special assistance. These documents detail your child's needs and give the
school ways to help them.

114
Some things you might ask for include:
 Shorter writing assignments or different questions from their classmates
 Use of a computer to type instead of write
 Copies of the class notes to limit writing work
 Use of a voice-to-dictation machine or another electronic note taker
 An option to record the teacher's lectures
 Video or audio reports instead of written homework assignments
 Oral instead of written exams
Early Writers
 Use paper with raised lines for a sensory guide to staying within the lines.
 Try different pens and pencils to find one that is most comfortable.
 Practice writing letters and numbers in the air with big arm movements to
improve motor memory of these important shapes. Also practice letters and
numbers with smaller hand or finger motions,
 Encourage proper grip, posture and paper positioning for writing. It is important
to reinforce this early as it is difficult for learners to unlearn bad habits later on.
 Use multisensory techniques for learning letters, shapes and numbers. For
example, speaking through motor sequences, such as "b" is "big stick down,
circle away from my body."
 Introduce a word processor on a computer early; however do not eliminate
handwriting for the child. While typing can make it easier to write by alleviating
the frustration of forming letters, handwriting is a vital part of a person's ability
to function in the world.
 Be patient and positive, encourage practice and praise effort - becoming a
good writer takes time and practice.
Young Learners
 Allow use of print or cursive - whichever is more comfortable.
 Use large graph paper for math calculation to keep columns and row
organized.
 Allow extra time for writing assignments.
 Begin writing assignments creatively with drawing, or speaking ideas into a
tape recorder.

115
  Alternate focus of writing assignments - put the emphasis on some for
neatness and spelling, others for grammar or organization of ideas.
Explicitly teach different types of writing - expository and personal essays,
short stories, and poems.
 Do not judge timed assignments on neatness and spelling
 Have learners proofread work after a delay - it is easier to see mistakes
after a break.
 Help learners create a checklist for editing work - spelling, neatness,
grammar, syntax, and clear progression of ideas.
 Encourage use of a spell checker - speaking spell checkers are available for
handwritten work. Reduce amount of copying instead, focus on writing
original answers and ideas.
 Have learners complete tasks in small steps instead of all at once.
 Find alternative means of assessing knowledge, such as oral reports or
visual projects.
 Encourage practice through low-stress opportunities for writing such as
letters, a diary, making household lists or keeping track of sports teams.
Teenagers and Adults
 Provide tape recorders to supplement note-taking and to prepare for writing
assignments.
 Create a step-by-step plan that breaks writing assignments into small tasks.
 When organizing writing projects, create a list of keywords that will be useful.
 Provide clear, constructive feedback on the quality of work, explaining both the
strengths and weaknesses of the project, commenting on the structure as well
as the information that is included.
 Use assistive technology such as voice-activated software if the mechanical
aspects of writing remain a major hurdle.

Many of these tips can be used by all age groups. It is never too early or too late to
reinforce the skills needed to be a good writer.
Though teachers and employers are required by law to make "reasonable
accommodations for individuals with learning disabilities, they may not be aware of
how to help. Speak to them about dysgraphia, and explain the challenges you face as
a result of your learning disability.

116
How do we determine the severity of a potential problem?
There are many behaviors exhibited, rather consistently by children with LD which are
warning signs to the teacher, take note of the following contemplations:
If aware of these signals, the teacher can request help from outside sources such as
LD specialists, reading specialists or psychologists in diagnosing the specific difficulty
and in prescribing a program for the child. But in requesting outside aid, the teacher
must also realize that this cannot be a "dumping process.
It is imperative that whatever help is received should be applied to the child in the
regular classroom to whatever degree it is possible.
The regular classroom teacher must be more knowledgeable not only about the
behaviors but also about teaching techniques and available materials with which to
structure programs for these children.

While many of these symptoms may indicate a problem, several guidelines should be
used to determine the severity of the situation:
1. Frequency of symptoms - consider how often the situation occurs. The greater the
frequency, the greater chance of a serious problem.
2. Duration of symptoms - consider how long the symptoms last. The longer the
duration, the more serious the problem.
3. Intensity of Symptoms- consider how serious the reactions are at the time of
occurrence. The more intense the symptoms, the more serious the problem.
 It cannot be stressed enough that it is not the preceding behaviors that
warn the teacher of a child with possible learning disabilities, but the
degree and consistency with which these behaviors are manifested.
 Not all these behaviors need to be displayed, but one or more
unexplained behaviors over a period of time should be observed
closely. The age of the child in relation to the behaviors observed also
needs to be considered. A five-year-old behavior such as reversing
letters and numbers in a seven-year-old would be considered
abnormal behavior. This would indicate the need for remedial help.
 It must be stressed that early identification of these learning problems is
of the utmost importance. The longer the child attends school without
help, the greater will be the academic and emotional problems he/she
will exhibit.
Summary
117
References:
Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al., Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for
College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning
Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils
Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education
Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils
www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/chil…
(wikipedia.org/wiki/dysgraphia)
(https://www.bing.com/search?q=facts+about+dyscalculia&FORM=QSRE2)
.(https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/dyscalculia-facts)
(Dyscalculia Factsheet (for Schools) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth, What
teachers should know about dyscalculia? – Bing)

ACTIVITY 5.3
Individual Action and Submission
Directions: Scholarly answer the following items given below. (Write in cursive form
your answers using blue-ink pen in a yellow lined-paper, have a soft copy send it to
my email. Attach your file in your portfolio then submit them together with all
outputs and documentation of your fruit tree planting project)
1. Create a matrix or chart to organize your learnings from this lesson on LD . You are
free to choose any style you want to show your ideas
2. Visit a website with reliable source of videos/presentations regarding children with
difficulty moving or dyspraxia, children with intellectual disability, difficulty in hearing,
and difficulty seeing. Copy an issue, write-up about each disorder/disability you like
best and make your simple but clear realization/justifications for each.
3. Show that you can accommodate children in your class who have difficulty
remembering and focusing by discussing how you can deal with them as an inclusive
classroom teacher.

118
 Module 6: Special Education Programs
Lesson 6.1 SPED Programs, Services, and Procedures
Overview

This module is sharing you about the Special Education system and referral
process which you can read from pages 24 to 33 of the Introduction to Special
Education textbook written by Inciong, et.al. In this chapter of that book, Prevalence of
CSN, Range of SPED Programs and Services, Inclusive Education for CSN and
Support Services for CSN are discussed.

119
 In addition to the items in that book SPED systems/referral process,
Evaluation/Assessment, Educational Placement Alternatives, Services/
Supports/Therapies Offered Inside/Outside the School, Individualized Education
Program (IEP) will be inputted.

Learning Outcomes
After working through the chapter assigned to read and this module, you are
expected to:
a. define prevalence, identifiable prevalence, true prevalence, incidence
b. analyse, explain and compare prevalence estimate of CSN done by the
UNICEF and WHO
c. describe different SPED programs and services offered by the DEPeD and
private schools
d. enumerate the support services extended to CSN
e. explain in brief the SPED process or procedures
f. create a flowchart in the SPED system

Content Focus
-Read through the Special Education Programs and Services shared with you in our
group chat or in our dashboard…
Let us start from this verse of Gabriela Mistral, Nobel Prize Laureate, Chile,
“ Many things we need can wait, the child cannot.Right now is the time. His bones are
being formed, his blood is being made and his senses are being developed. To him,
we cannot answer Tomorrow. His name is Today ”.
Consider the urgency of providing education to all Filipino children and those
CSN, as shown in the prevalence of this group. The assumptions that there are large
number of CSN in school who have not been identified and in SPED programs of the
DepEd. The fact from the UNICEF’s report is so alarming that 134 out of 1000 persons
have disabilities and the distribution of different categories of exceptionalities and
disabilities is:
 43.3% have speech defects
 40.0 % are mute
 33.3% have mental retardation
 25.9% are those without one or both arms or hands
 e, 16.4 are those without one or both legs or feet
 16.3% have mental illness
 11.5% are totally deaf

120
  11.4% are totally blind
From this statistics, the future teachers should understand and early realize that
there is always CSN present in a class.
You will be informed of some data from the material assigned to you so you need
to go through. (Copy of which is also shared in our dashboard)
Special Education Process
Children to be admitted in the special class must submit a current assessment
report made by a developmental pediatrician or a SPED diagnostician or other
appropriate professionals with expertise and experience in the field of assessment for
the identification of disability.
In the absence of a current assessment report, these children need to undergo
a psycho-educational assessment to be conducted by the team of professionals to
determine the appropriate identification as to the type of disability, classification and
placement, current performance level and educational need, to determine and
evaluate teaching programs and strategies, to determine related services (ancillary or
auxiliary) and for the development of Individualized Education Programs (IEPS).
Parents must give their informed consent before their child may be evaluated.
Upon implementation of the recommendation stated in the assessment, the SPED
teacher must make quarterly progress report about the performance of the admitted
child.
These goals and objectives must be discussed along with the current
performance level and achievements of the child during the scheduled quarterly
Parent-Teacher Conference.
Continuous assessment process must be done at least once a year and SO
with the review and the required revision of the IEP together with the members of the
interdisciplinary team involved in its preliminary design.
Further developments of the child, basing from the recommendations from the
assessment conducted, can recommend to request for a possible elevation in
educational placement that can either be in the integration scheme, mainstreaming or
inclusion program in the regular class.
For children enrolled in the regular class suspected to manifest "differentness"
or to exhibit some educational performance problems in the areas of behavioral,
academic, attendance, social or health, the following procedures should be taken:
a. Establish a parent-teacher conference wherein the teacher will discuss their
concerns and the necessary strategies they plan to implement and both should
arrive and agree to the final action plan.
b. This action plan must be implemented.

121
  Referral Process
c. If more intervention is needed, the learner would be referred to the
consultation team/learner study team/learner intervention team composed of
the regular class teacher, school counselor, SPED Resource Teacher, school
nurse, principal, school psychologist/psychometrician, Guidance Counselor,
Speech/Language Pathologist, Occupational Therapist, Adaptive P.E.
Teacher/Motor Skills Teacher, and any appropriate person or as invited by the
team when planning for a specific learner.
 The teacher must inform the parents in advance before doing their referral.
 The school counsellor coordinates and facilitates the consultation plan.
 It is the responsibility of the Regular Class Teacher to sign up on the calendar
and schedule time to attend the initial consultation team meeting.
 The Regular Class Teacher must bring work samples to the meeting and to fill
out a referral form.
 This consultation meeting is initially made to discuss the necessary
intervention/ modification plan to meet the needs of the learner.
 This must be properly documented.
d. The Regular Class Teacher must contact the concerned parent to be
invited to the follow-up meeting with the consultation team to share and
discuss the observations made and the intervention plan.
NOTE: Not all individuals who are referred to the consultation team are referred for
academic problems nor are candidates for special education.
e. Once the consultation team/learner study team/learner intervention team has
tried everything possible and the issues still exist, another written referral must
be made to be sent to a multidisciplinary team that will be responsible for the
formal thorough assessment. This written referral should include the reason as
to why a possible disability exists, descriptions of attempts toremediate the
child's behaviors, and performance prior to the referral should all be included.
Another follow-up meeting with the consultation team for the parent must be
made to be informed of this referral for assessment because of suspected
disability.
The referral states that the child may have a disability that adversely affects
educational performance. This referral does not necessarily mean that the child
has a disability. It simply signals that the child is having learning difficulties and
there is a concern that the problem be due to a disability.
Once the evaluation/assessment report/s has/have may been made, the

122
 recommendations from these reports are used to identify the educational
placement, to provide any related services (ancillary or proper auxiliary) that
they may qualify, and therefore to design the Individualized Educational
Programs to meet the needs of these learners.
f. Implementation of the program, periodic monitoring, and continuous
evaluation from a SPED Teacher follow that will lead to the review and revision
of the program.
Then the cycle repeats itself and goes back to the implementation until such
time that the child will no longer need the special education program.

Evaluation/Assessment
The members of the multidisciplinary team responsible for formal assessment
have several evaluation options to choose from, depending on the specializations of
the members.
In the Philippine setting, assessments for identification of disability were made
by the developmental paediatrician or a SPED Diagnostician. However our schools
hardly provides for clinicians, so initial assessment is done by the classroom teacher
in order to identify who among the students are in need of special education.
Initial assessment is done through teacher nomination. For school-age children,
teachers are an important source of information about their learning and behaviour
attributes.
A checklist of the learning and behaviour characteristics with special education
needs is used. When a child manifests half or more of the characteristics in the
checklist, final assessment follows. Here the Guidance counsellor of SPED teacher
administers the appropriate assessment tools developed by the SPED Division of the
Bureau of Elem Educ of the DEpEd.
When a child is suspected to have a developmental disability like mental
retardation a complete diagnosis of the condition is necessary. A thorough
assessment of the condition is critical in considering child’s eligibility for special
education services and /or aid in planning the educational and other services the child
and family may need.
Parents and other significant individuals in the child’s environment provide a
rich source of information.
The assessment process covers a more intensive observation and evaluation
of the child. Family background, cognitive and adaptive skills, medical history, child’s
current level of functioning are to be considered causative factors in the process.
The use of more than one assessment procedure provides a wealth of

123
information about the child current behaviour. This assessment is made through
observations; interviews; examination of school records and history; checklists; rating
scales; tests (formal or informal; standardized or non-standardized );
health/developmental history from parents; vision and hearing pre-screening;
academic, cognitive, psychological, perceptual-motor and other developmental skill
testing; work habits (e.g., organization, distractibility, attention span, independence,
motivation) ; product outputs of the learner; and/or speech/language and motor skills
testing by appropriate professionals.
Several procedures and varied means of assessment form firm foundation for
making correct decisions about the child. Should there be discrepancies of the
findings obtained from the procedures, it must be resolved before any diagnostic
decisions or making recommendations.
An evaluation report that provides information relevant to instruction and other
services is useful to both parents and teachers. The inclusion of families in the
management of their children’s education presents new challenges,their participation
in arriving at important decisions about the CSN will ultimately be rewarding and
beneficial to all the members of the SPED Team.
Three Models of Assessment (Richey and Wheeler, 2000)
These three assessment models are used widely in the US and in Western countries.
1. Traditional Assessment
In this traditional model, the parents fill in a referral form about the
developmental history of the child and family background. Then the parents and the
child are referred to a team of clinical practitioners for thorough evaluation of the
child’s intellectual, socio-emotional, and physical development, healthcondition and
other necessary information.
The team is composed of developmental psychologist, early childhood special
educator, speech/language pathologist, occupational therapist, physical therapist,
child psychiatrist or clinical psychologist, a physician and nurse, and audiologist and
other specialists contribute their own specialized skills to the evaluation process.
2.Team-Based Assessment Approaches
Children with mental retardation often have other problems, involvement of
team of practioners from different areas mentioned in the traditional model is
necessary.
The team-based assessment approach is described as multidisciplinary,
interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary in nature.
 Multidisciplinary assessment - individual team members independently assess
the child and report without consulting or integrating their findings with one

124
 another.
 Interdisciplinary assessment – The members conduct an independent
assessment and evaluation individually the findings are integrated together with
the recommendations.
 Transdisciplinary assessment- here, other team members do as facilitators
during the assessment process. A natural extension of this approach is the
involvement of the family in decision-making process.
3. Activity-Based Assessment- this model is better than the other models because
of the involvement of parents in the process, it is child-centered, positive behaviour is
supported, and interventions are activity-based.
Assessment findings are easily translated into the child’s program plan. The
assessment materials have a curriculum and evaluation components and do not
require specialized materials or test kits.
Cognitive/ Developmental Assessment Tools
These are tools for measuring the mental ability of children with mental
retardation. Like:
 The Differential Ability Scales (DAS)
 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence- Revised (WPPSI-R)
 Wechsler IntelligenceScale for Children-lll (WISC-lll)
 Stanford-Benit: Fourth Foundation (Beirmi-Smith et al.,2002)
Adaptive Behavior Assessment Tools
Adaptive behaviour is the ability to perform daily activities required for personal
and social sufficiency. This is an important and necessary part of the definition and
diagnosis of mental retardation.
Assessment of adaptive behaviour focuses on how well individuals can
function and maintain themselves independently and how well they meet the
personal and social demands imposed on them by their cultures.
There are more than 200 adaptive behaviour measures and scales. Common are:
 Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (which assesses the social competence
of individuals with or without disabilities from birth to 19 year old)
 AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School
 Scales of Independent Behavior - Revised (SIB-R)
Types of Evaluation Commonly Used in the Philippine Setting

125
  Psychoeducational Assessment
 Developmental Pediatric Assessment
 Occupational Therapy Evaluation
 Psychological Evaluation
 Speech and Language Evaluation
 Physical Therapy Evaluation
 Neurological Evaluation
 Audiological Evaluation
 Psychiatric Evaluation
 Visual Training Evaluation
Educational Placement Alternatives

CSN or Students with mental retardation need a functional curriculum that will
train them on the life skills which are essentially the adaptive behaviour skills. The goal
and direction of a functional curriculum is towards self-direction and regulation and
the ability to select appropriate options in everyday life at home, in school and in the
community. The functional curriculum fosters independent living, enjoyment of leisure
and social activities and improved quality of life.
Special learners should be moved away from the most segregated plan and up
to the most integrated plans as soon as possible, i.e. not more than two (2) years after
initial placement in a segregated setup (Camata, 2002).
A number of curricular programs for children with developmental disabilities
are implemented in the US and other Western Countries.

a. The Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children (CCYC)

This major curriculum effort is based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development, Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development and Feuerstein’s concept of
mediated learning. The CCYC builds its instruction program around the child’s deficits
in cognition where mediated learning is applied. Estimates of a child’s maximum
learning potential are derived from his zone of proximal development that is
determined by comparing the child’s actual performance to his performance under a
teacher’s direct supervision.

b.Instrumental Enrichment Program

The child is trained to develop a sense of intentionality and a feeling of competence
as a result of structured mediated learning environments.

The Montessori Method- aims to develop the child’s sense of mastery, mastery of the
environment and independence by focusing on his perceptual and conceptual

126
development as well as in the acquisition of skills in self-care and daily living activities.

Ypsilante Perry Preschool Project - the curriculum and related instructional strategies
in this project were based from Piaget’s cognitive development theory. This cognitive
oriented curriculum is used in teaching disadvantaged children with mild retardation
who are 3 to 4 years old.

The Portage Project – this uses the precision teaching model to deliver a home-based
curriculum in language, self-help skills, cognition, motor skills and socialization. The
parents are trained to teach their children using behaviour modification procedures.

The Carolina’s Abeerdarian Project- includes parent training, social work services,
nutritional supplement, medical care and transportation. Its curriculum is designed
around the interaction of consumer opinions or the goals that parents have for their
children. Piaget’s development theory, developmental facts( language, motor, socio-
emotional, and cognitive/perceptive), adaptive sets (winning strategies that generate
age-appropriate success) and high risked indicators (Hickson et.al., 1995)

Methods of Instruction
Teaching children with mental retardation requires explicit and systematic instruction.

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) – derived from the theory and principles of
behaviour modification and the effect of the environment on the learning process.

Task Analysis (TA)- is the process of breaking down comples or multiple skills into
smaller, easier-to-learn subtasks. Direct and frequent measurement of the
increments of learning is done to keep track of the effects of instruction and to
introduce needed changes whenever necessary.

Active Student Response (ASR)- the observable response made to an instructional

antecedent is correlated to student achievement.

Systematic Feedback (SF)- through positive reinforcement , rewarding the student’s

correct responses with simple positive comments, gestures or facial expressions…

Error Correct Technique (ECT)- incorrect responses are immediately corrected by

asking the student to repeat the correct responses after the teacher.

Transfer Stimulus Control (TSC) method of instruction- application of learned skills in

the natural environment or real situations is emphasized. Correct answers are
rewarded through positive reinforcement, students apply correctly what they have
learned across settings and over time are measured and recorded.

Dizon's Concept of "Normalization” in the process of restoring the special learner to

his maximum or near maximum capacity through the educational program variants of:

127
 a. Integration - consists of placing the special learner in the regular class in one
or more subjects, so that he can interact with regular children with the SPED class as
his station; may include tutorials and involve ancillary or auxiliary services.

b. Mainstreaming- refers to the placement of the special child in the regular

class after meeting specific admission requirements so that interaction with other chi
is provided, may include teaching by a shadow teacher in the regular class, pull-out
for one-on-one instruction and individualization in the special class; may involve
ancillary and/or auxiliary services and individualized teaching in or outside the class,

c. Inclusion - wherein the special learner is placed in the regular class based on
age, regardless of background, disability and degree of severity. There is no pull-out
and no shadow teaching: may involve auxiliary services and individualization within
the class without pull-out.

The possible placement options are the following:

1. Special Education Class - with learners who are 2 to 10 years old and the
maximum size may vary from 4 to 7 with one SPED Teacher and one teacher aide.

NOTE: Placement in a special class shall be temporary and not terminal, thus a
continuous assessment process is essential.

2. Resource Class - has a specially trained SPED Teacher who provides

instruction to exceptional learners for part of the school day, either individually or in
small groups. Learners with special needs come here for one or several periods
during the school day to receive individualized instruction. The learner may be pulled
out from the regular class to receive individualized instruction in this room on certain
subject areas but the stay must not exceed 50% of the child's schedule in school.

3. Self-contained Class - has learners who are with other individuals with
special needs for all or most of the school day but may still have the opportunity to
interact with regular learners at certain times, such as during recess or on the school
service to school. It serves learners with severe and multiple disabilities. It is being
managed by a SPED Teacher.

NOTE: The proposed case load for a resource class or self-contained class must have
a maximum of only 5 learners with special needs.

4. Integrated/Mainstreamed/Inclusive Class - has the following functions

inside the regular classroom that:
 Establishes and maintains a warm accepting classroom community that
embraces discriminating and honor differences;
 Complements a multilateral and multimodality classroom;
 Prepares and supports teachers to teach interestingly, and
 Provides ongoing support for teachers in their classrooms and breaking down

128
 barriers of professional isolation.

NOTE: A maximum of only 2 learners with special needs with the same or different
type of handicapping condition shall be integrated/mainstreamed/ included in a
regular class at any given time. For maximum efficiency of individualized instruction,
the proposed class size must have 10-15 learners (regular learners plus learners with
special needs) only.
5. Occupational Therapy Class -- wherein occupational therapy session is
being held.

6. Physical Therapy Class - wherein physical therapy session is being held.

Services/Supports/Therapies Offered Inside/Outside the School

Ancillary services - those provided in house and by paraprofessionals,

psychologists and counselors, physical and occupational therapists, speech
therapists and similar professionals who are employed by the school.

Auxiliary services - are the same services provided by those not employed by
the school.

These ancillary or auxiliary services may be in the form of:

 Medical Services - provided by a licensed physician to determine a child's

medically related handicapping condition which results in the child's need for
special education and related services.

 School Health Services - provided by a qualified school nurse or other qualified

person.

 Parent Counseling and Training- assisting parents in understanding the special

needs of their child and providing parents with information about child
development.

 Occupational Therapy - are services intended for:

 Improving, developing or restoring functions impaired or lost through

illness, injury or deprivation:
 Improving ability to perform tasks for independent functioning when
functions are impaired or lost;
 Prevention, through early intervention, initial or further impairment or lose
of function; and
 Assessment of hand functioning and sensory skills and its deficits.

 Physical Therapy - emphasizes assessment and therapy in gross motor areas.

Psychological/Psychometrician Services - are services primarily for:

129
  Administering psychological and educational tests, and other assessment
procedures;
 Interpreting assessment results;
 Obtaining, integrating, and interpreting information about child behavior and
condition related to learning
 Consulting with other staff members in planning school programs to meet the
special needs of children as indicated by psychological tests, interviews and
behavioral evaluations; and
 Planning and managing a program of psychological services, including
psychological counseling for children and parents.

 Speech Pathology - are services provided for the

 Identification of children with speech or language disorders; Diagnosis and

appraisal of specific speech or language disorders;
 Referral for medical or other professional attention necessary for the
habilitation of speech and language disorders, prevention of communicative
disorders; and
 Counseling and guidance of parents, children and teachers regarding
speech and language disorders.

General Considerations for Regular Teachers

 Get to know the learner. Learn about the learner's strengths, weaknesses and
interests. Talk with the SPED specialists at your school, and read about the
learner's disability so that you will feel comfortable, prepared and confident.
Focus on learner's actual skill deficits and behaviors rather than the learner's
special education label.
 Create lessons and activities that help increase the learner's self-esteem.
 Plan your day, set structure and routine.
 Ensure that the learner understands all of your directions.
 Break down skills into sub-skills by teaching first the prerequisite then by
breaking down new lesson into sub-skills.
 Develop specific, achievable objectives for both learning and social behavior.
 Promote social interaction by including the special learner to any activity,
modifying activity to make him participate.
 Give assignments and evaluate performance based on the learner's current
level of functioning, rather than the level of other learners in your class.
 Deal with behavioral problems by setting firm, fair rules and by enforcing them
consistently and impartially.
 Ask for advice from SPED specialists and if needed, support and help from
parents.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of America

130
In the United States, there is a powerful law ("blockbuster legislation") that was
enacted in 1975. Public Law 94-142, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) has changed the American system education. It has affected every school in
the country and has changed the roles of regular and special education teachers,
school administrators, parents and others in the educational system. The IDEA is a
comprehensive legislation regarding the education of children with disabilities. The
law clearly reflects the concern of society for citizens with disabilities to be treated like
all other citizens with the same rights and privileges.
The major provision of IDEA states that all children with disabilities who are between
the ages of 3 to 21, regardless of the type or severity of their disabilities shall receive a
free, appropriate public education. All children with disabilities shall be located and
identified.
Six major principles shall be followed in organizing and implementing special
education programs: (Heward, 2003)

1. Zero reject. Schools must enroll every child, regardless of the nature or severity of
his or her disabilities; no child with disabilities may be excluded from a public
education.

2. Nondiscriminatory testing. Schools must use nonbiased, multifactored methods of

evaluation to determine whether a child has disability and, if so, whether special
education is needed. Testing evaluation procedures must not discriminate on the
basis of race, culture, or native language. All tests must be administered in the child's
native language, and identification and placement decisions must not be made on the
basis of a single test score.
3. Least restrictive environment. Schools must educate students with disabilities, with
children who do not have disabilities to the maximum extent possible.

4. Due process. Schools must provide safeguards to protect the right of children with
disabilities and their parents by ensuring due process, confidentiality of records, and
parental involvement in educational planning and placement decisions.

5. Parent participation. Schools must collaborate with the parents of students with
disabilities in the design and implementation of special education services.

Educational Programs
Educational programs for CSN has gained and widely accepted because of the
benefits derived from from them. The CSN normally learn skills during early years,
opportunities to learn adaptive skills early are enhanced and increase the chances of
the CSN cope with the demands of future environments.

Trends in early intervention emphasize the important role of the home and the
participation of parents and family members as immediate caregiver/s of CSN in their
family. Effective early intervention starts and takes place in the natural setting, in their
home when family accept the fact that the child has developmental disability and can

131
learn like normal children in ways that are different. Family’s willingness and patience
in caring and teaching the CSN basic adaptive skills on self-care and daily living or
simple life skills activities redounds to the benefit of the child and the family.
Developing behaviour skills, social and emotional bonds set a strong base for future
SPED program and activities.

Reasons Why Early Intervention Services Should Be Provided

There are reasons for the provision of early intervention:

1. During intervention, secondary disabilities that would have gone unnoticed can
be observed
2. Early intervention services can prevent the occurrence of secondary disabilities
3. Early intervention services lessen the chances for placement in a residential
school since a child with the basic self-care and daily living skills has a good
chance of qualifying for placement in a special education program in regular
school
4. As the family gains information about the disability , the members learn how to
offer support and fulfill the child’s need for acceptance, love and
belongingness very much like the ways they behave towards the normal
children in the family.
5. Early intervention services hasten the child’s acquisition of the desirable
learning and behaviour characteristics for the attainment of the child’s potential
despite the disability.

Models of Early Intervention

1. Home-Based Instruction Program

The goal is to provide a continuous program of instruction both in school and at
home for a more effective management of the handicapping condition.
The key persons are the biological or surrogate parents who perform their
primary role as caregivers. All members of the family are trained to implement the
program. Regular monitoring and evaluation of the program show positive results.

2. Head Start Program

This program addresses preschool education for the socially and economically
deprived children from 4 to 6 years old. This operates on the principles of early
intervention as a preventive measure against behaviour problems among young
children and siblings of youth offenders, slum dwellers, street children and other
preschool age.

3. Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) Services

WHO,(1984) defines community-based rehabilitation as measures taken at the
community level that use and build on the resources of the community to assist in the
rehabilitation of those who need assistance including the disabled and handicapped
persons, their families, and their community as a whole.
This service is in answer to the rehabilitation needs in poverty-stricken areas

132
where institution rehabilitation programs are not available.

4. Urban Basic Service Program

Children with disabilities who are not receiving SPED services were placed in
the program. This scheme is based on the principle of home-based instruction.
Villages or barangays identified as depressed and underserved were chosen sites for
the program. A number of parents were trained to implement early intervention at
home as a means of effects of the disabilities and increasing the children’s readiness
and response to rehab programs.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a systematic, purposive and

developmental educational programming of curricular and instructional priorities and
contents designed to meet a child's special needs and aimed at ensuring mastery of
learning of target skills and behaviors (Dizon, 1999). Each learner referred to Special
Education must have an IEP A meeting must be set up with all the members of the
interdisciplinary team needed for the design of the IEP.

The members of the interdisciplinary team are the following

 Learner

 Parent

 General Education Teacher (if the child is attending a regular class)

 Special Education Teachers

 Related Services Professionals

 Nonschool-Agency Representatives

 Other Relevant Professionals

The IEP must be in effect at the beginning of each school year and before the
special education and related services are provided for the learners. It must be
implemented as soon as possible following the IEP meeting, allowing no delay
between the time an IEP is finalized and the beginning of the services.

In order to avoid extended delays in services, the IEP meeting must be held
within 30 calendar days after the learner is found to need SPED and related services.

133
 If the identified learner is being placed into the school or classroom for the first
time and has not previously had an IEP, then the IEP must be developed before the
placement decision is made.

The learner may be placed in a temporary evaluation placement for the year.

The parents must agree to the trial placement before it is carried out and must
be involved throughout the process of developing, reviewing, and revising the IEP.

The IEP team meets at least once a year to review and revise the IEP. Parents
do have a right to a copy of their child's IEP. Parents also can expect the school to
provide for regular reporting of their child through the general reporting procedures
(c.g., parent-teacher conferences, report cards, parent letters, and notes).

There are certain things that must be included in the IEP document:

 Present levels of the child's academic achievement and functional

performance including how the child's disability affects involvement in regular
education curriculum. This is an important part of the IEP andwill provide
guidance in the development of annual goals.

 Annual Goals. Based on the child's evaluation and present level of

performance, there should be measurable academic and functional goals that
should address all educational needs. The annual goals will tell you what your
child will accomplish when the services specified in the IEP have ended. Short-
term goals or benchmarks are required for those learners taking an alternate
assessment aligned to alternate achievement standards.

 How progress will be reported to parents. Progress toward IEP goals must be
reported at least as often as reports are provided to parents of learners without
disability.

 Related Services and Supplementary Aids. The IEP will clearly state what
related services your child will receive and what supplemental aids will be
provided. Related services are considered necessary when needed to advance
the attaining of annual goals and to allow the child to make progress in the
general education curriculum.

 Dates of Service. The IEP will have beginning and ending dates. The IDEA
states that an IEP meeting must be held at least annually. An IEP meeting may
be called at any time at the request of a team member including the parent.

134
  Accommodations made to the General Education Curriculum, including
accommodations on the required assessments.

 The extent to which your child will be included in activities with non - disabled
peers.

 A transition plan when the learner turns 16 years old, and annually thereafter.
If a learner's behavior regularly interferes with learning (of self or others) there
should be a behavior plan included in the IEP that is positive in nature and
based on a functional assessment of behaviour.

Management/Monitoring

Adaptations

They are adjustments in curriculum, instructional components, environmental

clements, and requirements/expectations of the learner that may be needed.
Adaptations include accommodations and modifications.
Purpose: to help increase a learner's performance, achievement and social
emotional behavioral functioning.

Accommodations

They do not fundamentally change the performance standards, instructional level,or

the content of expected learning outcome but include adjustments such as;
 Providing extended time to complete tasks; and
 Providing visual supports, writing tools/supports, and preferential seating.

Modifications

They do change in some way what the learner is learning (content or part of the
curriculum), change to some degree the performance standards, the expectations for
that learner.
Example:
Modification of testing (oral instead of written), for modification of materials
(allow the use of multiplication tables/charts)
Examples of permissible accommodations:
 Reading instructions or items (except for reading tests)
(For example, reading the science portion of the exam of a learner with a significant
reading disability would be allowable since the science test it intended to measure
science knowledge, not reading skill. However, reading the whole exam to a learner is
never allowable.):
 More practice tests or examples:
 Small group or individual testing
 Extra time, breaks during the test session, or multiple sessions; and

135
  Any others that DO NOT compromise test validity.

Examples of accommodations that have the potential to validate the test:

 Reading a reading test to the learner, as we have already mentioned:

 Using a calculator on a mathematics test designed to measure mental
computation;
 Using spelling tools on writing tests that score the correctness of spelling
 Using a dictionary when taking a reading comprehension or other test that
measures vocabulary knowledge, such as the WCRT; and
 Paraphrasing that changes the meaning of the text.
(For example, providing definitions or synonyms for words in a question or
reading selection on the 3rd grade exam would invalidate the test results since
testing vocabulary comprehension is one of the purposes of the test.)

Accommodating All Children in the Early Childhood Classroom

The activities and materials used in most early childhood classrooms are
designed to meet the needs of many children with or without disabilities. When they
do not meet the specific needs of a child, they can be adapted or expanded to
accommodate that child's individual needs. The purpose of an adaptation is to assist
children in compensating for intellectual, physical, or behavioral challenges. They
allow children to use their current skills while promoting the acquisition of new skills.
Adaptations can make the difference between a child merely being present in the
class and a child being actively involved.

Developing adaptations and accommodations for a child with special needs in

a continuous process that involves each child's collaborative team. The first step is to
assess the child's abilities and the environment where the child will be time. Once the
goals and objectives are identified and expectations for the child: participation in that
environment are established, the team selects or creates adaptations and
accommodations that address those needs. Once implemented, their effectiveness
should be assessed on an ongoing basis and revised, as needed.

To meet the specific needs of a child, changes may need to be made in one or
more of the following instructional conditions. Remember, when the child can
participate in an activity, as it is, no changes need to be made.

 Instructional groupings or arrangements - For any given activity, there are a

number of instructional arrangements in which to choose from: large groups,
small groups, cooperative learning groups, peer partners, one-to-one
instruction, and/or independent tasks.

 Lesson format - The format of a lesson may be altered to meet the needs of

136
 child by including more opportunities for whole class discussions, games, a
role-playing, activity-based lessons, experiential lessons, demonstrations,
and/or thematic lesson organization.

 Teaching strategies - A change in teaching strategies can influence a child's

ability to participate.

Examples include: simplifying directions, addition of visual information, use of

concrete materials/examples, sequencing learning tasks from easy to hard,
repeated opportunities to practice skills, changes in the schedule of
reinforcement, colaboration or shaping of responses, verbal prompts and/or
direct physical assistance.

 Curricular goals and learning outcomes - To match the needs of a child within
the context of an activity, it may be appropriate to individualize the learning
objectives. This can often be accomplished using the same activities and
materials. If children are working on a classification concept by sorting blocks,
a child with a disability could participate in the same activity but with focus on
reaching, grasping, and releasing skills.

 Adaptations to the method for responding - Sometimes children may

understand a concept yet need an adaptation in the way they demonstrate that
knowledge. Use of augmentative communication systems, eye gaze, and
demonstrations may better allow a child to demonstrate his/her skills.

 Environmental conditions - The environmental arrangement is an important

aspect of any early childhood setting. Changes in lighting noise level, visual and
auditory input, physical arrangement of the room or equipment, and
accessibility of materials are important considerations.

 Modification of instructional materials - It is sometimes necessary to physically

adapt instructional or play materials to facilitate a child's participation Materials
can be physically adapted by increasing: stability (Dycem TM or Velcro TM on
materials), case of handling (adding handles, making materials larger),
accessibility (developing a hand splint to hold materials, attaching an elastic
cord or string to objects so they can be easily moved or retrieved), visual clarity
or distinctiveness (adding contrast or specialized lighting), or size.

 Level of personal assistance - A child's need for assistance may range from
periodic spot checks to dose continuous supervision. Assistance may vary
from day to day and be provided by adults or peers.

 An alternative activity - This curricular adaptation should be used as a last

choice when the above conditions cannot be used to meet a child's need.

Accommodations in the Classroom

137
In order to accommodate some of the needs of children and staff, some simple
adaptations have been made in the classroom and throughout the building.

Picture Schedule - The classroom schedule is visually posted on the wall in the
classroom using line drawings that some St. Ben's teachers had drawn for the
children to be reminded, to anticipate what will happen next, and to emotionally and
physically prepare for the next step, Also, sometimes you may be able to avoid
unnecessary "power struggle with a child by showing the picture schedule and saying
"This picture says ..." rather than "I say..

 Children's Jobs - The classroom job chart is also represented with drawings in
a prominent place for children to use.
 Social Stories - These are line drawings that describe two socially conflicting
situations a child may encounter in the classroom. With those social stories,
more socially appropriate behaviors can be offered for a child to stimulate in
advance, as well as a consequence or what a child will have to do if the child
uses an inappropriate method to solve a problem that the child face ("The
consequence of using inappropriate behaviors will vary situation by situation,
and a classroom by a classroom.)
 Language Aprons - All staff members have an apron which is equipped with
pictures so that everyone can assist children with speech and language delays
through the use of pictures.
 Lowered Handrails - A second, lower set of handrails has been added on the
stairway so that children can reach them comfortably.
 Stair Guides - Yellow tape has been placed on each step to show the children
to walk in a single file on one side of the staircase.
 Rail Guides - Green tape has been added to guard rails to show the children
where to hold on when moving up and down the stairs.
 Computer Mouse - The computer mouse has been replaced with a ball for
easier computer use.
 Classroom Area Marking -A visual storybook line has been added to define play
area boundaries.
 Color Coded Chairs - Chairs have been color coded to help children know
which tables they belong to and so children can be asked to move to a certain
color chair or table.

Summary:
 Suspected children to have special needs and are to be admitted in the special
class must be observed keenly, and should undergo psycho-educational
assessment to be conducted by the team of professionals to determine the
appropriate identification as to the type of disability, classification and
placement, current performance level and educational need, to determine and
evaluate teaching programs and strategies, to determine related services
(ancillary or auxiliary) and for the development of Individualized Education

138
 Programs (IEPS).
 Parents and other members of the family are the immediate caregivers who
can richly give information about the CSN
 For children in the regular class suspected to manifest "differentness" the areas
of behavioral, academic, attendance, social or health, the following procedures
are to do’s: from teacher-parent conference, action plans, referrals,
consultations and follow-up meetings for recommendation, educational
placement, and implementation of designed IEP to meet the needs of the CSN.
 Models of assessment are traditional, team-based, and activity oriented.
Assessment materials have curriculum and evaluation components as used in
cognitive/developmental assessment tools and adaptive behavioural
assessment tools.
 There are a number of curriculum programs for children with developmental
disability, namely: cognitive curriculum for young children, instrumental
enrichment program which are derived from different principles and theories of
famous Piaget, Vygotsky, et.al.
 For methods of instruction, teaching children with mental retardation requires
explicit and systematic instruction. They come in, Applied Behavioral Analysis
(ABA), Task Analysis (TA), Active Student Response(ASR), Systematic
Feedback (SF), Error Correct Technique (ECT), Transfer Stimulus Control (TSC).
 Program variants in SPED are integration, mainstreaming, inclusion in different
placement options in SPED class, resource class, self-contained class,
integrated/mainstreamed/inclusive class, occupational therapy class, and
physical therapy class, speech pathology.
 Important reasons for the provision of early intervention embraces that early
intervention services can prevent the occurrence of secondary disabilities,
unnoticed disabilities can be observed, lessen the chances for placement in a
residential school since a child with the basic self-care and daily living skills has
a good chance of qualifying for placement in a special education program in
regular school, the family gains information about the disability , learn how to
offer support and fulfil the child’s need for acceptance, love and Early
intervention services hasten the child’s acquisition of the desirable learning and
behaviour characteristics for the attainment of the child’s potential despite the
disability.
 Models of early Intervention whichgoal is to provide a continuous program of
instruction both in school and at home for a more effective management of the
handicapping condition, there are programs to choose from like:Home-Based
Instruction Program, Head Start Program, Community-Based Rehabilitation
(CBR) Services and Urban Basic Service Program

 To have a systemic, purposive and developmental educational programming of

139
 curricular and instructional priorities and contents designed to meet a child's
special needs and aimed at ensuring mastery of learning of target skills and
behaviourthere is Individualized Education Program.

 The members of the interdisciplinary team in the IEP are: the learner, parent,
general education teacher (if the child is attending a regular class), special
education teachers, related services professionals, nonschool-agency
representatives, and other relevant professionals.

 IEP implementation must be collaboratively done objectively with the

interdisciplinary team, in consent and agreement with the CSN parent.

 Developing adaptations and accommodations for CSN is a continuous process

that involves each of the CSN’scollaborative working team. Assessment of the
child's abilities, the environment, identify expectations for the child,
participation in that environment will be established, the team creates
adaptations and accommodations that address CSN needs. Once
implemented, effectiveness should be assessed on an ongoing basis and
revised when needed.

 To meet the specific needs of a child, changes may be made in one or more of
the following instructional conditions: instructional groupings ,lesson format ,
teaching strategies, curricular goals and learning outcomes, adaptations to the
method for responding, environmental conditions, modification of instructional
materials, level of personal assistance, and an alternative activity be used as a
last choice when the above conditions cannot be used to meet a child's need.

 A change in teaching strategies can influence a child's ability to participate.

When the child can participate in an activity, as it is, no changes need to be
made.

References:

Inciong, Quijano, Capulong, et.al.,Introduction to Special Education. A Textbook for

College Students, 1st Edition, 2007Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Special Education Handbook Managing Children With Special Needs (Learning

Disability, ADHD, Autism) NCBTS Aligned, 2009, Rex Book Store Inc, QC Phils

Danocup, O Beriones, Classroom Management: Preparing Special Education

140
 Teachers, LoriMar Publishing, 2010 Manila Phils

https://www.jamdeaf.org.jm/articles/who-are-the-children-with-special-needs
https://study.com/academy/lesson/roles-responsibilities-of-special-education-
professionals.html

ACTIVITY 6
Test on Content Knowledge
Directions: Write your answer using blue-ink pen in a short bond paper, have a soft
copy send it to my email and keep your file in your e portfolio
1. Define clearly these terms in your own words:
a. Prevalence________________________________________________________-
¬¬¬¬¬
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
b. Identifiable prevalence_____________________________________________ -
_____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
c.True prevalence__________________________________________________ -
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________
d.Incidence_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Describe/discuss different SPED programs and services offered in public and

private schools
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Enumerate the support services extended to CSN
______
______
______
______
______
4. Explain in brief and sequentially the SPED process or procedures
______
______

141
______
______
______
5. Create a flowchart showing the SPED system

142