Unit – 2 (a)

LASERS

 Introduction:
The word “LASER” stands for “Light Amplification by Stimulating Emission of
Radiation”. The theoretical basis for the stimulated emission and development of laser
was provided by Albert Einstein in 1917. In 1953, C. H. Townes put the Einstein’s idea
into practical attempt and produced the first ammonia MASER (Microwave
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) which produces microwaves rather
than optical radiations from a LASER. LASER is the important outgrowth of MASER.
In 1960, T.H. Maiman build the first laser device by using Ruby crystals as the active
medium. The Ruby laser emits red light of wavelength 6943 Å in the visible region as
pulses.
Soon after, He – Ne laser was developed by Ali Javan and his associates, which gives
continuous output rather than pulses. He – Ne laser emits a laser beams in visible region
at wavelength 6328 Å and also emits in Infrared region at wavelength 11500 Å and
33900 Å.
In 1964, Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Noble prize for the invention
of MASER.
With the rapid advancement of technology, LASER has revolutionized the world in the
area of communication, holography, recording the data in Compact disks and in
medicinal fields.
Also, laser guided missiles are been used as innovative in military applications.
 Charactestics of a laser beam:
There are four characteristics of laser beams: they are,
(i) Highly monochromatic:
It refers to a single frequency radiation. The laser light has a single spectral colour and
almost perfect monochromatic light available. Hence, laser light has high degree of
monochromaticity.
(ii) Highly coherent:
Coherence is expressed in terms of ordering of light field and purity of the spectral line.
Laser light is characterized by a high degree of coherence than the other light sources.

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(iii) High Directionality:
Laser light has a high degree of directionality, so that it can travel over long distances
without much loss of energy. The directionality of the laser beam is expressed in terms
of divergence (∆𝜃).
𝑟2 − 𝑟1
∆𝜃 =
𝐷2 − 𝐷1
Where 𝑟2 and 𝑟1 are the radii of the laser beam spots at a distance 𝐷2 and 𝐷1 respectively
from the laser source.
(iv) High intensity:
In the laser radiation all the emitted waves are in phase or coherent. Hence, the
resultant intensity is the sum of the individual intensities.
In coherent beam the resultant amplitude is (𝑛𝑎). where 𝑛 is the number of waves and 𝑎
is amplitude of each wave. The resultant intensity is (𝑛𝑎)2 .
 Absorption of radiation:
Let us consider two energy levels 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 such that 𝐸2 > 𝐸1 . Let 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the
number of atoms in the lower (𝐸1 ) and higher (𝐸2 ) energy levels respectively. In general,
the number of atoms in the lower energy level is more than the number of atoms in the
higher energy level (𝑁1 > 𝑁2 ). When a photon of energy is equal to the difference of two
energy levels i.e., 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈 is incident on an atom in the lower level. The atom may
absorb the photon, excite, and moves to the higher energy level. This process is called
Absorption. Here 𝜈 is the frequency of incident radiation and ℎ is the Planck’s constant.

The absorption process may be represented as:

𝐴 + ℎ𝜈 → 𝐴∗
Where, 𝐴 is an atom in the lower state and 𝐴∗ is the excited atom.

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The probability (𝑃12 ) for absorption occurs is proportional of the photon energy density
𝜌(𝜈).
𝑃12 ∝ 𝜌(𝜈)
𝑃12 = 𝐵12 𝜌(𝜈)
Where, 𝐵12 is the Einstein coefficient for absorption.
The number of absorption transitions (𝑁𝑎𝑏 ) occurring at any instance of time ∆𝑡 will be
the product of atoms in the lower state (𝑁1 ) and the probability for absorption (𝑃12 ).
𝑁𝑎𝑏 = 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌(𝜈) ∆𝑡
 Spontaneous Emission:
Let us consider two energy levels 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 such that 𝐸2 > 𝐸1 . Let 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the
number of atoms in the lower (𝐸1 ) and higher (𝐸2 ) energy levels respectively. In general,
the number of atoms in the lower energy level is more than the number of atoms in the
higher energy level (𝑁1 > 𝑁2 ).
As an atom in the excited level remains only for about 10−8 sec. after the completion of
lifetime in the excited state, the atom de – excites to lower energy level by emitting a
photon whose energy is equal to difference of their energy levels 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈. This
process is called as Spontaneous emission.

The spontaneous emission process may be represented as:

𝐴∗ → 𝐴 + ℎ𝜈
Where, 𝐴 is an atom in the lower state and 𝐴∗ is the excited atom.
The probability of spontaneous emission [(𝑃21 )𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛] to occur depends only on the
properties of energy states 𝐸2 and 𝐸1 and is independent of the photon density.
(𝑃21 )𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴21

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 1
Where 𝐴21 is the Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission. [𝐴 ] is the measure of
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the life time of the higher energy level against spontaneous emission to the lower state.
The number of spontaneous emissions (𝑁𝑠𝑝 ) occurring during at any instance of time ∆𝑡
depends only on the number of atoms (𝑁2 ) in the excited state (𝐸2 ).
𝑁𝑠𝑝 = 𝑁2 𝐴21 ∆𝑡
 Stimulated (induced) Emission:
Let us consider two energy levels 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 such that 𝐸2 > 𝐸1 . Let 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the
number of atoms in the lower (𝐸1 ) and higher (𝐸2 ) energy levels respectively. In general,
the number of atoms in the lower energy level is more than the number of atoms in the
higher energy level (𝑁1 > 𝑁2 ).

If an atom in the excited state interacts with a photon with an energy 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈, the
photon induces the excited atom to make a downward transition before the atom can
make a spontaneous emission. The atom emits the excess energy in the form of a photon
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈, as it drops to the lower state. The process of forced emission of photons
with an action of external agency is called stimulated emission. The stimulated emission
is may be expressed as:
𝐴∗ + ℎ𝜈 → 𝐴 + 2ℎ𝜈
The probability that a stimulated emission occurs is given by
(𝑃21 )𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 ∝ 𝜌(𝜈)
(𝑃21 )𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚 = 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈)
Where 𝐵21 is the Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission.

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The number of stimulated emissions (𝑁𝑠𝑡 ) occurring at any instant of time ∆𝑡 will be
equal to the product of the number of atoms at the excited energy level (𝑁2 ) and
probability ((𝑃21 )𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚) for stimulated emission.
𝑁𝑠𝑡 = 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌(𝜈) ∆𝑡
 Differences between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission:
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
1. Emission of light photon takes 1. Emission of light photon takes
place immediately during the place by inducement of a photon
transition of an atom from higher having energy equal to emitted
energy level to lower energy level. photon’s energy.
2. Incoherent radiation 2. Coherent radiation
3. Less Intense 3. High intense
4. Less directionality and more 4. High directionality and less
angular spread. angular spread.
Ex: light from sodium or mercury Ex: light from a laser source.
vapor lamp.
5. The emission has a broad 5. The emission has monochromatic
spectrum i.e., incoherent radiation radiation i.e., single wavelength.
(many wavelengths)

 Population Inversion:
Usually, the number of particles (N2 ) (i.e., population of high energy level E2 ) is less than
population N1 of low energy level E1 . If E1 and E2 are two energy states with population
N1 and N2 respectively.

N1 E2 −E1
Then, = exp [ ] [E2 > E1 and hence N1 > N2 ]
N2 kT

In this situation, the system absorbs appropriate electromagnetic radiation incident on

it. For laser action to take place, the higher energy levels should be more populated than
the lower energy levels. i.e., N2 > N1 .
“The process by which the population of a particular higher energy state is made more
than a specified lower energy state is called as population inversion”.

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A system in which population inversion is achieved is called as ‘active system’.
The process of achieving population inversion is known as ‘pumping process’ of atoms.
The following are the generally used for pumping process.
(i) Optical pumping (used in Ruby laser)
(ii) Electric discharge (used in He – Ne laser)
(iii) Direct conversion (used in semiconductor laser)
 Components of Laser:
The essential components of a laser are (i) active medium, (ii) a pumping agent, and (iii)
an optical resonator.

(i) Active medium:

Active medium is the material in which the population inversion and hence laser action
takes place. In an active medium, only a small fraction of atoms of particular type have
energy level suitable for achieving population inversion, such atoms can produce more
stimulated emission than spontaneous emission. Those atoms, which cause laser action,
are called active centers. The rest of medium acts as host and supports the active
centers. The medium hosting the active centers is called as the active medium.

(ii) Pumping agent:

For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion, the atoms have to
transfer from lower energy level to higher energy level. The external source that
supplies the required energy to transfer the atoms to higher energy level from lower
energy level and to obtain the population inversion is called as Pumping agent or the
Pump. There are a number of pumping techniques to get population inversion such as
optical pumping, electrical discharge and direct conversion etc.

(iii) Optical Resonator:

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In laser the active medium is regarded as amplifier, and optical resonator can be
regarded as a feed back mechanism. A pair of optically plane parallel mirrors, enclosing
laser medium in between them is called as an optical resonator. One of these mirrors is
partially reflecting and the other is made fully reflecting.

 Ruby laser:
It uses a crystalline substance of the active material. The below schematic diagram
shows the construction and essential parts of a ruby laser system.

Construction:
It consists of three main parts
(i) An active working material: A rod of ruby crystal
(ii) A resonant cavity: made of fully reflecting plate on the left side of the ruby crystal
rod and a partially reflecting plate at the right side of ruby crystal rod. Both the
plates are optically flat and exactly parallel to each other.
(iii) Pumping system: A helical Xenon flash tube with power supply source.
Ruby (Al2 O3 , Cr2 O3 ) is crystal of aluminium oxide (Al2 O3 ) in which some aluminium
atoms are replaced by chromium atoms. The active material in the ruby are chromium
ions (Cr 3+ ). When the ruby crystal contains about 0.5% of chromium, its color is pink.
The ruby crystals are grown in special furnaces with varying length and diameter. In a
ruby laser, a pink rod of 4 cm length and 0.5 cm diameter is generally used. The end
faces of ruby rod are made strictly parallel, grounded and polished to high degree. The
end faces are then silvered in such a way that one end face becomes fully reflecting
while the other end partially reflecting. Sometimes separate reflecting faces are attached
to the end faces. The ruby rod is surrounded by a helical xenon flash tube which
provides the pumping light to raise chromium ions to upper energy level. The flash of
xenon tube lasts for several milliseconds and the tube consumes several thousand joules

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of energy. Only a part of this energy is used in pumping the Cr 3+ ions while the rest
heats up the apparatus. For this purpose, a separate cooling arrangement has to be used.

Working:
An energy level diagram illustrating the operation principle of a ruby laser is shown
below. In the above energy levels diagram E1 , E2 and E3 represents the energy level of
chromium ion. When the ruby crystal is irradiated with light of xenon flash, chromium
atoms are excited to upper energy level E3 where light absorption band is 5500 Å.

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The transition (1) is optical pumping transition. The excited ions give up, by collision,
part of their energy to crystal lattice and decay to the meta stable state E2 . The
corresponding transition (2) is a radiation less transition. We know that the metastable
state has relatively longer life time (≅ 10−3 sec) than usual life time (≅ 10−8 sec). Thus,
the number of ions in the state E2 goes on increasing due to pumping, while the number
of ions in ground state E1 goes on decreasing. In this way population inversion is
established between metastable state E2 and ground state E1 .
The state of inverted population is not a stable one. The probability of spontaneous
emission at any moment can takes place. When the ion spontaneously emits from
metastable state to ground state, it emits a photon of wavelength 6943 Å (3). This
photon travels through the ruby rod. If this photon moving parallel to the axis of the
ruby crystal (rod), it is reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it stimulates
an excited atom. Now it causes the ion to emit a fresh photon. The excited atom after
emitting photon returns to ground state. The emitted photon is in phase with the
stimulating photon. This stimulated emission (4) is laser transition. The process is
repeated again and again because the photons repeatedly move along the crystal being
reflected from its ends. This results in amplified strong laser beam of wavelength
6943 Å.
Drawbacks:
The following are the demerits of ruby laser
(i) It requires very high pumping power.
(ii) The efficiency of this ruby laser is very small. Because only a part of energy from
pumping light (Xenon flash tube) is utilized while the rest of the energy left
unused.
(iii) The output laser beam is not continuous. The output occurs in the form of pulses
of microsecond duration.
(iv) The defects due to crystalline imperfections also present in this ruby laser.
 Applications of Lasers:
Lasers have a wide range of applications in various fields due to their narrow band
width and narrow angular spread. A few applications in various fields as:
(i) In Communications:

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 (a) Due to narrow angular spread the laser beams are used in the communication
between earth and moon or other satellites. The earth – moon distance has
been measured with the use of lasers.
(b) Laser radiation is not absorbed by water and hence it can be utilized in ‘under
communication networks’.
(c) Due to the narrow band width, lasers are used in microwave communication
as carrier waves.
(d) A laser beam in conjunction with optical fiber can be used to transmit signals
over long distances without attenuation or disturbance.
(ii) In Computers:
With the usage of laser beams, the information storage capacity in computers
or CD - ROM is greatly improved due to narrowness of bandwidth.
(iii) In Industries:
(a) Lasers can be focused into a very fine beam, resulting in raising the
temperature about 1000K. So, they can blast holes in diamonds, ceramics, and
other hard steels.
(b) Welding has been carried by focusing a laser beam at a place where welding
has to be done. At that place the material melts due to the heat produced by
the beam.
(c) Lasers are widely used in electronic industry for trimming the components of
ICs (Integrated Circuits).
(iv) In Medicine:
(a) Lasers have been used successfully in the treatment of detached retinas and
also lasers are used in the treatment of human and animal cancers/tumors.
(b) Lasers are used in microsurgeries because lasers can be focused at very small
areas (due to its narrow angular spread).
(v) In Military and war field:
(a) Their study is also oriented for military purposes. Due to high energy density,
a laser beam can be used to destroy very big objects like aircrafts, missiles...….
etc., in few seconds by directing the laser beam into the target. So that it is
called ‘death ray’ or ‘ray weapon’.
(b) LIDAR (light detection and ranging) can be used in place of RADAR to estimate
the size and shape of distant objects and weapons. The difference between

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 RADAR and LIDAR is that, in case of RADAR radio waves are used while in case
of LIDAR light is used (laser light preferred to travel over long distances).
(vi) In Photography:
Using laser, we can get three-dimensional lens less photography. Using
interference techniques, we can take hologram which is analogues to negative of
the photographic film.
(vii) In chemical:
(a) Lasers have wide range of chemical applications. They can initiate or hasten
certain chemical reactions which could not be possible in the absence of
suitable photons. They can be used for investigating the structure of molecules
by using laser Raman spectroscopy technique.
(b) Lasers are used in counting of atoms in isotope separation and to produce
plasma.
(viii) In weather forecasting:
(a) Pictures of clouds, wind movements, ……. etc., can be obtained with laser
beam. The data so obtained can be used in weather forecasting.
(b) Lasers can be used to find the size of dust particles (pollutants) which causes
air pollution.

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