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Data science and Big Data

Unit –I Syllabus

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 Reference Book
Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques
(3rd ed.)

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign &
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber & Pei. All rights reserved.
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Lecture Notes

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 Data Objects

 Data sets are made up of data objects.

 A data object represents an entity.
 Examples:
 sales database: customers, store items, sales
 medical database: patients, treatments
 university database: students, professors, courses
 Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.
 Data objects are described by attributes.
 Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.
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 Attributes

 Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables):

a data field, representing a characteristic or feature
of a data object.
 E.g., customer _ID, name, address
 Types:
 Nominal

 Binary

 Numeric: quantitative

 Interval-scaled

 Ratio-scaled

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 Attribute Types
 Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
 Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
 marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
 Binary
 Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
 Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
 e.g., gender
 Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
 e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
 Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
 Ordinal
 Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
 Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings

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 Numeric Attribute Types
 Quantity (integer or real-valued)
 Interval
 Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
 Values have order
 E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
 No true zero-point
 Ratio
 Inherent zero-point
 We can speak of values as being an order of
magnitude larger than the unit of measurement
(10 K˚ is twice as high as 5 K˚).
 e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts,
monetary quantities
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 Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
 Discrete Attribute
 Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values

 E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a

collection of documents
 Sometimes, represented as integer variables

 Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete

attributes
 Continuous Attribute
 Has real numbers as attribute values

 E.g., temperature, height, or weight

 Practically, real values can only be measured and

represented using a finite number of digits
 Continuous attributes are typically represented as
floating-point variables
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 Data Quality: Why Preprocess the Data?

 Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view

 Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
 Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
 Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …
 Timeliness: timely update?
 Believability: how trustable the data are correct?
 Interpretability: how easily the data can be
understood?

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 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
 Data cleaning
 Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove
outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
 Data integration
 Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction
 Numerosity reduction
 Data compression
 Data transformation and data discretization
 Normalization
 Concept hierarchy generation

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 Data Cleaning
 Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data,
e.g., instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission error
 incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of
interest, or containing only aggregate data
 e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
 noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
 e.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
 inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
 Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”
 Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
 discrepancy between duplicate records
 Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)
 Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
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 Incomplete (Missing) Data

 Data is not always available

 E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
 Missing data may be due to
 equipment malfunction
 inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
 data not entered due to misunderstanding
 certain data may not be considered important at the
time of entry
 not register history or changes of the data
 Missing data may need to be inferred
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 How to Handle Missing Data?
 Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing
(when doing classification)—not effective when the % of
missing values per attribute varies considerably
 Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
 Fill in it automatically with
 a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
 the attribute mean
 the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the
same class: smarter
 the most probable value: inference-based such as
Bayesian formula or decision tree
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 Noisy Data
 Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
 Incorrect attribute values may be due to
 faulty data collection instruments

 data entry problems

 data transmission problems

 technology limitation

 inconsistency in naming convention

 Other data problems which require data cleaning

 duplicate records

 incomplete data

 inconsistent data

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 How to Handle Noisy Data?

 Binning
 first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins

 then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin

median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.

 Regression
 smooth by fitting the data into regression functions

 Clustering
 detect and remove outliers

 Combined computer and human inspection

 detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g.,

deal with possible outliers)

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 Data Reduction Strategies
 Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that
is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the
same) analytical results
 Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store
terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may take a very long time to
run on the complete data set.
 Data reduction strategies
 Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes

 Wavelet transforms

 Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

 Feature subset selection, feature creation

 Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)

 Regression and Log-Linear Models

 Histograms, clustering, sampling

 Data cube aggregation

 Data compression

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Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality Reduction
 Curse of dimensionality
 When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
 Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier
analysis, becomes less meaningful
 The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
 Dimensionality reduction
 Avoid the curse of dimensionality
 Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
 Reduce time and space required in data mining
 Allow easier visualization
 Dimensionality reduction techniques
 Wavelet transforms
 Principal Component Analysis
 Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)

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 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
 Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data
 The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting
in dimensionality reduction. We find the eigenvectors of the
covariance matrix, and these eigenvectors define the new space

x2

x1
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 Principal Component Analysis (Steps)
 Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors
(principal components) that can be best used to represent data
 Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
 Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
 Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal
component vectors
 The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing
“significance” or strength
 Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be
reduced by eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low
variance (i.e., using the strongest principal components, it is
possible to reconstruct a good approximation of the original data)
 Works for numeric data only
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 numerical

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 Attribute Subset Selection
 Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
 Redundant attributes
 Duplicate much or all of the information contained in
one or more other attributes
 E.g., purchase price of a product and the amount of
sales tax paid
 Irrelevant attributes
 Contain no information that is useful for the data
mining task at hand
 E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of
predicting students' GPA

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 Heuristic Search in Attribute Selection

 There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d attributes

 Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
 Best single attribute under the attribute independence

assumption: choose by significance tests

 Best step-wise feature selection:

 The best single-attribute is picked first

 Then next best attribute condition to the first, ...

 Step-wise attribute elimination:

 Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute

 Best combined attribute selection and elimination

 Optimal branch and bound:

 Use attribute elimination and backtracking

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Attribute Creation (Feature Generation)
 Create new attributes (features) that can capture the
important information in a data set more effectively than
the original ones
 Three general methodologies
 Attribute extraction

 Domain-specific

 Mapping data to new space (see: data reduction)

 E.g., Fourier transformation, wavelet

transformation, manifold approaches (not covered)

 Attribute construction

 Combining features (see: discriminative frequent

patterns in Chapter 7)
 Data discretization
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 Data Transformation
 A function that maps the entire set of values of a given attribute to a
new set of replacement values s.t. each old value can be identified
with one of the new values
 Methods
 Smoothing: Remove noise from data
 Attribute/feature construction
 New attributes constructed from the given ones
 Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
 Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified range
 min-max normalization
 z-score normalization
 normalization by decimal scaling
 Discretization: Concept hierarchy climbing 25
 Normalization
 Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]
v  minA
v'  (new _ maxA  new _ minA)  new _ minA
maxA  minA
 Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0,
73,600  12,000
1.0]. Then $73,000 is mapped to 98,000  12,000 (1.0  0)  0  0.716
 Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):
v  A
v' 
 A

73,600  54,000
 Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then  1.225
16,000
 Normalization by decimal scaling
v
v'  j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1
10
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 Summary
 Data quality: accuracy, completeness, consistency, timeliness,
believability, interpretability
 Data cleaning: e.g. missing/noisy values, outliers
 Data integration from multiple sources:
 Entity identification problem

 Remove redundancies

 Detect inconsistencies

 Data reduction
 Dimensionality reduction

 Numerosity reduction

 Data compression

 Data transformation and data discretization

 Normalization

 Concept hierarchy generation

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 MultiDimension Scaling

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 Local Binary Pattern

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 Local Binary Pattern

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2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31
 example

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 Matrix Factorization

Matrix factorization is a class of collaborative

filtering algorithms used in recommender
systems. Matrix factorization algorithms work by
decomposing the user-item interaction matrix into
the product of two lower dimensionality
rectangular matrices.
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ultiplying these factors will produce the original
matrix.

2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33

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2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 34

 Matrix Factorization

2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35

2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36
2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37
2/16/2025 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38
 Sample Unit I questions

1. What are Features. Explain different types with

example
2. What is data preprocessing.
3. What are the necessities of data preprocessing
4. What are outliers. Explain the mechanism for
outlier detection.
5. How to handle null values
6. Explain IQR using box plot
7. Explain PCA algorithm
8. What is feature engineering
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 Continued….
 9.What is the difference between feature
selection and feature extraction
 10. Explain Filter, wrapper and embedded
method. Explain forward selection and backward
elimination
 11. What is meant by curse of dimentionality.how
to handle it
 12. mention dimensionality reduction technique.
 13. what is stress function in multi dimension
scaling. Explain its uses.
 14. Write the formula for local binary pattern
 15. What is matrix factorization.Explain its use in
movie rating prediction 40
 Continued…..
 16. Find the Mean of the following data
 13, 15, 16, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22, 25, 25, 25, 25, 30, 33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 35, 36, 40,
45, 46, 52, 70
 17. Find the standard deviation of the following data
 13, 15, 16, 16, 19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22, 25, 25, 25, 25, 30, 33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 35, 36, 40,
45, 46, 52, 70
 18. Consider following data (in increasing order) for the attribute age: 13, 15, 16, 16,
19, 20, 20, 21, 22, 22, 25, 25, 25, 25, 30, 33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 35, 36, 40, 45, 46, 52, 70.
, answer the following:
 (a) Use min-max normalization to transform the value 35 for age onto the range [0.0,
1.0].
 (b) Use z-score normalization to transform the value 35 for age, where the standard
deviation of age is 12.94 years.
 (c) Use normalization by decimal scaling to transform the value 35 for age.

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 Continued

 19. Calculate the z score and then determine the outlier

 4,5,7,8,9,10,12,15,16,17,100
 20. Draw the box plot for the data of Q.5
 21. Use LBP and find the transformed center pixel
value

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 Continued….

 22. Use the methods below to normalize the following

group of data:
 200, 300, 400, 600, 700
 (a) min-max normalization by setting min = 0 and max
=1
 (b) z-score normalization
 (c) normalization by decimal scaling
 23. calculate IQR and find the outlier for the
following data
 4,5,7,8,9,10,12,15,16,17,100
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Also, Study lecture notes given in class

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