PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, VECTORS AND 2D MOTION

Intended Learning Outcomes – after this lecture you will learn:

1. meanings of theories and models in physics.
2. how to define units for fundamental physical quantities.
3. how to use significant figures.
4. vectors and its algebraic operations: addition and subtraction
5. displacement, velocity and acceleration in vector notation
6. to predict the trajectory of projectile motion
Textbook reference: Ch 1, 3.1 – 3.3

Physics is an experimental natural science.

Theory: an explanation of natural phenomena based on observation and accepted fundamental
principles, e.g. theory of evolution in biology
Model: a simplified version of a physical system that would be too complicated to analyze in full
detail

e.g. throwing a baseball

throw away
“unimportant
” parts

use theory to make prediction

means calculation

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 1

 quantitative mathematical get predicted
reality description of equation dynamic reality
objects (called governing quantities,
dynamic evolution of reduce back to
quantities) dynamic reality
quantities

“science” without
mathematics, no
Classical mechanics:
prediction, why
Dynamic quantities – m, x(t), p(t), etc
believe in it? – Governing equation – Newton’s laws
superstition 迷信

Standards and Units The International Standard, or SI (Système International) Units

TIME: in second – starting 1967, defined using an

atomic clock

LENGTH: in meter – starting 1983, MASS: in kilogram – starting 2018,

defined based on the speed of light in kilogram is defined based on a
vacuum, which is defined to be (exactly) fundamental constant of nature called
𝑐𝑐 = 299,792,458 m/s Planck’s constant, which is defined to
be (exactly)
ℎ = 6.62607015 × 10−34 kg⋅m2 /s

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Uncertainty and Significant Figures
What is the difference among the following representations of 𝜋𝜋?
1. 3.14 (means between 3.135 and 3.145, or 3.14 ± 0.005
2. 3.1416 (means 3.1416 ± 0.00005)
3. 22/7 (rational number usually means exact, misleading here, not exact!)

What is the difference between 3 and 3.00?

Be careful about the number of significant figures.

What are the problems with the following representation?

2.017676 ± 0.0132 keep the same decimal places

smaller than error estimation cannot be so

should be ____ ± ____
error, accurate! Usually take 1, at
meaningless! most 2 sig. fig.

Note: uncertainty propagates in calculations:

Question: What is the density (in kg/m3) of a rock of mass 1.80 kg and volume 6.0×10−4 m3?
(a) 3×103 kg/m3, (b) 3.0×103 kg/m3, (c) 3.00×103 kg/m3, (d) 3.000×103 kg/m3
Answer: see inverted text on P. 37 of textbook

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 3

Vector
An “arrow” in space, has magnitude (length) and direction
e.g. in 2D Cartesian coordinates (due to René Descartes)

Note: 𝐴𝐴 = �𝐴𝐴2𝑥𝑥 + 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦2 (Pythagoras thm)

��⃗
𝑨𝑨 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦
tan 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐴𝐴
𝑥𝑥
y-component
𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜃𝜃
direction 𝜃𝜃
x
x-component, 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃

Addition:

or

Subtraction:

Vectors of unit magnitude are called unit vectors. Most commonly used unit vectors are 𝚤𝚤̂, 𝚥𝚥̂, and
𝑘𝑘�, along x, y, and z directions in Cartesian coordinates
2D: 3D:

��⃗ = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝐴𝐴𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘�

Analytical representation of a vector: 𝑨𝑨

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 4

Displacement and velocity vectors
Distance and speed – scalars Displacement and velocity – vectors

�⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝒓𝒓
Δ𝒓𝒓 �⃗
�⃗ = lim
𝒗𝒗 =
Δ𝑡𝑡→0 Δ𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Note:

Acceleration vector

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 5

 �⃗ 𝑑𝑑𝒗𝒗
Δ𝒗𝒗 �⃗
�⃗ = lim
𝒂𝒂 =
Δ𝑡𝑡→0 Δ𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Resolve into parallel (or tangential) 𝑎𝑎∥ , and perpendicular (or radial) 𝑎𝑎⊥ components

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Projectile
Principle: x and y motions are independent

Vertical motion of red and yellow balls are identical – at the same height
at any time

�⃗ = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̂ = −𝑔𝑔𝚥𝚥̂, i.e., 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 = −𝑔𝑔

𝒂𝒂

Recall from high school: rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration a

𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
1
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑣0 𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 )
1
Trajectory: 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛼𝛼0 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣0 sin 𝛼𝛼0 𝑡𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2
𝑔𝑔
Eliminate t ⟹ 𝑦𝑦 = (tan 𝛼𝛼0 )𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑣𝑣2 cos2 𝛼𝛼 𝑥𝑥 2
0 0
2
i.e. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 a parabola 拋物線

A typical projectile: at the top, 0 = 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣0 sin 𝛼𝛼0 − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 y motion with
⇒ 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑣𝑣0 sin 𝛼𝛼0 /𝑔𝑔 uniform
downward
acceleration g,
max. height
= 𝑣𝑣0 sin 𝛼𝛼0 𝑇𝑇
1
− 2𝑔𝑔𝑇𝑇 2
𝑣𝑣02 sin2 𝛼𝛼0
=
2𝑔𝑔

x motion, no acceleration, range = 𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛼𝛼0 (2𝑇𝑇) = 2𝑣𝑣02 sin 𝛼𝛼0 cos 𝛼𝛼0 /𝑔𝑔

�⃗ is tangential to path, ii) 𝒂𝒂

As derived in the general case, i) 𝒗𝒗 �⃗ points to concave side

Demonstration: Monkey and Hunter, see Example 3.10 on P. 108

A ball fired at the same instant when the monkey is dropped. Ball always hit the
monkey, AMAZING!!
See the textbook for a proof.

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 7

Question:
When the ball is at its highest point P, the
monkey will be at

(i) point A (higher than P),

(ii) point B (at the same height as
P)
(iii) C (lower than P)

Answer: see inverted text on P. 109 of textbook

Example Maximum range on an inclined plane

1 𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 cos 𝜃𝜃 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2
2
When it lands, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿, 𝑦𝑦 = −𝐿𝐿 tan 𝜙𝜙, the time 𝑇𝑇 is 𝜃𝜃
1 𝑥𝑥
−𝐿𝐿 tan 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑔𝑔𝑇𝑇 2
2
2𝑣𝑣 𝜙𝜙
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 cos 𝜃𝜃 ⇒ 𝑇𝑇 = (sin 𝜃𝜃 + cos 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜙𝜙)
𝑔𝑔
𝐿𝐿
2𝑣𝑣 2
⇒ 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 cos 𝜃𝜃 = (sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 + cos2 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜙𝜙)
𝑔𝑔
𝑣𝑣 2
= (sin 2𝜃𝜃 + cos 2𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜙𝜙 + tan 𝜙𝜙)
𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜋𝜋 𝜙𝜙
To maximize 𝐿𝐿, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 ⇒ cot 2𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜙𝜙 ⇒ 𝜃𝜃 = 4 − 2 can this be a local
𝜋𝜋
minimum?
= tan �2 − 2𝜃𝜃�

Some Problem Solving Ideas:

1. Dimensional Analysis
In mechanics, three fundamental dimensions: [time] = T, [mass] = M, [length] = L
Other quantities have dimensions derived from them, e.g.,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑠𝑠
[𝑣𝑣] = �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � = LT−1, [𝑎𝑎] = �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2 � = LT−2,

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 8

Dimensional homogeneity: any physical quantities related by addition, subtraction,
1
equality/inequality sign must have the same dimension, e.g., 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣0 + 2 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2
Note: dimensional analysis is independent of the underlying units

Example
In the projectile problem, if we assume that the range is proportional to 𝑣𝑣0𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏 𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐 , then
dimensional analysis shows that
L = (LT −1 )𝑎𝑎 M 𝑏𝑏 (LT −2 )𝑐𝑐
We get 𝑎𝑎 = 2, 𝑏𝑏 = 0, 𝑐𝑐 = −1. Note that dimensional analysis cannot be used to find
dimensionless constants, which is 2 sin 𝛼𝛼0 cos 𝛼𝛼0 in this case.

Example
What is the dimension of 𝜔𝜔 in the solution of the wave equation, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔), where
[𝑥𝑥] = [𝑦𝑦] = L, and [𝑡𝑡] = T?

For reference, see libretexts

2. Scaling Analysis
Idea: if 𝑥𝑥 is doubled, how would 𝑦𝑦 change?
I.e., ignore details such as proportionality constants and consider scaling exponents only, 𝑦𝑦 ∼
𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 .
For example, in projectile:
1. If double 𝑣𝑣0 , range 𝐿𝐿 ∼ (𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛼𝛼0 )𝑇𝑇 and 𝑇𝑇 ∼ (𝑣𝑣0 cos 𝛼𝛼0 ), 𝐿𝐿 ∼ 𝑣𝑣02 .
2. If double 𝑔𝑔, reduces 𝑇𝑇 by ½, therefore 𝐿𝐿 ∼ 1/𝑔𝑔
3. If double 𝑚𝑚, use Galileo’s argument: imagine two identical projectiles flying side-by-side. It
makes no difference to the trajectory if you tie them together and double its mass.
Therefore 𝐿𝐿 is independent of 𝑚𝑚. Note that we get the same result as dimensional analysis.

3. Invariants
The Newton’s second law is a differential equation that describes how a physical system
evolves from one instant to another. Quantities that change with time are called dynamical
quantities. In some cases it is more convenient to make use of invariants (those that are time
independent), if exist, to relate the system at different instants. Very often invariants exist in
the form of conservation laws, such as the conservation of energy and momentum in the elastic
collision of Lecture 7. But sometimes it may be other things, such as the center of mass location
as in the Example on P. 6 of Lecture 7.

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 9

A wrong application of invariant Why running use more energy than walking through the same
distance (invariant)?

Additional rapid contraction and relaxation of muscle during running cost energy.

A correction application To run or not to run in the rain? From Sanjoy Mahajan, The Art of
Insight in Science and Engineering, §3.1.1
Suppose no wind and rains steadily and uniformly
Two ways to get wet:
A. Rain falling vertically on your head, even when you stand still
B. Rain hitting you from the front as you move (due to relative velocity)
First ignore (A) (either you are really thin, or you put a folder/book over your head)
Question: will running faster make you more
wet or less wet?
Two opposite effects:
1. Shorter time to stay in the rain – less wet
Volume of rain you cut through
2. More raindrops hit you from the front –
more wet
Which one dominates?

Is there an invariant? Yes, the volume of rain you cut through as you
move. Independent of your speed. Makes no difference whether to Use of invariant
run or not, i.e., the above two effects exactly cancel out each other.

Dependence of
This conclusion is valid only if you ignore (A). The effect of (A) is that
conclusion on
the slower you run, the wetter you get.
assumption

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Clicker Questions
Q1.1
What are the x- and y-
components
 of the
vector 
E?

A. Ex = E cos β, Ey = E sin β
B. Ex = E sin β, Ey = E cos β
C. Ex = –E cos β, Ey = –E sin β
D. Ex = –E sin β, Ey = –E cos β
E. Ex = –E cos β, Ey = E sin β

Q1.2

Which of the following statements is correct for any two vectors

 
A and B ?

 
A. The magnitude of A +
 B
is A + B

B. The magnitude of A + B is A – B
 
C. The magnitude of A + B is greater than or equal to |A – B|
   
D. The magnitude of A + B is greater than the magnitude of A − B
 
E. The magnitude of A + B is A2 + B2

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 11

 Q1.3

The angle θ is measured

counterclockwise from the
positive x-axis as shown. For
which of these vectors is θ
greatest?

A. 24 iˆ +18 ĵ

B. −24 iˆ − 18 ĵ

C. −18 iˆ + 24 ĵ

D. −18 iˆ − 24 ĵ

Q2.3
This is the x-t graph of
the motion of a particle.
Of the four points P, Q, R,
and S, the acceleration ax
is greatest (most positive)
at

A. point P. B. point Q. C. point R. D. point S.

E. not enough information in the graph to decide

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 12

 Q3.1

A bicyclist starts at point P and travels around a triangular path that

takes her through points Q and R before returning to point P. What is
the magnitude of her net displacement for the entire round trip?

P
A. 100 m
B. 200 m
500 m
C. 600 m
400 m D. 1200 m
E. zero

Q R
300 m

Q3.3

The motion diagram shows an object moving along a curved path at constant
speed. At which of the points A, C, and E does the object have zero
acceleration?

A. point A only
B. point C only
C. point E only
D. points A and C only
E. points A, C, and E

Ans. Q1.1) B, Q1.2) C, Q1.3) D, Q2.3) D, Q3.1) E, Q3.3) B

PHYS1312 Fall 24 (P. W. Leung) Lecture 1 Physical quantities, vectors, and … P. 13

For more information see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes

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