Name: Julieanne Pedroza

Date: 2/5/25
Genetics Homework Assignment 1

Ch. 1 Introduction

Terms:
Gene Gemmules Prokaryotic cells
Protein Inheritance of acquired Eukaryotic cells
Genetic Material traits Alleles
Phylogenies Preformationism Chromosomes
Model organism Blending inheritance Mitosis
Transfection Basic principles of heredity Meiosis
Homologous genes Classical genetics Central dogma
Green revolution Molecular genetics Mutations
Pangenesis Population genetics Evolution

1. Provide a short summary (1-3 sentences) of the following concepts:

a. Pangenesis - Tiny pieces of the egg and sperm break off and form the different
parts of the body.
b. Inheritance of acquired traits - Traits that are inherited from the parents go to the
offspring like being muscular.
c. Preformationism - Sperm and eggs already contain tiny humans inside and they
grow larger and develop into full people.
d. Blending inheritance - Every trait we have is the average of our parents traits like
height.

2. What does the concept of the inheritance of acquired characteristics propose and how is
it related to the concept of pangenesis?
The concept of inheritance of acquired characteristics proposes that traits before
reproduction we be passed onto the offspring and this ties into pangenesis because gemmules
travel to the reproductive organs and influence the traits that the offspring has.

a. If an individual lost a limb before reproducing, what does inheritance of acquired

traits assume of the offspring?
Inheritance of acquired characteristics would assume that the offspring would
also not have that limb.

3. Explain why people with the albino phenotype were so common in Hopi villages when
compared to the typical population.
Albino people were common in the Hopi village because they reproduced together in
that small community making the chance of the offspring being albino even higher.

4. For each of the following genetic topics, indicate whether it focuses on transmission
(classical) genetics, molecular genetics, or population genetics:
a. Analysis of pedigrees to determine the probability of someone inheriting a trait.
 Answer: Classical
b. Study of people on a small island to determine why a genetic form of asthma is
prevalent on the island.
Answer: Population
c. Effect of nonrandom mating on the distribution of genotypes among a group of
animals.
Answer: Population
d. Examination of the nucleotide sequences found at the ends of chromosomes.
Answer: Molecular
e. Mechanisms that ensure a high degree of accuracy in DNA replication.
Answer: Molecular
f. Study of how the inheritance of traits encoded by genes on sex chromosomes
differs from the inheritance of traits encoded by genes on non-sex chromosomes
(autosomes).
Answer: Classical

5. What are the two basic cell types and how do they differ?
Prokaryotic, which lack a nucleus and other organelles, and eukaryotic, which don’t.

6. Summarize the relationship between genes, DNA, chromosomes, and proteins.

Chromosomes, which are made of proteins, are on the long strands of DNA and they
contain genes.

7. What is a model organism? What are 3 examples of model organisms? Include their
species name and what type of organisms they can serve as models for (and why).
Organisms that can be used as models for research. Escherichia coli (Bacterium) is
used for prokaryotic biology because of its rapid growth. Drosophila melanogaster (Fruit
fly) is an invertebrate model used for genetics and developmental biology because of its
short generation time. Lastly, Mus musculus (house mouse) is a mammalian model used
for disease studies because of its genetic similarity to humans.

8. What are 6 major breakthroughs in genetics of the 19th century and the scientist(s)
responsible for those breakthroughs?
Basic principles of heredity by Gregor Mendel
Cell theory developed by Matthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodore Schwann
Charles Darwins “On the Origin of Species”
Cell nucleus described by Robert Brown
Chromosome division observed by Walter Flemming
Cell nucleus containing hereditary information was proven by a number of scientists
including Oscar Hertwig

9. Define mutation and evolution and explain how they are related.
Mutations are permanent changes in the organisms genetic information and can be
passed on through inheritance while evolution is genetic change in the population. These are
related because both involve change in the organisms.
 a. What are alleles? Can you explain how alleles and mutation might be related?
Alleles are genes in multiple forms and they are differentiated from the
nucleotides that they contain. Mutation creates slightly different versions of the same genes and
this is how they are related to one another.

Ch. 2 Chromosomes and Cellular Reproduction

Terms:
Virus Meiosis Prophase
Prokaryote Cell cycle Prometaphase
Bacteria Ploidy level Metaphase
Archaea Haploid Anaphase
Eukaryote Diploid Telophase
ssDNA Polyploid Fertilization
dsDNA Homologous Interkinesis
Genome chromosomes Crossing over
Nucleus Alleles Gametogenesis
Gene expression Chromatid Spermatogenesis
Histone Heterochromatin Spermatogonium
Nucleosome Euchromatin Primary spermatocyte
Chromatin Centromere Secondary spermatocyte
Plasmid Telomeres Spermatid
Horizontal gene transfer Origins of replication Oogenesis
Binary fission Kinetochore Oogonium
Origin of replication Submetacentric Primary oocyte
Structural maintenance of Metacentric Secondary oocyte
chromosome complexes Telocentric Polar body
Sexual reproduction Acrocentric Mature ovum
Asexual reproduction Interphase Ovulation
Mitosis M-phase Zygote

10. Using the table below, point out the similarities and differences between viruses,
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells:

Category: Similarities Differences Type of genetic

material
Virus Contains genetic material Needs host to reproduce DNA or RNA

Prokaryotic Has DNA and can reproduce No nucleus or membrane Circular DNA
independently bound organelles
 Eukaryotic Has DNA and can reproduce Has nucleus and membrane Linear DNA in
independently bound organelles chromosomes
inside the
nucleus

11. What two forms of DNA do prokaryotic cells have? What is the difference? Which can be
shared via horizontal gene transfer?
Prokaryotic cells have chromosomal DNA and plasmid DNA. Chromosomal DNA is the
primary DNA molecule that contains the genetic information required for the cells basic functions
and plasmid DNA carry genes that are not essential but provide advantages. Plasmids can be
shared via horizontal gene transfer.

12. What is binary fission?

Binary fission is an asexual reproduction process in which a single parent cell divides i
not two identical daughter cells.

13. What is an origin of replication?

It’s where duplication of the chromosome starts.

14. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is tightly packaged to fit inside the nucleus. It wraps around
proteins called histones to form structural units known as nucleosomes. These
nucleosomes are further organized into a complex structure called chromatin.
Chromatin can exist in two forms: euchromatin, which is loosely packed and
transcriptionally active, and heterochromatin, which is densely packed and generally
transcriptionally inactive.

15. The ploidy of an organism refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in its cells. A
haploid cell contains one complete set of chromosomes, while a diploid cell contains
two sets, one inherited from each parent. Some organisms, like certain plants, are
polyploid, meaning they have more than two sets of chromosomes. In diploid
organisms, chromosomes exist in pairs called homologous chromosomes, which carry
the same genes but may have different versions of those genes, known as alleles.

16. Using the image shown here, label each chromosome with its structural type:
a. Metacentric
b. Submetacentric
c. Acrocentric
d. Telocentric

17. Which of these chromosome structural types are

normal in human cells? Which are not?
Normal: metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric.
 Not normal: Telocentric

18. Using the table below, explain what events occur in each of the cell cycle stages:

Cell Cycle Phase: Stage: Events:

G1 Cell crowns and produces proteins. Cell also
prepares for DNA replication.
Interphase
S DNA is replicated which results in two
identical sister chromatids.
G2 Cell prepares for mitosis

M-phase Mitosis Cell division occurs

19. Using the table below, label what major events occur in each phase of mitosis:

Phase: Major events:

Prophase Chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope breaks
down.
Prometaphase Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores and the chromosomes start moving.
Metaphase Chromosomes align in the middle at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase Sister chromatids separate and move opposite poles.
Telophase Chromosomes decondense and the nuclear envelope reforms. Cytokinesis
begins.

20. A eukaryotic chromosome contains several key regions essential for its structure and
function. The centromere is the constricted region where sister chromatids are held
together and where the kinetochore assembles, allowing attachment to spindle fibers
during mitosis. At the ends of the chromosome, telomeres protect the genetic material
from degradation and prevent chromosomes from fusing with each other. DNA
replication begins at specific sequences called origins of replication, ensuring the
entire genome is duplicated accurately before cell division.

21. What makes meiosis different from mitosis? Which is used in asexual reproduction?
Which is used in sexual reproduction?
Meiosis produces 4 haploid gametes and is used in sexual reproduction while mitosis
produces 2 diploid daughter cells and is used in asexual reproduction.

a. When does crossing over occur in meiosis?

Prophase 1
 22. Summarize how crossing over contributes to increased genetic variation in offspring (2-3
sentences): Crossing over takes place during prophase 1 of meiosis where genetic
material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes. The genetic diversity of
gametes is increased because this process creates new combinations of alleles. This
results in offspring inheriting these unique genetic traits from both both parents.

23. Describe the process of spermatogenesis and label each product with its ploidy level:
Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes and it produces 4 functional haploid sperm cells.
Spermatogonium and primary spermatocyte both have ploidy levels of 2n while
secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, and sperm cells have ploidy levels of n.

24. Describe the process of oogenesis and label each product with its ploidy level:
Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries and produces one mature haploid egg. Oogonium and
primary oocyte have policy levels of 2n while secondary oocyte, first polar body, ovum,
and second polar body all have ploidy levels of n.

25. What is fertilization and what is the product of fertilization?

Fertilization causes the haploid sperm cell to come in contact with the haploid egg cell to
form the diploid zygote. This zygote is the first cell of the new organisms containing its own
complete set of chromosomes.