Wireless embedded systems

Networking and connectivity

Infrared connectivity
Radio connectivity
Controller area network and local interconnect
network
The universal serial bus
Embedded system and internet
 Wireless Embedded Systems

• Wireless embedded systems are systems that use wireless communication to

perform tasks and exchange data with other devices or networks.

• Wireless embedded systems are systems that combine sensors, actuators,

storage, processors, wireless communication modules and communication
capabilities to collect data from the physical world.

• They use various wireless communication technologies to send and receive

data, which allows them to connect in a network where the devices can be
spread out over a large area.

• These systems typically consist of small computers, known as microprocessors

or microcontrollers, along with memory for storing data and interfaces that allow
them to send and receive information(input/output communication interface).
1.Internet of Things (IoT): Applications of Wireless Embedded Systems
1. Smart home devices (e.g., smart thermostats, security
cameras).
2. Industrial IoT (e.g., predictive maintenance, asset •Smart home sensors:
tracking). •Devices like motion detectors, temperature sensors, and
2.Healthcare: door/window sensors that send data wirelessly to a
1. Wearable devices (e.g., fitness trackers, heart rate central hub to control home automation functions.
monitors).
2. Remote patient monitoring systems. •Wearable fitness trackers:
3.Automotive: •Wearable devices that use embedded systems to
1. Tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS). monitor health and track activities like walking,
2. Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. running, and sleeping.
4.Agriculture:
1. Soil moisture monitoring. •Applications:
2. Automated irrigation systems. •Environmental monitoring: Tracking air quality, water levels, and
5.Smart Cities: weather conditions using sensor networks deployed in various locations.
1. Smart street lighting. •Industrial control: Monitoring machinery health, optimizing
2. Waste management systems. production processes, and detecting potential issues in industrial
6.Consumer Electronics: settings.
1. Wireless headphones. •Healthcare: Remote patient monitoring using wearable devices to track
2. Smart appliances. vital signs.
•Smart homes: Automated control of lighting, heating, and appliances
based on sensor data.
 Key Components of Wireless Embedded Systems

Key Components of Wireless Embedded Systems

1.Microcontroller/Microprocessor:
2.Wireless Communication Modules:
3.Sensors and Actuators:
4.Power Management:
5.Memory:.
6.User Interface:.

1. Microcontroller/Microprocessor:
• Description: The core of any embedded system, responsible for executing instructions and
controlling peripheral devices.
• Function: Manages data processing, controls communication protocols, and interfaces with sensors
or actuators.
• Examples: ARM Cortex-M series, ESP32, Raspberry Pi Pico.
• Microcontroller: The processing unit of the system, responsible for data manipulation and control
functions.
• Microcontroller/Processor: The brain of the system that executes code and handles data processing.
 2.Wireless Communication Modules Components of Wireless Embedded Systems

• A communication module refers to hardware component within a device that enables data
exchange with devices .
• Communication protocol is a standard set of rules defining how data is structured and transmitted
between devices.
• Communication interface is the physical connect point through which data is exchanged
,essentially acting as the gate way between the module and eternal network.
• All three elements work together to facilitate seamless communication between different systems.

• Wireless Communication Modules: Enables data transmission through various protocols .

• Act as hardware components that allows devices to transmit and receive data wirelessly, while
Protocols defines the structure and format of the data being transmitted.
• Wireless communication protocol is a standard set of rules with references to which various
electronic devices communicate with each other wirelessly.

• Each protocol differs in terms of range, power consumption, data rate, and suitability for
specific applications.
• Choosing the right protocol depends on application-specific factors such as power efficiency,
communication range, data rate, and network architecture.
 2.Wireless Communication Modules Components of Wireless Embedded Systems

• wireless communication protocols:

1. Wi-Fi (e.g., ESP8266, ESP32).
2. Bluetooth (e.g., BLE for low-power applications).
3. Zigbee (e.g., XBee modules for mesh networking).
4. LoRa (for long-range, low-power communication).
5. Cellular (e.g., NB-IoT, LTE-M for wide-area networks).

Wired communication interface:

• It is an interface used to transfer information over a
Wireless communication interface wired network.
• SPI(serial peripheral interface). • Physical connection point where data is transferred
• UART(universal asynchronous receive transmitter between devices, including the electrical signals and
• I2C(inter-integrated circuit) connector types used.
1. Serial port: RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485
2. USB port
3. RJ45 connector (Ethernet)
 Wireless Communication Protocols:
• Types of Wireless Communication Modules

1.WiFi (Wireless Fidelity):

2.Bluetooth:
 Enable high speed data transfer over LAN.
 Functionality: Enable devices to connect to Wi-Fi  Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication
networks for internet access or local protocol ,commonly used for data exchange between
communication to devices that are within the devices over short distances.
ranges of about 20-4- meters from the sources.  Applications: smartphones, tablets, Wearable devices,
health monitoring systems, audio streaming
 Wi-Fi, also operating in the 2.4GHz or 5GHz
frequency bands, provides higher data rates and
 It operates in the 2.4GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific,
longer range compared to Bluetooth.
and Medical) frequency band and offers low power
 It is widely used for internet connectivity and consumption, used for personal devices like phones
supports various applications requiring high-speed and headphones to form personal area networks
data transfer. (PANs) to transmit data over short distances.
 Examples:ESP8266, ESP32
 It has a data rate up to 600Mbps ,depend on  It has a data is being shared at maximum data rates
channel frequencies used and antenna. 1Mbps ,
 Applications: IoT devices, home automation  Examples: HC-05, HM-10
systems, smart appliances.
 Wireless Communication Protocols:
3.Zigbee
 Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high- level
communication protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-
power digital radios, such as for home automation and medical device data
collection.
 Zigbee supports an operating distance of up to 100 metres at a data rate of 20 to
250 Kbps.
 It operates in the 2.4GHz frequency band.
 Allows devices to communicate to multiple other devices in the network.
 Multiple paths to destination – greater flexibility against interference.
 Examples: XBee Series 1/2

 It provides reliable mesh networking capabilities, enabling devices

to communicate with each other and extend the network range.
 A mesh network consists of a series of nodes.
 Each node must acquire and transmit its own data, as well as act as a
relay for other nodes to propagate data.
 3.Zigbee
• Zigbee Coordinator:
• The zigbee coordinator acts as the root of the zigbee network.
• The ZC is responsible for initiating the Zigbee network and it has the
capability to store information about the network.
• Zigbee Router:
• Responsible for passing information from device to another device or to
another ZR.
• Zigbee end device:
• End device containing zigbee functionality for data communication.
• It can talk only with a ZR or ZC and doesn’t have the capability to act as a
mediator for transferring data from one device to another..

Medical devices:
o Glucose meters, heart monitors
Wireless environmental sensors
o Temperature, pressure, sound, luminous intensity
Household automation
o Security/temperature controllers
o Smoke/motion detectors
 4.LoRa / LoRaWAN:
 LoRa (Long Range) is a low-power, wide-area network (LPWAN) protocol that enables
long-range communication with minimal power consumption for IoT applications.
 Applications: smart cities ,Smart agriculture, environmental monitoring and logistics.
• Examples: RN2483/RN2903
 LoRaWAN provides the ability to connect millions of devices with data rates ranging from
0.3 kbps to 50 kbps.
 The distance for LoRaWAN application is up to 5 km in urban areas and up to 15 km or
more in rural areas.
 With hundreds of millions of devices connected to networks in more than 100 countries and
growing, LoRa is creating a smarter planet.

5.Cellular Modules
• Functionality: Enable cellular network connectivity for data
transmission over long distances using mobile networks (2G/3G/4G).
• The fifth generation of cellular networks is 5G.
• Examples: SIM800L/SIM7000
• Applications: Remote monitoring solutions and GPS tracking.
 Components of Wireless Embedded Systems

3. Sensors 4. Actuators
 Sensors is devices that gather data from the • Actuator acts as an output device
environment or the system itself. • Components that perform actions based on sensor
 Collect data from the environment, like input (motors for movement or relays for
temperature, pressure, or motion. switching).
 Devices that convert physical phenomena into • A form of transducer device (mechanical or
electrical signals. electrical) which converts signals to
 A transducer device which converts energy from corresponding physical action (motion).
one form to another for any measurement or • Actuators receive commands from the
control purpose. microcontroller to execute physical actions in
 Sensors acts as input device. response to sensor inputs.
 Examples include temperature sensors, humidity • Examples include motors for movement control or
sensors, smoke sensors accelerometers, GPS relays for switching electrical loads.
receivers, motion detectors.
 Components of Wireless Embedded Systems
5. Power Supply
• Wireless embedded systems often rely on batteries or energy harvesters (like solar panels).
• Power management is critical to ensure long battery life.
6. Memory Components 7 . User Interface
• Include both volatile memory (RAM) for Depending on application needs; this could
temporary data storage during operation and involve basic LED indicators/status displays
non-volatile memory (Flash) for storing through LCD screens/touchscreens providing
firmware/software and persistent data. interactive user control.

Together these components form a complete Wireless Embedded System capable of collecting data remotely
then processing it accordingly before transmitting results back effectively!
 Networking and connectivity
Key points:
Networking:
• Networking and connectivity is about
• The overall system of connecting devices to share information,
linking various devices, such as
including physical cables and wireless technologies.
computers, servers, and smartphones, so
• communications system connecting two or more computers.
they can share data and communicate
Connectivity:
with each other.
• The ability of devices to establish a connection and exchange
• This connection can be made through
data within a network.
methods like wired cables or wireless
• the capability of microcomputer to share information with
signals.
other computers

• Types of Connectivity:
• Wired Connectivity: This includes connections made through physical cables (like Ethernet cables, fiber optics)
which provide stable and high-speed communication.
• -Wireless Connectivity: This involves the use of radio waves or infrared signals for communication (such as
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks). It offers and mobility but can be subject to interference.
• Network connectivity means setting up communication paths that allow different devices to connect and talk to
each other.
• This is done using various technologies and rules (called protocols) so that they can share information and
interact effectively within a network.
• Network connectivity also shows how well parts of the network connect to each other.
 Network Medium
• The computer networks that use environment or air as the media , through which
information is transmitted without any cable or wires or the electronic conductor , rather
by using electromagnetic waves like: IR(infrared) , RF(radio frequencies) , satellite , etc
are wireless computer networks

When hosts and server are connected with one another through guided
media(wireless communication). Like, micro wave, radio waves ,satellite etc.

 Networking and connectivity refers to the process of connecting different devices together to exchange
data, while "infrared connectivity" and "radio connectivity" are specific types of wireless
connections used in networking.
Infrared connectivity:
• infrared offering short-range, line-of-sight data transmission
• Wireless technology that Uses infrared light beam to transmit data between devices.
• requiring a direct line of sight between devices( where focus beam is directed at a
receiver to send commands(transmitter).
• IR light is invisible to human eyes ,but can be detected by some cameras and electronics.
• IR used in remote controls for TVs ,DVD players and other appliances.
• In TV remote controls, where the remote send infrared signal to the TV to control
functions like volume and channel changing.
 Networking and connectivity

Radio connectivity:
• Uses radio waves to transmit data between devices.
• WI-FI that has become common word today also use radio waves to transmit data among connected devices.
• Some More Examples: TV,AM,FM Radio Signals.
• Radio waves easily travel through the atmosphere and many materials.
• Can cover longer distances than infrared.
• Used in technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
• A short-range radio technology primarily used for connecting devices like headphones, speakers, and
smartwatches.
• Mobile phone networks that use radio signals to provide internet access on the go.

Key Differences:
Transmission medium:
Infrared uses light waves in the infrared spectrum, while radio connectivity uses radio waves.
Line of sight:
Infrared connectivity strictly requires a direct line of sight between devices, meaning no obstructions
can be present between them. Radio waves can penetrate walls and other obstacles, allowing for greater
flexibility in device placement.
Range:
Infrared typically has a much shorter range than radio connectivity, usually limited to a few meters.
 Internet

• Internet was launched in 1969 when U.S. funded and developed

a national computer network called Advanced Research Project
Agency Network (ARPANET).
• Web was introduced in 1992 at the Center for European Nuclear
Research (CERN) in Switzerland.
• Web provides a multimedia interface to the numerous resources
available on the Internet

• Large network in the world

• Physical network made up of wires, cables and satellites .
• Major Components: Hosts, Routers, Communication links
• Protocols: for sending, receiving of msgs e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP
• local ISP company network regional ISP router workstation server
mobile.
• Common way to access the Internet is through an Internet Service
Provider (ISP)
• ISPs are already connected to the Internet and provide a path or
connection for individuals and businesses to access the Internet.
 The common networking device
The device that are used in the network are called network devices.
Some of the important network devices are listed below
 Hub
 Switch  Repeaters
 Repeater  A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
 Bridget  A repeater operates at the physical layer.
 Router  Its task is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too
 Gateway weak or corrupted, can travel a long distance and obstacles
 Modem  When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength.
 A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher power
level.
 In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable which runs
 Gateway longer than 100 meters.
 Gateway is a device or software that connect different networks having different
protocols.
 it makes communication possible between two different networks.
 A gateway is a passage to connect two networks together that may work upon different
networking models.
 They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it,
and transfer it to another system.
 Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
 Bridge
 Bridge is a networking device that joins segment of a similar network or dissimilar network that
uses the same protocol.
 Bridges can filter out noise, it helps to reduce traffic and improve network performance.
 A bridge is a device that connects two or more LANs working on same protocol.
 When a bridge receives data from one LAN, it first regenerates(or amplifies) the signal and then
forwards the data to other LAN
 A bridge operates at data link layer.
 A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of source and destination
 networking device
Router:
 Routes is a network connecting device that connects multiple networks having the same protocol.
 Router can be seen as a layer 3 switch (network layer ).
 Router accepts incoming packets from one network interface and forwards towards its intended
destination.
 Routers uses IP address instead of MAC addresses and constructs routing table from the received packets.
 A router is an intelligent device that routes a packet to destination computer.
 It is basically used to connect two logically and physically different networks, two LANs, two WANs
and LAN with WAN.

• Switch: A network device that sends traffic it receives to a specific connected device, such as a
single desktop computer or laptop.
• Hosts on a network share the same IP address space.
• A switch is a intelligent hub that forwards incoming frames to a specific port that will take data to its
intended destination. Reads the intended MAC address from the received data frame and
determines the forwarding port from the Switching Table and connect the received frame to the
intended port.
• Switch operates on MAC sub layer of the layer 2 : the data link layer.
• A switch is a device that can be used in all places where a hub is used.
  Modem
 Modem is a device that converts the digital signal into an
analog signal and vice versa. A computer only reads digital
signals, while signals out on the internet are to analog.
 the process of converting digital to analog signal is
modulation and analog to digital signal is known as
demodulation. Cable modem and DSL modems.
 A modem is a communication device that converts one form
of signal to another that is suitable for transmission over
communication network such as telephone lines, typically
from digital to analogue and from analogue to digital.
 Hubs
 A hub is device used to connect several computers together by Ethernet cables.
 Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
 Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
 A network device used to transmit data packets to all connected devices.
 When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied unmodified to all ports of the hub for transmission. A hub operates on
layer 1 : physical layer
 Every data frame it receives ,send it through all of his ports. Because his do not know which port destination
computers connect to.
 The destination address in the frame is not changed to a broadcast address.
 A network host is a computer or other device connected to a computer network. A network host may offer
information resources, services, and applications to users or other nodes on the network.
 networking device

• A server is a computer that holds content and services such as a

website, a media file or a chat application.
• A server is a type of computer or device on a network that manages
network resources. Servers are often dedicated.
• A client is a different computer, such as your laptop or cell phone, that
requests to view, download, or use the content.
• A client is a piece of computer hardware or software that accesses a
service made available by a server.
• The client can connect over a network to exchange information.
• Using a specific protocol, the client will send a request and the server
must return a response.
 Media access control or MAC address: The MAC address or physical address uniquely identifies each host. It is
associated with the network interface card (NIC).
 Network interface cards (NIC )
• A network card, also known as network adapter , NIC is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers
to communicate over a computer network. NIC provides physical interface between computer and cabling.
• It provides physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system through the
use of MAC addresses. It has specific MAC address.
• NIC prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data.
• It can also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to understand.
 Network Protocols
Internet protocol stack
• A network can be defined as a group of computers
and other devices connected in some ways to
• application: supporting
exchange data. network applications
• It is a group of computers that use standard • FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
communication protocols over digital
interconnections to share resources. • transport: host-host data
• A protocol is the set of defined rules that allows two
transfer transport
• TCP, UDP
entities to communicate across the network.
• Protocols are rules and conventions for data • network: routing of datagrams network
exchange over a network. from source to destination
• In computer networking ,a protocol is a set of rules • IP, routing protocols
for formatting and processing data. • link: data transfer between link
• Network protocols are a set of rules that are neighboring network elements
responsible for the communication of data between • PPP, Ethernet physical
different devices in the network. • physical: bits “on the wire or
• A wireless network protocol is a set of rules that wireless”
govern how data is sent and received over a wireless
network.
 A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between two of more communicating
entities as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a message or other event.

Host A Host B Examples

Message Http, Ftp, Smtp,
Application Layer Application Layer Telnet TCP Connection Request

Packet (Bridge)
Transport Layer Transport Layer TCP, UDP
Port-to-Port
TCP Connection Response

Datagram (Router)
Network Layer Host-to-Host
Network Layer IP Get http://www.ibm.com/index.html

Frame (Hub) Index.html

Link Layer Node-to-Node
Link Layer Ethernet, FDDI

Physical Network

Layered Architecture - Internet

 Network Protocols

The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:

Network managements protocols
Network communication protocols: • used in monitoring, maintaining, and managing
• A set of standardized rules that govern how data is the computer network.
formatted ,sent and received between devices • also be used for troubleshooting connections
,included error checking and synchronization between a host and a client.
mechanisms.
1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) 1. FTP (file transfer protocol)
2. Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) 2. DNS(Domain Name System)
3. User Datagram Protocol(UDP) 3. DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
4. Border Gateway Protocol(BGP) 4. HCP(Host Configuration Protocol)
5. Address Resolution Protocol(ARP) 5. SNMP( Simple Network Management Protocol)
6. Internet Protocol(IP) 6. Telnet
7. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),

Security protocols:
• Secure Socket Layer(SSL)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS)
• Transport Layer Security(TLS)
 Network Protocols

• Network communication protocols include:

• HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
 Used for transferring web pages on the internet, transfers hypermedia documents, such as HTML
, graphic images, audio and video clips.
 It is an application layer protocol that allows the browser and server to communicate.
• Internet protocol (IP)
• It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to another over the internet.
• allow data packets to be routed and addressed to pass through networks and reach the correct destination
• Transmission control protocol (TCP):
• The suite of communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet.
• It is a connection-oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a connection between applications before sending any
data. Networks using the TCP/IP protocol route messages based on the IP address of the destination.
• Defines how data is sent and received over a network
• Separates data into packets that can be shared over a network.
• Divides the message into a series of packets and sends them from source to destination to be reassembled at
the destination.
• It has many applications such as emails, FTP, streaming media, etc.
 Network Protocols

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): prioritizes speed over

reliability, used to create low-latency connections.

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):ARP translates IP addresses

to MAC addresses and vice versa so LAN endpoints can
communicate with one another.

 Border Gateway Protocol(BGP):is a routing protocol that

controls how packets pass through the router in an
independent system --one or more networks run by a single
organization and connect to different networks.it can connect
endpoints in different LANs to one another over the internet.

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A standard protocol for transferring

files from a server to a client.

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): A protocol that

diagnoses communication issues between devices. It reports
errors and determines if data has reached its destination.
 Network Protocols

 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Automates the process of configuring devices on IP
networks and devices to keep networks running smoothly.
 LoRa Wireless Protocols: A group of wireless communication technologies that use low power and have a
long range.
 Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP):-for managing nodes on an IP network.
 Post office protocol (POP): is designed to receive incoming emails.
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): A protocol that sends emails between computers. It also alerts
users when new emails arrive.
 Telnet:It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program
 Secure Socket Layer(SSL):protecting sensitive data and securing internet connections.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTPS):ensures secure communication between two computers where one
sends the request through the browser and the other fetches the data from the web server.
 Transport Layer Security(TLS):data security and privacy over the internet, its functionality is encryption,
checking the integrity of data .
 What is Network connection type?

• Computer Networks are often differentiated based on the connection mode, like wired or wireless.
• Not all computer networks are the same.
• The network established is used to connect multiple devices to share software and hardware
resources and tools.
• According to the communication requirements, multiple types of network connections are available.
• The most basic type of network classification depends on the network's geographical coverage.

 Connectivity devices:
• Devices like cables, routers, switches, access points Types of wireless Network connections:
enable connections.. Different types of networks exist based on their
 Network Topologies: geographical reach, including
• The arrangement of different elements in a network • Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN),
affects its performance and scalability. • Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN),
• Common topologies include star, mesh, bus, and ring • Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN),
configurations. • Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN).
• Wireless body area networks(WBAN)
 Classification of wireless networks

1.Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for

communication among computer devices close to one person.
The network we use to link a computer to a phone via Bluetooth is the
smallest imaginable.
This is sometimes called a PAN (personal area network); as the name
suggests, a one-person network.
Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are printers, fax
machines, telephones, PDAs and scanners.
The reach of a PAN is typically about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9
meters), but this is expected to increase with technology improvements.
 What Is Local Area Network (LAN)?

• A local area network is a collection of computers and

other technology with a common communication line
or wireless network and, in most cases, the facilities
of an individual server or processor within a limited
geographic region.
• LAN uses private network addresses for network
connectivity for data and service exchange, and it uses
cable for network connection, decreasing error and
maintaining data security.
• Computers and servers can connect via cables or
wirelessly.
• Typically, the server houses shared data storage and
• Contains printers, servers and
applications for many computer users.
computers
• Systems are close to each other • To link the LAN networks, a centralized database is
• Contained in one office or building needed.
• Organizations often have several • A private owner owns the network.
LANS
 Local area network
• A local area network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small
geographic area, like a home, office, or small group of buildings, such as
a school, or an airport.
• If you work in an office, you probably use a LAN, which is typically a
few separate computers linked to one or two printers, a scanner, and a
shared local storage device.
• Ethernet is the foundation of all existing LANs, whether wired or wireless.
• WiFi Access Points provide wireless connectivity in combination with a
wired network. WAP-enabled devices serve as a link between PCs and
networks.
• When building a wireless network, it is important that the wireless Servers on a LAN are generally connected by wire.
components connect to the appropriate WLAN. This is done using a
Service Set Identifier (SSID). Advantages
• The SSID is a case-sensitive, alpha-numeric string that is up to 32- • Transmission of data and services is
characters. It is sent in the header of all frames transmitted over the relatively higher than other network
WLAN. connections.
• The SSID is used to tell wireless devices which WLAN they belong to and • The Network Server acts as a central
with which other devices they can communicate. unit for the whole network.
• Keeping everything stored on the server safe and secure is done through Disadvantages
data protection. • Need constant administration of
• LANs are rapid, simple setup and low cost. experienced engineers for functioning.
• Probability of leak of sensitive data by
LAN administration.
 Recall: an example of wired LAN Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

• A Wireless Access point (WAP) is networking device that

allows wireless capable device to connect to a wired network
Laptop Laptop Laptop
using Ethernet cable.
• A wireless AP is the bridge of communication between
wireless and wired network ,and is the core device for
Server Printer building WLAN.

Work Work Work

Station Station Station

• Signal range is ≈100 meters.

• Also called the Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)

• There are various components that must be considered in a

WLAN including: an Access Point, a wireless client or STA,
a Wireless Bridge and an Antenna
 A user is connected if An example of wireless LAN Each cell operates at a
he/she is in the coverage different frequency
area of a cell

Work
Laptop Station Laptop Laptop Laptop
Laptop

Access Access Access

Point Point Point

Printer
Server

Access Access Access

Point Point Point

Work Work Work Work Work

Station Station Station Station Station

WAP
Controls access between a wired and a wireless network. I.E. allows wireless clients to gain access to a wired network
and vice versa.
 • There are two basic forms of WLAN installations:
Ad-hoc Network  Ad-hoc mode
 Infrastructure mode
• Wireless ad hoc network is built ,enable two or more
wireless devices to connected without requirement Infrastructure Mode
wireless or Access point. • Although an ad-hoc arrangement may be good for
 The simplest form of a wireless network is created by small networks, larger networks require a single
connecting two or more wireless clients together in a device that controls communications in the wireless
peer-to-peer network and does not include an AP. cell.
 All clients within an ad-hoc network are equal. • If present, an AP will take over this role and control
 The area covered by this network is known as an who can talk and when.
Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). • This is known as infrastructure mode and is the mode
 A simple ad-hoc network can be used to exchange files of wireless communication most often used in the
and information between devices without the expense home and business environment.
and complexity of purchasing and configuring an AP. • In this form of WLAN, individual laptop can not
 Temporary network communicate directly with each other.
 Using wireless adapter • To communicate, each device must obtain permission
 Setting up an ad hoc network from the AP.
 In windows 10 or 8,you can use command prompt to set • The AP controls all communications and ensures that
up an ad hoc network. all laptop have equal access to the medium.
 Cmd • The area covered by a single AP is known as a Basic
 >netsh wlan set hostednetwork mode =allow Service Set (BSS) or cell.
ssid=network name key=123456
 What Is Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)?

• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that connects two or more LANs or campus
area networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town/city.
• Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area network.
• It is a network type that covers the network connection of an entire city or connection of a small
area.
• The area covered by the network is connected using a wired network, like data cables.
• Data transmission speed is relatively high due to the installation of optical cables and wired
connections.
 Classification of wireless networks

Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)

 Signal range of approximately 5 km to 20 km (recently up to 50 km)
 Often called Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access ((WiMAX)

Wi-Fi users
WiMAX BS may be
connected to
the WiMAX
network

Mobile devices
might have WMAN might
built in WiMAX be owned and
adapter or may operated by
be externally organizations
plugged or public
institutions
 What Is Wide Area Network (WAN)?
• The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to
connect devices over large distances like states or
between countries, uses radio towers for
communication.

• The WAN network can be made up of multiple

LAN and MAN networks.

• WAN has a wide geographical coverage.

• Through phone lines or satellites, the networks are
connected.
• The WAN network uses a satellite medium to
transmit data between multiple locations and
network towers

• A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e. any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries ).
• The information connected to every device in the relevant network can be shared through the WAN
network.
 Classification of wireless networks

Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)

Use network infrastructure of mobile operators.
 Cover wide area much wider than groups mentioned above.

 Use cellular network technologies such as WI-MAX, GSM, GPRS,

3G and others.
 Classification of wireless networks
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)

 Max. signal range 2 meters

 Interconnecting respective devices within the surface of the body

 Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Basis LAN MAN WAN

LAN is a network that enables the Several computers can be
The WAN network extends to
communication between many linked devices. connected to MAN in the same city
a much greater area.
Meaning It is in charge of establishing connections or separately. It encompasses a
It can link multiple
among neighborhood units, including greater region, including minor
countries together.
universities and schools. towns and cities.
MAN can be either public or
A single company may not
Network LAN is a private and secured network. private.
own WAN.
Authority Hospitals, schools, offices, etc., can own it. A lot of businesses and telephone
It can be private or public.
companies could own them.
The Internet speed provided through LAN is MAN provides a modest Internet WAN provides a slow
Speed
fast. connection speed. Internet connection.
MAN's maintenance is easier WAN maintenance is very
Maintenance LAN maintenance is very easy.
compared to LAN. difficult.
Congestion is more in WAN
Congestion Congestion is less in the LAN network. It is more in MAN. when compared to LAN and
MAN.
WAN bandwidth is quite
Bandwidth The bandwidth in LAN is very high. In MAN, bandwidth is less.
limited.
It isn't easy to design a MAN It is complicated to design
Designing It is very easy to design a LAN network.
network. WAN.
 Controller Area Network (CAN):
• The Controller Area Network is robust, a message-based communication protocol designed to
enable efficient data exchange between different electronic control units (ECUs) within a
system, commonly used in automobiles,
• where different components like the engine, brakes, and sensors need to communicate in real-
time; essentially,
• it's a network that connects various controllers within a system to allow them to interact
with each other effectively.
• Function:
• Primarily used for in vehicle networking, where various electronic components like the engine,
actuator, and sensors can exchange data with each other.

• Controller Area Network (CAN) is a low-level network that provides connections between simple
industrial devices (such as sensors, actuators, and valves) and higher-level devices (such as PLC
controllers and computers).
 It is widely used in automotive, industrial automation,
and embedded systems due to its reliability, fault
tolerance, and ability to operate in electrically noisy
environments.
Robustness : Resistant electromagnetic interface and faults.
 Controller Area Network (CAN): • Twisted wire (twisted pair)(300bps to
100Mbps)
• Coaxial Cable(56Kbps to 550Mbps)
 CAN bus a type of communication network used between controllers.
• Fiber Optics(500Kbps to 30Gbps)
 Communication protocol used in automobile systems.
 In a car different ECUs need to communicate with each other and the CAN bus allows them to do that
efficiently.

 CAN bus typically used a twisted pair of wires, which helps reduce electromagnetic interface.

 CAN messages are broadcast ,meaning all node receives every message ,but process only relevant
ones(filtered by identifier).
 How do nodes know which messages to process?
 Each message has an identifier , and nodes can be programmed to listen for specific identifiers.

• A CAN is vehicles bus standard designed to enable efficient communication between electronic control units
(ECUs) within in vehicle,
• essentially allow different part of car to talk to each other through standardized message system,
reducing wiring complexity and cost.

• Examples of such devices include engine management systems, active suspension, Anti-block systems (ABS),
gear and lighting control, air conditioning, airbags and central locking.
• All this means more safety and more comfort for the driver and certainly a reduction of fuel consumption
and exhaust emissions.
 Controller Area Network (CAN):
• Message –based protocol
• The CAN bus is a high integrity serial bus system for networking • CAN is message based communication
intelligent devices. protocol, meaning data is sent in packets
• The CAN standard defines a communication network that links all with priority levels to ensure critical
the nodes connected to a bus and enables them to talk with one information is delivery quickly.
another. • meaning devices send messages to each
• There may or may not be a central control nodes, nodes may be other over the network without central
added or remove at any time ,even while the network is operating. controller.
• Each device can be a node on the network.

Before CAN After CAN

• With the use of CAN, point-to-point wiring is replaced by one serial bus connecting all control systems.
 Key Features of CAN:
Applications of CAN
Message-based protocol:
1.Automotive:
1. Engine control units  CAN transmits data in "messages" which contain information about
(ECUs). the sending device and the data itself, enabling multiple devices to
2. Transmission control. receive and process the information.
3. Body electronics (e.g., Priority-based arbitration:
lighting, windows).  In Ethernet ,you have CSMA/CD ,but CAN uses Priority-based
2.Industrial Automation: arbitration allowing critical messages to be transmitted first collision
1. PLC communication. issues.
2. Robotics and machinery  If multiple devices try to send data at the same time, the CAN protocol
control.
prioritizes the message with the highest priority(lowest identifier
3.Medical Devices:
1. Patient monitoring value) , ensuring critical messages is transmitted first.
systems. Fault Tolerance:
2. Diagnostic equipment.  CAN has built-in error detection mechanisms to ensure data integrity
4.Aerospace: and reliability even in noisy environments.
1. Avionics systems. High-Speed Communication:
2. Flight control systems.  CAN networks can transmit data at speeds up 1 Mbps or higher.
5.Embedded Systems: Multi-Master Configuration:
1. Home automation.  All nodes can send messages on the bus; there’s no designated master
2. IoT devices.
node
 Within a WLAN, the lack of well-defined boundaries
makes it impossible to detect if collisions occur
during transmission.
 Therefore, it is necessary to use an access method on a
wireless network that ensures collisions do not occur.
 Wireless technology uses an access method called
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
 It network protocol that helps prevent collisions when
multiple devices send data over a network.
 In this protocol ,each device first sense the channel
before sending the data.
 CSMA/CA creates a reservation on the channel for use
by a specific conversation.
 If a device requires use of a specific communication
channel in a BSS, it must ask permission from the AP.
 While a reservation is in place, no other device may
transmit on the channel thus possible collisions are
avoided.
 Local Interconnect Network (LIN)

• LIN (Local Interconnect Network) is a network protocol used for communication between
components in modern vehicles.
• Commonly used for non-critical functions such as controlling interior lighting, seat
adjustments, window actuators, or climate control systems within automobiles.
• But CAN was designed for high reliability and speed protocol (up to 1 Mbit/s) for the harsh
environment of the car electrical bus.
• It is a low-cost single-wire serial protocol that supports communications up to 19.2 Kbit/s
with a maximum bus length of 40 metres (131.2 ft).
• LIN operates on a master-slave configuration where one master node controls the
communication while slave nodes respond to the master's requests.
• LIN clusters consist of 1 master and up to 15 slave nodes
• Time triggered scheduling with guaranteed latency time.
• LIN supports error detection, checksums & configuration

• The LIN is an extension of the CAN data bus, exchanging digital

data between actuators or sensors and the corresponding control
units.
• Master-Slave Architecture: LIN operates on a master-slave
configuration where one master node controls the communication
while slave nodes respond to the master's requests.
 Example: LIN vs CAN window control

• LIN nodes are typically bundled in clusters, each with a master that
interfaces with the backbone CAN bus.
• Example: In a car's right seat you can roll down the left seat window.
• To do so, you press a button to send a message via one LIN cluster
to another LIN cluster via the CAN bus.
• This triggers the second LIN cluster to roll down the left seat window.

• LIN particularly useful when multiple LIN cluster are connected the CAN bus with vehicle.
• if the driver wants to roll down the passage window ,pushes a button on the driver door ,
this triggers one link cluster to send a message to another LIN cluster
via the CAN bus telling the second LIN cluster to roll down the passage window
similarly the driver could hit a button on the door .
• To lock all the vehicles doors the LIN cluster would again send messages to the CAN bus
which passes it along to other LIN clusters alerting them to the lock their door.
 LIN bus vs CAN bus

Local Interconnect Network (LIN) Controller Area Network (CAN)

1. LIN is a low-cost, single-wire network protocol designed 1. CAN is a robust vehicle bus standard designed to
for communication between microcontrollers in vehicles facilitate real-time communication among multiple
for windows, wipers, air condition etc.. microcontrollers without a host computer.
2. It is typically used for connecting simple devices (that do 2. It supports higher speed and complex networking
not require high-speed data transmission(single-Master) (Multi-Master prioritized messages) compared to
,low-speed data transmission.) LIN.

Frame Structure: Frame Structure:

• Each LIN message consists of an identifier (ID), • A CAN message consists of an identifier field (which
data length code, and up to 8 bytes of data. determines message priority), control bits, data field (up to 8
• The format includes synchronization fields that bytes), checksum for error detection(CRC), acknowledgment
help maintain time synchronization among nodes. bits from receivers, and end-of-frame bits.
•Error Detection Mechanisms: Employs several methods
such as CRC(cyclic Redundancy check), acknowledgment
• A LIN master typically serves as gateway to bits, and error flags to ensure data integrity.
the CAN bus.
• LIN is deterministic, not event driven (i.e. no • LIN bus is a supplement to CAN bus.
bus arbitration) • CAN uses twisted dual wires 5V vs LIN single wire 12V/24V
• LIN clusters have a single master controlling • CAN uses 11 or 29 bit identifiers vs 6 bit identifiers in LIN
communication • CAN offers up to 1 Mbit/s vs. LIN at max 20 kbit/s
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standard that allows devices to connect and
exchange data and power delivery between various devices.
• USB (Universal Serial Bus), is a type of computer port that can charge a device
and transfer data between two devices.

• USB is a plug and play interface that allows a computer to communicate with
peripheral and other devices.
• USB-connected devices cover a broad range; anything from keyboards and mice,
to music players and flash drives.

• USB may also be used to send power to certain devices, such as powering
smartphones and tablets and charging their batteries.

• There are several different types of USB ports.

Benefits USB is a low-cost connection, USB is easy to use, USB is compatible with
many devices, and USB supports rapid charging.
 USB Connector Types and Version

A USB may be classified based on a connector type, cable/port, and version/standard/color.

The USB cable/port is of six types: There are 6 types of USB port colors/standards:
1.USB Type-A 2.USB Type-B Version
3.Mini-USB 4.Micro A-USB The technology that allows data to be transferred along a cable
5.Micro B-USB 6.USB Type-C from one device to another.  USB 1.0/1.1
Examples:  USB 2.0
 USB 3.0,USB 3.1,USB 3.2
Types of USB Connector  USB 4.0

• The USB connector is the head present at the two ends USB Male Connector:
of the USB cable, have different shapes and sizes. • The Male connector is commonly known as the plug.
• There are two classes of USB connectors, i.e., a male • It is the plug that goes inside the socket.
connector and a female connector. • Used to plug into the USB output port on a device.
• A male part will plug into a female counterpart.

USB Female Port:

• Located on devices such as computers, peripherals, and USB extension cables.
• The Female connector is commonly known as a port or jack.
• It is a hollow socket in which a Male connector can be inserted.
• Used to receive data or power transmitted from the male USB connector.
 Type USB-A

 USB-A is also called USB Type A (officially called Standard-A connector).

 It’s a rectangular shape and can only be inserted one way round.

 They are used in any computer-like device like video game consoles, audio systems,
DVRs, DVDs, Blu-rays, etc.
 These are found at one end of various USB cables that connect the host to a receiver
device.
 They are also found at the end of cables hard-wired to USB devices like USB keyboards, a
mouse, joystick, etc
• USB Type-A plug-ins are used for small devices that don’t need cable, like a flash drive.

• It is generally used to plug into the computer.

 USB Type-B
• USB-B is an old connector, which is built for the use of USB peripheral devices such as smartphones,
printers, hard drives, etc.
• Like USB-A, these are also supported in every Universal Serial Bus version.
• These are square-shaped and usually have either a large square protrusion or a slight rounding at the
top.
• often used to plug into printers and scanners.
• Used to connect printer and external hard drivers to computers.
Mini-USB
• Released in 2000, the mini USB connector is typically
found on devices like digital cameras for charging.
• It is an ideal connection type for old model phones.

• Mini USB A and B are the significantly smaller

versions of Type A and B connectors.
• They are used in smaller devices for conserving space
like game controllers, mobile phones, portable
cameras, etc.
• They come in the variant of four pins and five pins
and are only available at USB 1.1 and 2.0 speeds.

• Mini-USB has largely been replaced by Micro-USB

and USB-C cables on newer devices( e.g., older
cameras).
 Micro-USB

• Micro-USB, announced in 2007, A reduced version of

the USB ,was designed to replace min-USB.

• The connector size for the type Micro-A and Micro-B is

6.85 x 1.8 mm, used for minimizing space in devices.

• It’s a small port found on many mobile devices including

mobile phones and tablets.

• It can support USB 2.0 and 3.0.

• Micro USB and normal USB versions are both plug-and-
play and hot-swappable is still widely used with
electronic devices.
 USB C
.
• USB C is a new standard, which combines power
and data delivery with display connectivity.
• There are many devices like smartphones and
smartwatches that use Type C USB for charging
and connecting.
• Apple’s MacBook and some Chromebook
versions also use USB-C connections. It is also
used in headphones, instead of jacks.

• The form factor of USB C is small, oblong and

reversible so that it can be plugged in either way.

• In contrast to traditional USB connections, USB-C

cables can be connected into devices in either
direction, including upside down.

• A reversible connector that can be used for

charging ,data transfer and video output.
USB Type Number of Pins Shape Used in
Type A 4 Flat and rectangular Computers, tablets,
television sets, flash
drives, keyboards
Type B 4 Square Printers, Scanners
Type C 24 Symmetrical oblong Smartphones, headphones

Mini A&B 5 Advil shaped(roughly) Digital camera, computer

peripherals
Micro A&B 5 Rounded top and a flat Smartphones, computer
bottom peripherals, video game
controllers
Lightning 8 Chip- like flat Apple’s devices
Cable
Lightning Connector
The lightning connector is exclusive to
modern Apple devices and can be used to
connect keyboards, headphones and
chargers to iPhones, iPads and desktop
Mac computers.
Completely reversible for connectivity
convenience, the lightning connector
cable is essential for state-of-the-art Mac
devices and accessories.
There are also adapters available to
convert lightning connectors to more
conventional USB ports.
 USB Standards: USB 1.0, USB 2.0, USB 3.x

 Moving beyond connectors, it’s vital to grasp the distinctions among various USB standards.
 In essence, these standards define how data moves between your devices—a kind of rulebook, if you will.

•Data Transfer rates

There have been 3 generations • USB 1.1: Up to 12 Mbps and is capable of supporting up to 127 peripheral
of USB specifications: devices.
•USB 1.x • USB 2.0: Up to 480 Mbps
•USB 2.0 • USB 3.0/3.1/.2: Up to several Gbps (5 Gbps for USB 3.0; up to 20 Gbps
•USB 3.x for USB 3.2)
• USB4: Supports speeds up to approximately 40 Gbps

Are USB Ports Colour Coded?

• A common way to identify the USB version is to see what colour the inner plastic part of the
connection is.
• White indicates USB 1.0, black USB 2.0, and a blue USB port is USB 3.0.
  The USB 1.1 comes with a white port.
 It has two pins and the cable length is 3-5 meters.
 USB 1.0/1.1 supports only one-way data transfer.

 USB 2.0 has two pins and supports one-way communication only.
 USB 2.0 comes with a black port with a maximum 5m cable
length.
 Mini A and B USB types were launched in the USB 2.0 version.

 USB 3.0 is suitable for bi-directional data transfer.

 The port is blue and the cable length in this version is reduced to 3m since longer
cables reduce the performance.
 It had a transfer speed of 5 gigabits per second
 The first-generation USB 3.1 comes in a teal blue
color and supports a 10Gbps data rate.
 The cable length is maintained at 3m.
 Introduced in 2014
 Different types of USB port standards and their color coding

 Apart from their different

physical features, the USB
ports vary in functionality and
data transfer speed.

 USB ports come in 6 different

USB Standards.

 And all these standards are of

different port colors.

 This helps us identify the right

one out of the set of ports
available in a host.
 White: These are usually the USB-A or USB-B or
Micro USB-A with 1.0 specification.
 Black: Black is usually the USB 2.0 Type A, B, or
Micro USB-B.
 Blue: It indicates superspeed USB 3.0 Type A or B.
 Teal: It is Type A or B USB 3.1 Gen 1.
 Red: Red is the Sleep-and-Charge USB-A 3.1 Gen2
and 3.2. Usually, it denotes an always-on port.
 Yellow: It is yet another color for Sleep-and-Charge
USB-A but for specifications 2.0 or 3.0.
 Orange: Orange is Sleep-and-Charge USB-A as
well but for 3.0 specifications. It is sometimes
charging only cable.
Here is the difference table for your reference:

Maximum Data Transfer Recommended Cable

USB Type Connector Types
Speed length
USB 1.0 USB-A&B 12 Mbps 3m
USB 2.0 USB-A,B,C, Micro A, Micro B, 480 Mbps 5m
Mini A, & Mini B

USB 3.0 USB-A,B,C, & Micro B 5 Gbps 3m

USB 3.1 USB-A,B,C, & Micro B 5 Gbps 3m

Gen 1 USB-A,B,C, & Micro B 10 Gbps 3m
Gen 2

USB3.2 USB-C 20 Gbps 3m

USB 4.0 USB-C 40 Gbps 0.8m
 Ethernet
 Ethernet is a standard for connecting device by cables to network.
 Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in a LAN.
 Ethernet is one of the best network connecting options.

 Ethernet is a communication technology developed in the 1970s by Xerox that links computers in a
network via a wired connection.
 It connects local area network (LAN) and WAN systems.
 With LAN and WAN, several devices, such as printers and laptops, may be connected across
buildings, residences, and even small communities.

 Ethernet is a networking technology that including the protocol ,port ,cable and computer chip
needed to plug a desktop or laptop into LAN for speedy data transmission via coaxial or fiber
optics or twisted pair cables.
 Ethernet uses physical cables to establish a wired connection between devices.
 For example, if you plug your desktop computer to laptop into a router at home or work ,you use
Ethernet to connect to the network.
 Ethernet: A technology that connects wired local area networks (LANs) and enables the devices to
communicate with each other through a protocol which is the common network language.
 Key components of an Ethernet connection
An Ethernet connection encompasses the following:
•The Ethernet protocol: It is a series of standards that governs how data is sent between Ethernet components.
•The Ethernet port:
 Ethernet ports (commonly known as jacks or sockets) are openings on computer network infrastructure into
which one may plug in Ethernet cables.
 It supports cables with RJ-45 connectors.
 The Ethernet port of a computer is linked to an Ethernet network adapter, also known as an Ethernet card,
mounted on the motherboard.
 A router may contain numerous Ethernet ports to support various wired network devices.

•Ethernet network adapter:

•An Ethernet adapter is a chip or card that fits into a slot on the motherboard and allows a computer to
connect to a LAN. In the past, these were always used with desktop computers.
•Ethernet is now integrated into the chipsets of laptop and desktop motherboards.
•A network card, also known as network adapter , NIC is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow
computers to communicate over a computer network.

•An Ethernet cable:

 Ethernet cable, often known as a network cable, links your computer to a modem, router, or network switch.
 The Ethernet cable consists of the RJ45 connection, the internal cabling, and a plastic jack
 Ethernet Cable
• Ethernet cable is the backbone of the network cabling, connecting various devices such as computers,
routers, TVs, tablets, or even PlayStations.
• all network data is transmitted through the Ethernet cable.
• Take a look at your router and you’ll find Ethernet ports for RJ45 plugs.
• RJ45 plugs are usually terminated at the end of Ethernet cables .
• They are used for connecting laptop or desktop PC TO a router ,modem, internet hub or printer or for
connecting any other wired network capable peripherals together.

 Ethernet ports: physical sockets on devices that Ethernet cables plug into.
 Ethernet jacks: Wall sockets that allow you to plug into an Ethernet network.
Ethernet Cables Structure
 You may be familiar with the outer appearance of Ethernet cables, but do you know the inner
structure of Ethernet cables?
 Ethernet cables come in different lengths, types, and categories, and the structure can differ.
 But all of them feature eight wires twisted into four pairs and a rip cord.
 Inside the cable, there are 8 color coded wires.
 Wires are twisted into 4 pairs of wires, each pair has a common color theme.
 One wire in the pair being a solid or primarily solid colored wire and the other being a primarily white
wire with a colored stripe.
 RJ45 Connector
• The "RJ" in RJ45 stands for "registered jack," since it is a standardized networking
interface.
• Different types of RJ are available, including RJ11, RJ45, RJ48, RJ61 etc.
• These jacks are generally used for Ethernet Networking.
• RJ45 stands for Registered Jack 45 and is the most commonly used connector in wired
networks. The "45" simply refers to the number of the interface standard.
• The 45 in RJ45 basically stands for the listing number.

• The jacks are mainly used to connect to the LAN.

• Jacks are the wall sockets that allow you to plug an Ethernet network.

• Ports are the physical socket on devices that Ethernet cables plug into
using a standard RJ45 connector.

• An RJ45 cable is primarily used to connect devices to the internet by providing a wired
connection through an Ethernet network,
• essentially acting as the physical cable that allows you to access the internet via a router or
modem to your computer or other devices like a smart TV or gaming console.
  An RJ45 cable, also commonly called an "Ethernet cable," is used to connect a
computer to the internet by plugging one end into the router (which is connected to
the internet service provider) and the other end into the Ethernet port on your
computer, essentially providing a wired connection to access the internet.
Key points about RJ45 cables:
 Function:
• Primarily used for connecting devices within a Local Area Network (LAN) to facilitate internet access, file
sharing, and other network communications, allowing them to communicate with each other over a wired
connection.
 Connector type:
• The "RJ45" refers to the specific connector type used on the cable ends.
• The RJ45 connector is the standard plug used on Ethernet cables, fitting into dedicated Ethernet ports on
devices like computers, routers, and switches.
 Common usage:
• Connecting a computer to a router, modem, or other network devices with an Ethernet port.
• Compared to Wi-Fi, using an RJ45 cable can provide a more stable and faster internet connection due to its
direct wired connection. Uses of RJ 45 Connector
• In system to connect with network.
• Connection of system with a hub or router.
• Used for transmits digital signals between devices.
Structure of RJ45 cable
• The colours of RJ45 wiring include
• RJ45 has a transparent plastic structure and is an 8-pin connector.
• Green / Green-white,
• It is an 8P8C connector and the number of wires that can be connected is 8.
• Orange / Orange-white,
• Blue / Blue-white
• The classification of RJ45 is done based on the wiring. Some of them
• Brown / Brown-white
include Cat 5e, Cat 6, and Cat 7.
• A RJ45 connector is a modular 8 position, 8 pin connector used for
terminating Cat5e patch cable or Cat6 twisted pair cable.

• If we take a close look at the end of the Ethernet cable connected

to the RJ45 we can see the 8 wires out of which 4 wires are solid
coloured and 4 are strip coloured.

•RJ45 Male :-
•It is commonly called as RJ45 connector .
•It is plugged with the network port of system
•RJ45 Female :-
• It is a port in which RJ45 connector is plugged in.
•It is also called a network port.
 Color-Coding of the Wires in the Connectors
•RJ45 Pinout
Pin T568B T568A
• A Pinout is a specific arrangement of wires that dictate how the
white with
connector is terminated. white with green
1 orange
• RJ45 Pinout can be wired in two different ways. stripe
stripe
• The first is the T-568A wiring standard and the second is T-568B .
• The main difference between T568A and T568B is the color order of 2 orange green
green and orange pairs.
• In RJ45 T-568 A the green color wiring comes before orange wiring and white with white with orange
in the case of RJ45 T-568 B orange wiring comes before green wiring. 3
green stripe stripe
• Another difference between the two is RJ45 T568 A provides backward
compatibility with the old wirings whereas RJ45 T568B offers more
4 blue blue
resistance to noises in the signals.
white with
5 white with blue stripe
blue stripe

6 green orange

white with white with brown

7
brown stripe stripe

8 brown brown
 Ethernet Cable Wiring

• Ethernet cables also come in two forms according to different

wiring standards.
• Crossover cable has T568A at one end and T568B at the other end,
while straight-through cable has a single wiring standard with
T568A or T568B on both ends.

• The T568A Straight Through cable diagram, both ends use

T568A

Ethernet Cable Pin outs:

Ethernet cables can be wired as straight through
or crossover.
A straight through cable
• used for connecting your computer to
your network.
A cross over cable
• used to operate in a peer-to-peer fashion
without a hub/switch.
 Straight Through Cable

 A "Straight Through" cable is primarily used to connect different types of network devices,
 like a computer to a router, a computer to a switch, or a router to a switch,
 essentially linking devices that operate at different network layers;
 making it the most common type of Ethernet cable used for typical network
connections.

Key points about Straight Through cables:

 Connecting dissimilar devices:
 The key feature is that the wire arrangement on both
ends of the cable is identical, allowing it to connect
devices that are not the same type, unlike a crossover
cable which connects similar devices.
 Common use cases:
 Connecting a computer to a router, a computer to a
switch, a printer to a network switch.
 Wiring standard:
 Follows the T568A or T568B wiring standard, where
each wire on one end is connected to the corresponding
wire on the other end.
Straight Through Cable
 Straight Through Cable
The T-568B Straight Through cable diagram, both ends use T-568B:

What Is Straight Through Cable?

• A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair
cable that is used in local area networks to
connect a computer to a network hub such as
a router.

• This type of cable is also sometimes called a

patch cable and is an alternative to wireless
connections where one or more computers
access a router through a wireless signal.

• On a straight through cable, the wired pins

match.
• Straight through cable use one wiring
standard: both ends use T568A wiring
standard or both ends use T568B wiring
standard.
 crossover Ethernet cable
• What Is Crossover Cable?
• Crossover cables are found primarily on connections between similar devices
like two computers or two switches.
• Unlike straight through cable, the RJ45 crossover cable uses two different
wiring standards: one end uses the T568A wiring standard, and the other end
uses the T568B wiring standard.
• The internal wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses the transmit and
receive signals.
•
 Crossover Cable
Cross Over Pinout
• A crossover cable utilizes two different RJ45 pinouts for the two ends of the cable.
• A crossover cable uses T568A wire color scheme on one end of the cable and T568B wire color
scheme of the other end.
• You can use crossover cable if you need to connect two of the same devices, for example;
computer to computer.
• If you need to connect 568A equipment to 568B you can use a crossover cable.
 Crossover Cable

 A crossover cable uses T568A wiring on one end and T568B wiring on the other end,
 allowing for a direct connection between two similar devices like two computers or two
switches without the need for a switch or hub;
 essentially, it's used to connect devices of the same type directly to each other.

Key points about crossover cables

Function:
 Crossover cables "cross" the transmit and receive
pairs on the cable, enabling communication
between two devices with similar functions.
 Wiring configuration:
 One end of the cable uses the T568A wiring
standard while the other end uses the T568B
standard.
 Applications:
 Commonly used to connect two computers
directly, connect two switches together, or other
similar device-to-device connections.
 Straight Through vs Crossover Cable
Difference Between Straight Through Cable and Crossover Cable

• A straight-through cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect different types of devices within a
network.
• Straight-through cables work well with the flow of data between the two dissimilar connections, on the
other hand, crossover cables work with similar connectors.
• When connecting between two dissimilar devices, for example, from the computer to the router, a straight-
through cable will be needed.
• A crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to connect similar devices directly to each other without
needing an intermediate network device like a switch or hub.
• A difference between straight-through and crossover cables is that the order of the wires differs at each end
of the cable.
• There are no left or right constrictions on the straight-through cable, as both ends have the same wiring
signals, so the wires correspond to the same pins at the other end, too.
• One easy way to tell what you have is to look at the order of the colored wires inside the RJ45 connector.
• If the order of the wires is the same on both ends, then you have a straight through cable.
• If not, then it’s most likely a crossover cable or was wired wrong.
 Straight Through vs Crossover Cable

Use straight through Ethernet cable for

the following cabling:
• Used to link computer to devices.
• Switch to router
• Switch to PC or server
• Hub to PC or server

Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

• Used to link two computers together.
• Switch to so witch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router
• Router Ethernet port to PC NIC
• PC to PC
 Straight Through vs Crossover Cable

Features of Crossover Cable

•Device-to-Device Connection: Mostly used in direct
Features of Straight-Through Cable connectivity between composites of similar types like two
•Direct Connection: Links devices of different computers or two switches.
•Pin Configuration: Pins connected on two ends with
categories for instance a computer with a switch or a
different arrangements for example T568 A on one end and
router, Computer-to-Device connection. T568B on the other end.
•Standard Ethernet Cable: It is particularly used in •Transmit/Receive Swapping: Exchange the two ports'
Ethernet networks for data transmission purposes. T/R signal between the two ends.
•Color Code Consistency: The endings of the electrodes •Specific Purpose: Typically employed in scenarios where
have identical sequences in terms of the color codes devices must be able to interface without requiring a hub
applied to the wires. or switch.
•Common Usage: Sometimes used in home and office •Colour Code Variation: In a crossover, some wires at
networks for sharing devices among the nodes and link each end have colour-coded sequences different from the
other end.
points.
 Difference Between Straight Through and Crossover Cable

Parameters Straight through Cable Crossover cable

Usage Connects different devices (e.g., computer to router). Connects similar devices directly (e.g., computer to computer).

Wiring The same wiring sequence on both ends. Different wiring sequences on each end.

Pins on one end match with corresponding pins on the

Pin Configuration Pins on one end cross over with corresponding pins on the other end.
other end.

Transmit/Receive Lines Transmit and receive lines remain straight. Transmit and receive lines are crossed over.

Commonly used for connections between computers and Used for direct connections between similar devices such as computers or
Devices Connected
networking devices. switches.

Used for standard Ethernet connections (e.g.,

Ethernet Standards Used for specialized scenarios or older Ethernet standards.
10/100/1000BASE-T).

Typically requires Auto MDI-X support in devices to Bypasses the need for Auto MDI-X support as it manually swaps transmit
Auto MDI-X Support
auto-negotiate connection. and receive lines.

Primarily utilized in network troubleshooting or connecting network devices

Application Commonly employed in home and office networks.
without an intermediary.

Common Color Coding Typically follows the TIA/EIA-568B standard. Often follows the TIA/EIA-568A standard.

Configuration Complexity Simple to use as it requires no adjustments. Requires careful consideration and configuration based on device types.

Widely available and commonly used in networking Less common and often found in specialized cable kits or custom-made
Availability
hardware. cables.
  RJ45 cable testers allow you to guarantee that you did the job
correctly!.
 They have two place that separate from each other ,and you plug
each end of your crimped Ethernet cable into the port on each piece
.Then you turn it on and the cable tester will test the connection for
all 8 pins.
 If there are any missing lights on any of the pin, it means that you
missed up somewhere and have to restart!.

 Slide the two pieces of the tester apart and plug each of the cable ends
into either piece. Turn the switch to “On” or “Slow” .
 It it’s working, all 8 numbers should be flashing green.
 If any of then are not showing green, it means something is wrong and
you have to redo it!
 The RJ45 connector can’t be reused once it’s crimped, so you should just
cut the end off and start again.
 If everything is green ,then you’re done if you had a cable boot, you can
push the boots onto the RJ45 connector now.