Chapter Two

2. Traffic Systems and Their Characteristics

The four main components of the highway mode of transportation are the driver, the pedestrian,
the vehicle, and the road. The bicycle is also becoming an important component in the design of
urban highways and streets. To provide efficient and safe highway transportation, a knowledge
of the characteristics and limitations of each of these components is essential. It is also important
to be aware of the interrelationships that exist among these components in order to determine the
effects, if any, that they have on each other. Their characteristics are also of primary importance
when traffic engineering measures such as traffic control devices are to be used in the highway
mode. Knowing average limitations may not always be adequate; it may be necessary to
sometimes obtain information on the full range of limitations.

2.1 Driver Characteristics

One problem that faces traffic and transportation engineers when they consider driver
characteristics in the course of design is the varying skills and perceptual abilities of drivers on
the highway, demonstrated by a wide range of abilities to hear, see, evaluate, and react to
information.

Studies have shown that these abilities may also vary in an individual under different conditions,
such as the influence of alcohol, fatigue, and the time of day. Therefore, it is important that
criteria used for design purposes be compatible with the capabilities and limitations of most
drivers on the highway. The use of an average value, such as mean reaction time, may not be
adequate for a large number of drivers. Both the 85th percentile and the 95th percentile have
been used to select design criteria; in general, the higher the chosen percentile, the wider the
range covered.

2.1.1 The Human Response Process

Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their evaluation of and reaction to information
they obtain from certain stimuli that they see or hear. However, perception and reaction must be
carried out within a very short time, as the information being received along the highways is
continually changing. It has been suggested that most of the information received by a driver is
visual, implying that the ability to see is of fundamental importance in the driving task. It is
therefore important that highway and traffic engineers have some fundamental knowledge of
visual perception as well as of hearing perception.

Visual Reception
The principal characteristics of the eye are visual acuity, peripheral vision, color vision, glare
vision and recovery, and depth perception.

Visual Acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to see fine details of an object. It can be represented by
the visual angle, which is the reciprocal of the smallest pattern detail in minutes of arc that can
be resolved and given as:

Two types of visual acuity are of importance in traffic and highway emergencies: static and
dynamic visual acuity.

1. Static visual acuity.

The driver’s ability to identify an object when both the object and the driver are stationary
depends on his or her static acuity. Factors that affect static acuity include background
brightness, contrast, and time. Static acuity increases with an increase in illumination.
When other visual factors are held constant at an acceptable level, the optimal time required for
identification of an object with no relative movement is between 0.5 and 1.0 seconds

2. Dynamic visual acuity.

The driver’s ability to clearly detect relatively moving objects, not necessarily in his or her direct
line of vision, depends on the driver’s dynamic visual acuity. Most people have clear vision
within a conical angle of 3 to 5 degrees and fairly clear vision within a conical angle of 10 to 12
degrees. Vision beyond this range is usually blurred. This is important when the location of
traffic information devices is considered. Drivers will see clearly those devices that are within
the 12 degree cone, but objects outside this cone will be blurred.

Peripheral Vision: Peripheral vision is the ability of people to see objects beyond the cone of
clearest vision. Although objects can be seen within this zone, details and color are not clear. The
cone for peripheral vision could be one subtending up to 160 degrees; this value is affected by
the speed of the vehicle. Age also influences peripheral vision. For instance, at about age 60, a
significant change occurs in a person’s peripheral vision.

Color Vision. Color vision is the ability to differentiate one color from another, but deficiency in
this ability, usually referred to as color blindness, is not of great significance in highway driving
because other ways of recognizing traffic information devices (e.g., shape) can compensate for it.
Combinations of black and white and black and yellow have been shown to be those to which the
eye is most sensitive.

Glare Vision and Recovery. There are two types of glare vision: direct and specular. Rowland
and others have indicated that direct glare occurs when relatively bright light appears in the
individual’s field of vision and specular glare occurs when the image reflected by the relatively
bright light appears in the field of vision. Both types of glare result in a decrease of visibility and
cause discomfort to the eyes. It is also known that age has a significant effect on the sensitivity to
glare, and that at about age 40, a significant change occurs in a person’s sensitivity to glare. The
time required by a person to recover from the effects of glare after passing the light source is
known as glare recovery. Studies have shown that this time is about 3 seconds when moving
from dark to light and can be 6 seconds or more when moving from light to dark. Glare vision is
of great importance during night driving; it contributes to the problem of serving older people,
who see much more poorly at night. This phenomenon should be taken into account in the design
and location of street lighting so that glare effects are reduced to a minimum. Glare effects can
be minimized by reducing luminaire brightness and by increasing the background brightness in a
driver’s field of view. Specific actions taken to achieve this in lighting design include using
higher mounting heights, positioning lighting supports farther away from the highway, and
restricting the light from the luminaire to obtain minimum interference with the visibility of the
driver.

Depth Perception. Depth perception affects the ability of a person to estimate speed and
distance. It is particularly important on two-lane highways during passing maneuvers, when
head-on crashes may result from a lack of proper judgment of speed and distance. The ability of
the human eye to differentiate between objects is fundamental to this phenomenon. It should be
noted, however, that the human eye is not very good at estimating absolute values of speed,
distance, size, and acceleration. This is why traffic control devices are standard in size, shape,
and color. Standardization not only aids in distance estimation but also helps the color-blind
driver to identify signs.

Hearing Perception
The ear receives sound stimuli, which is important to drivers only when warning sounds, usually
given out by emergency vehicles, are to be detected. Loss of some hearing ability is not a serious
problem, since it normally can be corrected by a hearing aid.

2.1.2 PERCEPTION-REACTION PROCESS

The process through which a driver, cyclist, or pedestrian evaluates and reacts to a stimulus can
be divided into four sub processes:
1. Perception: the driver sees a control device, warning sign, or object on the road
 2. Identification: the driver identifies the object or control device and thus understands
the stimulus
3. Emotion: the driver decides what action to take in response to the stimulus; for
example, to step on the brake pedal, to pass, to swerve, or to change lanes
4. Reaction or volition: the driver actually executes the action decided on during the
emotion sub-process
Time elapses during each of these sub processes. The time that elapses from the start of
perception to the end of reaction is the total time required for perception, identification, emotion,
and volition, sometimes referred to as PIEV time or (more commonly) as perception-reaction
time.

Perception-reaction time is an important factor in the determination of braking distances, which

in turn dictates the minimum sight distance required on a highway and the length of the yellow
phase at a signalized intersection. Perception-reaction time varies among individuals and may, in
fact, vary for the same person as the occasion changes. These changes in perception-reaction
time depend on how complicated the situation is, the existing environmental conditions, age,
whether the person is tired or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol, and whether the
stimulus is expected or unexpected.

The reaction time selected for design purposes should, however, be large enough to include
reaction times for most drivers using the highways. Recommendations made by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) stipulate 2.5 seconds for
stopping-sight distances. This encompasses the decision times for about 90 percent of drivers
under most highway conditions. Note, however, that a reaction time of 2.5 second may not be
adequate for unexpected conditions or for some very complex conditions, such as those at
multiphase at-grade intersections and ramp terminals. For example, when signals are unexpected,
reaction times can increase by 35 percent.

Example: Distance Traveled During Perception-Reaction Time

A driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec is driving at 65 mi/h when she observes that
an accident has blocked the road ahead. Determine the distance the vehicle would move before
the driver could activate the brakes. The vehicle will continue to move at 65 mi/h during the
perception-reaction time of 2.5 sec.

2.2 PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Pedestrian characteristics relevant to traffic and highway engineering practice include those of
the driver, discussed in the preceding sections.

In addition, other pedestrian characteristics may influence the design and location of pedestrian
control devices. Such control devices include special pedestrian signals, safety zones and islands
at intersections, pedestrian underpasses, elevated walkways, and crosswalks.

Apart from visual and hearing characteristics, walking characteristics play a major part in the
design of some of these controls. For example, the design of an all-red phase, which permits
pedestrians to cross an intersection with heavy traffic, requires knowledge of the walking speeds
of pedestrians.

2.3 VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

Criteria for the geometric design of highways are partly based on the static, kinematic, and
dynamic characteristics of vehicles.

Static characteristics include the weight and size of the vehicle, while kinematic characteristics
involve the motion of the vehicle without considering the forces that cause the motion. Dynamic
characteristics involve the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle.

Since nearly all highways carry both passenger-automobile and truck traffic, it is essential that
design criteria take into account the characteristics of different types of vehicles. A thorough
knowledge of these characteristics will aid the highway and/or traffic engineer in designing
highways and traffic-control systems that allow the safe and smooth operation of a moving
vehicle, particularly during the basic maneuvers of passing, stopping, and turning.

Therefore, designing a highway involves the selection of a design vehicle, whose characteristics
will encompass those of nearly all vehicles expected to use the highway. The characteristics of
the design vehicle are then used to determine criteria for geometric design, intersection design,
and sight-distance requirements.

1. Static Characteristics

The size of the design vehicle for a highway is an important factor in the determination of design
standards for several physical components of the highway. These include lane width, shoulder
width, length and width of parking bays, and lengths of vertical curves. The axle weights of the
vehicles expected on the highway are important when pavement depths and maximum grades are
being determined.
For many years, each state prescribed by law the size and weight limits for trucks using its
highways, and in some cases local authorities also imposed more severe restrictions on some
roads. Table below shows some features of static characteristics for which limits were
prescribed. A range of maximum allowable values is given for each feature.
As stated earlier, the static characteristics of vehicles expected to use the highway are factors that
influence the selection of design criteria for the highway. It is therefore necessary that all
vehicles be classified so that representative static characteristics for all vehicles within a
particular class can be provided for design purposes.
AASHTO has selected four general classes of vehicles: passenger cars, buses, trucks, and
recreational vehicles.
 Passenger-car class: are sport /utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and pick-up trucks.
 Bus class are intercity motor coaches and city transit, school, and articulated buses.
 Trucks are single-unit trucks, truck tractor-semitrailer combinations, and trucks or
truck tractors with semitrailers in combination with full trailers.
 Recreational vehicles are motor homes, cars with camper trailers, cars with boat
trailers, and motor homes pulling cars. A total of 19 different design vehicles have
been selected to represent the different categories of vehicles within all four classes.
AASHTO also has suggested the following guidelines for selecting a design vehicle:
 For a parking lot or series of parking lots, a passenger car may be used
 For intersections on residential streets and park roads, a single-unit truck could be
considered
  For the design of intersections of state highways and city streets that serve bus traffic but
with relatively few large trucks, a city transit bus may be used

2. Kinematic Characteristics

The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the acceleration capability of the
vehicle. Acceleration capability is important in several traffic operations, such as passing
maneuvers and gap acceptance. Also, the dimensioning of highway features such as freeway
ramps and passing lanes is often governed by acceleration rates. Acceleration is also important in
determining the forces that cause motion. Therefore, a study of the kinematic characteristics of
the vehicle primarily involves a study of how acceleration rates influence the elements of
motion, such as velocity and distance.

3. Dynamic Characteristics

Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion: air resistance, grade resistance, rolling
resistance, and curve resistance. The extents to which these forces affect the vehicle are
discussed in this section.

Fig 2.1; Forces Acting on a Moving Vehicle

Air Resistance
A vehicle in motion has to overcome the resistance of the air in front of it as well as the force
due to the frictional action of the air around it. The force required to overcome these is known as
the air resistance and is related to the cross-sectional area of the vehicle in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the square of the speed of the vehicle. This force
can be estimated from the formula:

Fa= ½(ƍCdAV2)
Where:
Fa= Air resistance (N)
Cd= aerodynamic drag coefficient
A= frontal cross sectional area (m2)
V= vehicle speed (m/s)
ƍ= air density (1.227kg/m3)

Grade Resistance

When a vehicle moves up a grade, a component of the weight of the vehicle acts downward,
along the plane of the highway. This creates a force acting in a direction opposite that of the
motion. This force is the grade resistance.
Note: grade resistance = weight * grade (in decimal point)

± Fg = mig
100
Where:
Fg= Additional force to move the vehicle up in the incline (N)
m= mass of vehicle (Kg)
i= slope of incline
g= acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/s2
Rolling Resistance

There are forces within the vehicle itself that offer resistance to motion. These forces are due
mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of the vehicle, but they also include the frictional slip
between the pavement surface and the tires. The sum effect of these forces on motion is known
as rolling resistance. The rolling resistance depends on the speed of the vehicle and the type of
pavement. Rolling forces are relatively lower on smooth pavements than on rough pavements.

Fr = mfg

Where:
Fr= Rolling Resistance in N
m= mass of the vehicle in Kg
f= Coefficient of rolling resistance (based on the pavement type)
g= acceleration due to gravity in m/2

Curve Resistance

When a passenger car is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the front wheels of
the vehicle. These forces have components that have a retarding effect on the forward motion of
the vehicle. The sum effect of these components constitutes the curve resistance. This resistance
depends on the radius of the curve, the gross weight of the vehicle, and the velocity at which the
vehicle is moving. It can be determined as

Rc= 0.5(0.077m*v2)
R*g
Where:
Rc= Curve resistance (Kg)
m= vehicle mass(kg)
V= vehicle speed (Km/hr)
g= Accelerartion of gravity(9.81m/s2)
 R= Radius of curvature (m)

Inertial Resistance:

It is the force required by a vehicle to overcome the tendency to remain at rest or remain in
motion in straight line.

Where:
Fi= force to accelerate in N
m=mass of vehicle in Kg
a= average acceleration of the vehicle in m/s2
The value of Fi will be +ve if the vehicle is to accelerate and –ve for decelerate.

Power Requirements

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is usually expressed in horsepower. The performance
capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of the horsepower the engine can produce to
overcome air, grade, curve, and friction resistance forces and put the vehicle in motion. The
power delivered by the engine is;

Where:
P = the horsepower delivered
R = the sum of resistance to motion in Kg
V = the speed of vehicle in Km/hr

Exercise
Determine the horsepower produced by a passenger car travelling at a speed of 105 km/hr and
acceleration of 1.8 m/s2 on a straight road of 5% upgrade with a smooth pavement. Assume the
weight of the car is 1800 kg and the frontal cross sectional area is 3.8 m 2. (Take the aerodynamic
drag coefficient 0.4 and coefficient of rolling factor 0.02)