3.

Data Collection, Sampling & Data

Analysis

Contents:
• Data collection

• Sampling

• Data processing and analysis

2
 Data Collection
What is Data?
• Data is a collection of facts, such as values or
measurements.
– It can be numbers, words, measurements, observations
or even just descriptions of things.
Data can be qualitative or quantitative.
• Qualitative data is descriptive information (it
describes something)
• Quantitative data, is numerical information
(numbers).
 Data Collection

Quantitative data can also

be Discrete or
Continuous:
• Discrete data can only
take certain values (like
whole numbers)
• Continuous data can
take any value (within a
range)
 Data Collection

• With your eyes and ears you get data (or

information) and with these data you can
answer your questions and support (or not)
the claims you made at the beginning of your
research.
• When data are used in support of a
proposition in this way they become evidence.
―Evidence is very important in research‖

4
 Data Collection

Precautions in Data Collection

In the data collection the following precautions should
be observed:
The data must be relevant to the research
problem.
The data should be complete in itself and also
comprehensive in nature.
The data should have minimum measurement
error.
The data should be such as these can be subjected
to statistical treatment easily.
5
 Data Collection

Precautions in Data Collection

The data should be collected through

objective procedure.
 The data should be accurate and precise.
 The data should be reliable and valid.
 The data should be such that these can be
presented and interpreted easily.
It should be collected through formal or
standardized research tools.
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Data collection tools /instruments

??
?
7
 Data Collection

• The scientific researches require the data by means of

some standardized research tools or self-designed
instrument.
– Many of the tools of research have been designed to
yield quantitative measures. Others yield description
that may be refined by counts of frequency of
appearance.
• A great variety of research tools are of many kinds
and employs distinctive ways of describing and
qualifying the data.

• Questionnaires are one of the most frequently used

self-designed research tools in basic and/or applied
research
8
 self-designed instrument
Questionnaires
 Designing questionnaire

 The questionnaire can be used in different

kinds of design frame.
 It can be tightly structured, but can also allow the
opportunity for a more open-ended response if
required.

9
 Questionnaires
 Steps in designing questionnaire:

Step 1: Content -
Take your objectives and variables as a
starting point.
Step 2: Formulating questions -
Formulate one or more questions that will
provide the information needed for each
variable.
 Questions should: be specific, measure one thing
at a time, and not be leading.

10
 Questionnaires

Step 3: Sequencing the questions -

Design your questionnaire to be ‘informant
friendly’.
Follow logical sequence
Start with an interesting but non-controversial
question
Pose more sensitive questions as late as
possible in the interview

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 Questionnaires

Step 4: Formatting the questionnaire -

introductory page

heading and subheadings

space for responses

Step 5: Translation -
translated and retranslate
12
 Questionnaires

Step 6: Ethical considerations -

obtaining informed consent before the study
or the interview begins;
ensuring the confidentiality of the data
obtained
learning enough about the culture of
informants to ensure it is respected during the
data collection process

13
 Questionnaires

• Step 7: Pre-test -refers to a small-scale trial

of particular research components:
– data-collection tools
• clarity of language, acceptability of questions, accuracy
of translation, time needed to administer the
questionnaire, need to pre-categorize some answers,
need for additional instructions
– Availability and willingness of respondents
– Sampling procedures
– Procedures for data processing and analysis

14
 Questionnaires

Two questionnaire rules

Bear in mind these rules when drafting your

questionnaire:

1. keep it short (try to keep to one side of A4)

2. only ask for one piece of information per
question.

15
 Questionnaires

 Kinds of Questions
• You can have open or closed questions.
1. An open question gives free rein to the
respondent to say what they want (e.g. 'Tell me
what do you think about impacts of corrosion on
water distribution pipe').
2. A closed question has to be answered with one
of the alternatives that the questioner (i.e. you)
gives.
 Closed questions are more common in
questionnaires and there is a range of ways of
providing the 'closeness' of the answer:
16
 Questionnaires
2.1. Yes/no question :
• The clue’s in the name they have to be answered ‘Yes’
or ‘No’
2.2. Multiple choice question :
• Here, there are two or more answers and respondents
are told either to tick one box, or to tick as many boxes
as they like.
For example: Which of the following factors are more
significant in poor performance of the Head of MScE
industries(tick as many as you like)?
⃝ Budget/capital ⃝ Skilled manpower
⃝ Gender ⃝ Equipment
⃝ Otther Please specify

17
 Questionnaires

2.3. Rank order questions

• Here, your respondents (that is, people whom you
are questioning) have to put items in rank order
–
– from best to worst, or
– most important to least important, or
– most difficult to least difficult, or
– most beautiful to least beautiful, and so on.
For example, if you were interested in the factors
that were most significant for your university
selection …..

18
 Questionnaires
Example: Thinking about the choice you have just made
about your university for further education, please look at this
list of factors and rank the three which were most important
for you in making your decision. Please mark 1, 2 and 3 in the
relevant boxes (1 for most important, 2 for next most
important, 3 for next most important).

Ease of access
Reputation
Exam results
Quality of buildings
Opinion of friends
Opinion after visiting
School prospectus
Other (please elaborate) ⃝
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 Questionnaires
2.4. Rating scale question
• The respondent will rate something (an experience,
attitude, attribute, etc.) along a continuum.
For example: If you engaged in metal industry, how influential do
you find these factors?
Very good Good Not much use useless

Quality
Cost
Availability

The respondent will tick only one box in each row

20
 Questionnaires
2.5. The Likert Scale
• A Likert scale (named after the psychologist Rensis Likert) can be
used in any situation where belief or attitude is being measured.
• You ask for agreement or disagreement with a statement that you
provide.
For example:
Strongly Strongly
agree Agree Disagree disagree
1. MScEs should be given
another chance no matter
what their perform.
2. Their performance are
so serious that they should
always carry a prison
sentence
21
 Questionnaires
 Stages on data collection process
• Stage 1: Permission to proceed
– Obtaining consent from the relevant authorities,
individuals and the community in which the
project is to be carried out
• Stage 2: Data collection
– Logistics:
• who will collect what,
• when and
• with what resources

22
 Questionnaires
– Quality control:
• Prepare a field work manual
• Select your research assistants
• Train research assistants
• Supervision
• Checked for completeness and accuracy
Stage 3: Data handling
• Number questionnaires
• Identify the person responsible for storing
data and the place where it will be stored
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 Precautions on Data processing and analysis

• Sorting data
– Into groups of different study populations or
comparison groups

• Quality control checks

– Check again for completeness and internal
consistency
– Missing data-if many exclude the questionnaire
– Inconsistency-correct, return or exclude

24
 Precautions on …
• Data processing
– Categorizing the data
– Coding, and
– data entry

• Data analysis
– In a proposal-dummy table which contains all
elements of a real table, except that the cells are still
empty
– Frequency counts
– Cross-tabulations

25
 Questionnaires
 Questionnaire online
• One of the best known online questionnaire services is
Survey Monkey, at www.surveymonkey. com.
• At the time of writing it lets you construct your own
questionnaire free for up to 100 respondents and gives
help on the construction of a questionnaire, with 24-hour
online support.
• If you need an alternative service that lets you survey
more people you will probably find that your university
subscribes to one. You can ask your tutor or someone at
the Computer Centre which one is used at yours.

26
 Other tools
• Laboratory instruments:
– X-ray diffractometry
– Raman spectroscopy
– Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
– Thermogravimetric analysis
– ICP
– AAS
– etc

• Software packages / models /

27
 Sampling
• Sampling is indispensable technique of the research.
• The research work cannot be undertaken without
use of sampling.
• The study of the total population is not possible and it
is also impracticable.

• The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors

which are usually operative in the situation, stand in the
way of studying the total population.
– The concept of sampling has been introduced with a view to
making the research findings economical and accurate.

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Sampling
Population:
• Population or universe means, the entire mass of
observations, which is the parent group from
which a sample is to be formed.
• The term ‘population’ or universe conveys a
different meaning than a traditional one. In census
survey, the count of individuals (men, women and
children) is known as population. But in research
methodology population means the
characteristics of a specific group. e.g. Nano-
materials

29
 Sampling
Advantages of Sampling Technique
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3.It has a greater precision and accuracy in the
observation.
4.It has a greater speed in conducting a research
work.
5. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
6.It reduces the cost of observation or data
collection.
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 Sampling
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE:

1. A good sample is the true representative of

the population corresponding to its properties.
The population is known as aggregate of certain
properties and sample is called sub-aggregate of the
universe.
2. A good sample is also economical from
energy, time and money point of view.

31
 Sampling
3. A good sample is comprehensive in nature.
This feature of a sample is closely linked with
true-representativeness.
– Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which
is controlled by specific purpose of the
investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in
traits but may not be a good representative of the
population.

32
 Sampling
4.A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields
an accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
5.A good sample is free from bias, the sample
does not permit prejudices the learning and
preconception, imaginations of the investigator to
influence its choice.
6.A good sample is an objective one, it refers
objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
33
 Sampling
7.The subjects of good sample are easily
approachable. The research tools can be
administered on them and data can be collected
easily.
8.The size of good sample is such that it yields an
accurate results. The probability of error can be
estimated.
9.A good sample makes the research work more
feasible.
10.A good sample has the practicability for
research situation.
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Sampling

TYPES OF SAMPLING DESIGNS

In general two types of techniques of sampling
are as follows:
1.Probability Sampling: Method of sampling
which gives the probability that our sample is
representative of population.
2.Non-probability Sampling: If there is no such
idea of probability then the method of sampling is
known as non- probability sampling.
Non-probability is also known as non-
parametric sampling which are used for
certain purpose.
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 Probability
Sampling
Characteristics of Probability Sampling

1. Every individual of the population has

equal probability to be taken into the
sample.
2. Probability sample may be
representative of the population.
3. Probability sample has not from
distribution for any variable.
4. There is a risk for drawing
conclusions from probability sample.
5. The probability is comprehensive.
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 Probability Sampling

Important Types of Probability

Sampling:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling.
3. Stratified sampling.
4. Multiple or Double sampling.
5. Multi-stage sampling.
6. Cluster sampling.
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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
• A simple random sample is one in which
each element of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being
included in the sample i.e. a sample
selected by randomization method
• It is done by using a number of techniques
as :
(a)Tossing a coin; (b) Throwing a dice; (c)
Lottery method; (d) Blind folded method;
(e) By using random table.

38
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling :

Advantages
• (a) It requires a minimum knowledge
of population.
• (b) It is free from subjectivity and free
from personal error.
• (c) It provides appropriate data for
our purpose.
39
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Simple Random Sampling :

Disadvantages
• (a) The representativeness of a sample
cannot be ensured;
• (b) it does not use the knowledge
about the population.
• (c) The accuracy of the finding depends
upon the size of the sample.
40
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
2. Systematic
Sampling
• Systematic sampling requires the complete
information about the population.
Now we decide the size of the sample.
• Let sample size = n and population size = N
• Now we select each N/nth individual from the list
and thus we have the desired size of sample which is
known as systematic sample.
• Thus for this technique of sampling population
should be arranged in any systematic way.

41
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Systematic
Sampling
Advantages
• (a) a simple method of selecting a sample.
• (b) It reduces the field cost.
• (c) Sample may be comprehensive and
representative of population.
• (d) Observations of the sample may be
used for drawing conclusions and
generalizations. 42
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Systematic Sampling

Disadvantages
• (a) This is not free from error, since there is
subjectivity due to different ways of systematic
list by different individuals.
• (b) Information of each individual is essential.
• (c) There is a risk in drawing conclusions from
the observations of the sample.

43
 PROBABILITY
3. Stratified Sampling SAMPLING
• When employing this technique, the
researcher divides his population in strata
on the basis of some characteristics and from
each of these smaller homogeneous groups
(strata) draws at random a predetermined
number of units.
• Stratified sampling may be of three types:
1. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
2. Proportionate stratified sampling.
3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling.

44
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1. Disproportionate sampling means
that the size of the sample in each
unit is not proportionate to the size
of the unit but depends upon
considerations involving personal
judgement and convenience.
It is more effective for comparing
strata
which have different error possibilities.
It is less efficient for
determining population
characteristics. 45
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
2. Proportionate sampling refers to the
selection from each sampling unit of a sample
that is proportionate to the size of the unit.
Advantages of this procedure include
representativeness with respect to variables
used as the basis of classifying categories and
increased chances of being able to
make comparisons between strata.
Lack of information on proportion of the
population may be listed as disadvantages of
this method.

46
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
3. Optimum allocation stratified
sampling is representative as well as
comprehensive than other stratified
samples.
It refers to selecting units from each
stratum should be in proportion to the
corresponding stratum the population.

Thus sample obtained is known as

optimum allocation stratified sample.
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 PROBABILITY
Stratified Sampling SAMPLING

Advantages
• (a) It is (more precisely third way) a
good representative of the
population.
• (b) It is an objective method of
sampling.

48
 PROBABILITY
Stratified SAMPLING
Sampling
Disadvantages
• (a) it is difficult for the researcher to decide the
relevant criterion for stratification.
• (b) Only one criterion can be used for stratification,
but it generally seems more than one criterion
relevant for stratification.
• (c) It is costly and time consuming method.
• (d) Selected sample may be representative with
reference to the used criterion but not for the other.
• (e) There is a risk in generalization.

49
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling

• This is most frequently used for establishing the

reliability of a sample.
• When employing a mailed questionnaire,
double sampling is sometimes used to
obtain a ‘more representative sample.
• This is done because some randomly selected
subjects who are sent questionnaires may not
return them.
• This double sampling technique enables one to
check on the reliability of the information
obtained from the first sample.
50
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling

Advantag
es
• (a) This technique of sampling
reduces the error.
• (b) This method maintains the procedure of
the finding evaluate the reliability of the
sample.

51
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling
Disadvantag
es
• (a) This technique of sampling cannot be
used for a large sample. It is applicable
only for small sample.
• (b) This technique is time consuming,
costly, and requires more competition.
• (c) Its planning and administration is
more complicated.
52
 PROBABILITY
5. Multi-Stage Sampling SAMPLING
• This sample is more comprehensive and
representative of the population.
• In this type of sampling primary sample
units are inclusive groups and secondary
units are sub- groups within these ultimate
units to be selected which belong to one and
only one group.
• Stages of a population are usually available
within a group or population, whenever
stratification is done by the researcher. The
Individuals are selected from different
stages for constituting the multi-stage
sampling.
53
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Multi-Stage Sampling

Advantages
• (a) It is a good representative of
the population.
• (b) Multi-stage sampling is an
improvement over the earlier methods.
• (c) It is an objective procedure of
sampling.
54
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Multi-Stage Sampling

Disadvantages
• (a) It is a difficult and complex
method of samplings.
• (b) It involves errors when we
consider the primary and secondary
stages.
• (c) It is again a subjective
phenomenon. 55
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
6. Cluster Sampling
• To select the intact group as a whole is
known as a Cluster sampling.
• In Cluster sampling the sample units
contain groups of elements (clusters)
instead of individual members or
items in the population.

56
 PROBABILITY
Cluster Sampling SAMPLING

Advantages
• (a) It may be a good representative
of the population.
• (b) It is an easy method.
• (c) It is an economical method.
• (d) It is practicable and highly
applicable in education.
57
 PROBABILITY
Cluster Sampling SAMPLING

Disadvantages
• (a) Cluster sampling is not free from
error.
• (b) It is not comprehensive.

58
 Non-probability
Sampling
Characteristics of Non-probability Sampling:

1. There is no idea of population in non-

probability sampling.
2. There is no probability of selecting
any individual.
3. Non-probability sample has free distribution.
4. The observations of non-probability sample are
not used for generalization purpose.
5. There is no risk for drawing conclusions.

59
Non-probability
Sampling
Types of Non-probability Sample:
(1) Incidental or accidental
sample.
(2) Purposive sample.
(3) Quota sample.
(4) Judgment sample.

60
Non-probability Sampling
Techniques
1. Incidental or Accidental Assignment
• The term incidental or accidental applied
to those samples that are taken because
they are most frequently available, i.e.
• this refers to groups which are used as
samples of a population because they are
readily available or because the
researcher is unable to employ more
acceptable sampling methods.

61
 Non-probability Sampling
Techniques
Incidental or Accidental Assignment
Advantages
• (a) It is very easy method of sampling.
• (b) It reduces the time, money and
energy i.e. it is an economical method.
Disadvantages
• (a) It is not a representative of the
population.
• (b) It is not free from error.
62
Non-probability Sampling
Techniques
2. Judgment Sampling
• This involves the selection of a group
from the population on the basis of
available information thought.
• It is to be representative of the
total population.
• Generally investigator should take
the judgment sample so this sampling
is highly risky.

63
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Judgment
Sampling
Advantages
• (a) Knowledge of the investigator can be
best used in this technique of sampling.
•(b) This technique of sampling is also
economical. Disadvantages
• (a) This technique is objective.
• (b) It is not free from error.
• (c) It includes uncontrolled variation.
• (d) Generalization is not possible.
64
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
3. Purposive Sampling
• The purposive sampling is selected by some
arbitrary method because it is known to be
representative of the total population, or it is
known that it will produce well matched
groups.
• The Idea is to pick out the sample in
relation to some criterion, which are
considered important for the particular
study.
• This method is appropriate when the study
places special emphasis upon the control of
certain specific variables.
65
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Purposive Sampling
Advantages
• (a) Use of the best available knowledge concerning the
sample subjects.
• (b) Better control of significant variables.
• (c) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
• (d) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.
Disadvantages
• (a) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
• (b) Knowledge of population is essential.
• (c) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
• (d) Inability to make generalization concerning total
population.

66
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
4. Quota Sampling
• This combined both judgment
sampling and probability sampling.
• The population is classified into several
categories: on the basis of judgment or
assumption or the previous knowledge, the
proportion of population falling into each
category is decided. Thereafter a quota of
cases to be drawn is fixed and the
observer is allowed to sample as he likes.
• Quota sampling is very arbitrary and
likely to figure in Municipal surveys.
67
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Quota Sampling Advantages
• (a) It is an improvement over the
judgment
sampling.
• (b) It is an easy sampling technique.
•(c) It is most frequently used in social
surveys. Disadvantages
• (a) It is not a representative sample.
• (b) It is not free from error.
• (c) It has the influence of regional
geographical and social factors.
68
 Determining Sample
Size
• In addition to the purpose of the study and
population size, three criteria usually will
need to be specified to determine the
appropriate sample size:
1. the level of precision,
2. the level of confidence or risk, and
3. the degree of variability in the attributes
being measured

69
 Determining Sample Size

1. The Level of Precision

• The level of precision, sometimes called
sampling error, is the range in which the true
value of the population is estimated to be.
• This range is often expressed in percentage
points (e.g., ±5 percent). Thus, if a researcher
finds that 60% of civil engineers in the sample
have experience in high way engineering with a
precision rate of ±5%, then he or she can
conclude that between 55% and 65% of the
engineers in the population have the practice.

70
 Determining Sample Size

2. The Confidence Level

• The confidence or risk level is based on ideas
encompassed under the Central Limit Theorem. In a
normal distribution, approximately 95% of the sample
values are within two standard deviations of the true
population value (e.g., mean).
• In other words, this means that if a 95% confidence
level is selected, 95 out of 100 samples will have the
true population value within the range of precision
specified earlier.
• There is always a chance that the sample you obtain
does not represent the true population value. This risk
is reduced for 99% confidence levels and increased for
90% (or lower) confidence levels.

71
 Determining Sample Size
3. Degree of Variability
• The third criterion, the degree of variability in the
attributes (being measured refers to the
distribution of attributes in the population.
• The more heterogeneous a population, the larger
the sample size required to obtain a given level of
precision. The less variable (more homogeneous) a
population, the smaller the sample size.
• Note that a proportion of50% indicates a greater
level of variability than either 20% or 80%. This is
because 20% and 80% indicate that a large majority
do not or do, respectively, have the attribute of
interest. Because a proportion of 0.5 indicates the
maximum variability in a population, it is often used in
determining a more conservative sample size, that is,
the sample size may be larger than if the true
variability of the population attribute were used.
72
 Sample size Formulas
You can find the following formulae (or variations thereof) in
most statistics textbooks, especially descriptive statistics
dealing with probability.

1. Sample size – infinite population

(where the population is grater than
50,000)

Z2 x (p) x (1-p)
SS=
C2
SS = Sample Size
Z = Z-value (e.g., 1.96 for a 95 percent confidence level)
P = Percentage of population picking a choice, expressed as
decimal
C = Confidence interval, expressed as decimal (e.g., .04 = +/- 4 73
percentage points)
 Sample size Formulas
a Z-values represent the probability that a sample
will fall within a certain distribution.

The Z-values for confidence levels are:

1.645 = 90 percent confidence
level
1.96 = 95 percent confidence level
2.576 = 99 percent confidence level

Example: Say Z=1.96, 95 % Confidence level

SS = 3.8416 x .5 x .5
0016
SS = 600
74
 Sample size
Formulas
2. Sample size – finite population (where the
population is less than 50,000)

SS
New SS
( 1 + ( SS - 1 ))
=
Pop

75
 Sample size
Formulas
Pop = Population (e.g., 4,300 JiT Civil Engineering
Students, 2014)

Note: Calculate the sample size using the infinite

population formula first. Then use the sample size
derived from that calculation to calculate a sample
size for a finite population.
600
New SS
= ( 1 + (600 -1 ))
4300
New SS =
527 76
Sample size determination
formula
• http://www.nss.gov.au/nss/home.NSF/pag
es/ Sample+size+calculator
• http://bphc.hrsa.gov/policiesregulations/p
erf
ormancemeasures/patientsurvey/calculati
ng. html

77
 Data processing and analysis

• Once you've got all your data, what

do you do with them?
• Remember that they are only data
until you have analysed them and
used them intelligently.
• Only then will your data become
evidence. So, how do you do the
analysis?

78
 Data processing and analysis
Your data are likely to come in one of two main
forms:

i. Numbers
ii. Words

You treat different data in different ways. Let's

look at each in turn.
79
 i. Numbers
1st . Eyeballing
• Eyeballing just means looking at your
numbers to see what they tell you:
– What do they seem to say?
– Are they going up or down?
– Are they all around one point?
– Are there any that seem not to fit with the others?

80
 Numbers

Eyeballing
• Your eyeball (teaming up with your brain) is
your most valuable tool in dealing with
numbers and you should trust it.
– Sometimes it seems to me that we trust statistics
too much - we should rely on our common sense
as well as the statistics to tell us what a range of
numbers may be saying.

81
 Numbers
2nd . Explaining
• The second thing to remember with
numbers is that the numbers and the
statistics used to analyse them serve
no function in themselves.
• They help you to analyse, but this
analysis exists in order for you to
explain, discuss and communicate
your findings.
• So, remember that when you present
an analysis using numbers, you will
need to explain with words.
82
 Numbers
Tell the reader what you want them to see in the
numbers: the statistics don't speak for themselves.
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3
Design A 112 119 108
Design B 176 184 195

83
 Numbers
3rd . Using Excel
• If you are using number
in your work and you
don’t know how to use
Microsoft Excel. You
really need to find out
how to do it. Here’s a
very brief introduction-
use it to play around
either with my
imaginary data. Or
make up your own.
(The instruction given
here are for PC users.

84
 Numbers
Example 1: Languages in terms of numbers of native
speakers, 2015
Language Native speakers
Mandarin
845,000,000
Chinese
English 335,000,000
Spanish 322,000,000
Hindi/Urdu 243,000,000 Native
speakers Chinese
Arabic 221,000,000 english

Bengali 181,000,000 spanish

hindu

Portuguese 178,000,000 arabic

bengali
Russian 144,000,000 portugues
e russian
Japanese 122,000,000 japanese

German 90,300,000 german

85
 Number
• These are some of the more commonly used s
ways of
presenting numbers visually. They are used surprisingly
little by students doing research. Do remember your
readers and remember that you:
1. need to make things intelligible for them, and
2. demonstrate to them that you can think intelligently
about numbers and how they can best be presented.
• So, consider how best to present your numbers
meaningfully. If you explore the chart function of
Excel you will find many varieties of chart that you
can alternatively use.
• Microsoft Excel 2007 Tutorial—Free & Online
www.baycongroup.com/el0.htm
You can use this free online tutorial to learn Microsoft
Excel 2007
86
 Numbers

• These statistics I have described here are

called descriptive statistics (because they
describe) but there are of course others that
have different purposes.
• If you are using these statistics you will
probably need to use SPSS rather than Excel.
SPSS (software package used for statistical
analysis) is available on most university
pooled computers.

87
 ii. Words
• What is sometimes called 'qualitative research'
is research to do with words.
– When I say 'words' I mean words joined up in the way
that we usually join them up in language in our
everyday lives. I don't mean isolated words, counted,
as you might count them, with questionnaire
responses.
• I mean proper grown-up sentences with
meanings.
• How do you analyse these, other than by just
taking the sentences at face value and copying
them out into your research report?

88
 Words
• Most ways of analyzing words
are based on the constant
comparative method. It's all you
need to know. Here's what it is:
The basic recipe for constant
comparative method (CCM) –
step by step
1. You will need: your notes, any
recordings; some different
coloured highlighters; a pad of
A4 paper; a pen; a computer (if
you prefer to work on one).
89
 Word
2.You first read all of your data: interview
notes, notes from observations, etc. s
3.With the highlighters, highlight parts that
you think are important.
– Use different colours for different kinds of
'important'. Do this either in a wordprocessing file
or in hard copy.
You'll begin to get an impression of key ideas or
subjects that are coming up again and again.
You can call these your
temporary constructs.
Make a list of them.

90
 Word
s your
4.Now read through the data again, using
list of temporary constructs against which to
compare (this is the constant comparative bit).
– Now make up a grid with the temporary constructs
in a column on the left, and –
– on the right page numbers of where the temporary
construct is mentioned in your data.
You can make notes and observations on the grid
as you do this.

91
 Words

5.Delete any temporary constructs that are

not earning their keep.
– In other words, if the temporary construct is not
appearing again and again, scrub it from your list.

6.Now, after your second reading, make a list of

second-order constructs that seem to explain
your data.
– With them you should be able to summarize the
important themes in your data.

92
 Words

7.If you are satisfied after a final look through

your data you can label these as your themes.

8. Think about the themes.

• How do they seem to be connecting together?
• What matches with what?
• Are there any unanimous areas of agreement?
• Are there any contradictions or paradoxes?

93
 Words
9.Garnish: find ways of visually representing
your themes - think, for example, about how you
could draw them in the shape of a storyboard
(or something like it), as shown on in the
previous chapter.

10. Place as part of your analysis chapter.

94
Thank you