Bangalore Institute of Technology

(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to VTU)

Department of Physics
Study Material for I Year B.E., 2024-25
CSE stream

Course Title: Applied Physics for CSE Stream

Course Code: BPHYS102/202

MODULE-4: Electrical Properties of Materials and Engineering

Applications

SYLLABUS: Electrical Conductivity in Metals: Review of classical free electron theory,

Failures of classical free electron theory, Assumptions of quantum free electron theory, Density of
states, Fermi energy at 0 K (Derivation), Fermi factor, Variation of Fermi factor with temperature
and energy, Mention the expression for electrical conductivity, Success of quantum free electron
theory. Numerical Problems

SYLLABUS: Superconductivity:

Resistivity and mobility, Concept of phonon, Mattheissen’s rule, Introduction to superconductors,

Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner Effect, Critical field, Temperature dependence of
critical field, Types of superconductors, BCS theory (Qualitative), Quantum tunneling, Josephson
junction (Qualitative), DC and RF SQUIDs (Qualitative). Numerical Problems

Review of Classical free electron theory:

This theory was proposed by Paul Drude and later improved by Lorentz, to explain electrical
conductivity in metals. According to this theory metals consist of free electrons and the
expression for electrical conductivity is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
where n is the free electron concentration
e is the charge on electron
𝜏 the relaxation time of free electrons
and m is the mass of free electrons
Failures of classical free electron theory:
Classical free electron theory has successfully explained electrical and thermal conductivities
in metals but failed to account for specific heat and, dependence of electrical conductivity on
temperature and electron concentration.
1. Specific heat: The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is
3
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
2
Since free electrons are expected to behave like gas molecules as per classical free
electron theory, the above formula is applicable for free electrons as well. However,
the contribution of free electrons to the specific heat of a metal has been
experimentally found to be
𝐶𝑉 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇
Thus it is experimentally found that specific heat depends on temperature and is far
lower than the expected value.
2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity: It has been experimentally
observed that electrical conductivity of a metal is inversely proportional to its
temperature.
1
i.e 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ 𝑇

But according to the assumptions of classical theory, electrical conductivity of a metal

is inversely proportional to square root of its temperature.
1
i.e 𝜎∝
√𝑇

Thus the prediction of classical free electron theory doesn’t agree with experimental
observations.
3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration: As per classical
free electron theory, the electrical conductivity is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
which implies
𝜎∝𝑛
where n is the electron concentration
Therefore, as per the above relation, those metals which have high electron concentration
must have high electrical conductivity (𝜎). But, in reality it is not so as per the experimental
data given in the table. In other words, Zinc and Cadmium must be good conductors on
account of their high value of ‘n’ when compared to Copper and Silver. But Copper and
Silver are found to be better conductors compared to Zinc and Cadmium.

Metal Valency 𝝈 (/𝛀𝒎) n (m-3)

Cu 1 5.88 × 107 8.45 × 1028
Ag 1 6.30 × 107 5.85 × 1028
Zn 2 1.09 × 107 13.10 × 1028
Cd 2 0.15 × 107 9.28 × 1028

Quantum Free Electron Theory:

Quantum Free Electron Theory was proposed by Arnold Sommerfeld in 1928, in which he
retained the vital features of classical free electron theory, and included Pauli’s exclusion
principle and Fermi-Dirac statistics. It is successful in explaining the low specific heat value
of conduction electrons, the correct dependence of 𝜎 on T and correct expression for
electrical conductivity in terms of Fermi velocity,
Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory:
1. The energy values of conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values
are realized in terms of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
3. Free electrons in a metal travel at constant potential but stay confined within its
boundaries.
4. The attraction between free electrons and lattice ions, and the repulsion between the
electrons themselves are ignored.

Density of States:
The permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid material will be in terms of bands. Each
band comprises of a huge number of permitted energy levels which are not evenly
distributed. Each energy level corresponds to one energy value and each energy value is
applicable to two electron energy states, one for an electron with spin-up, and the other one
for an electron with spin-down. Thus, we a find a large number of electron energy states even
in a small energy range. The number of available energy states per unit volume per unit
energy range at a certain energy level is called density of states and is represented by g(E).
 8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 1/2
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = [ ] 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
where dE is an infinitesimally small increment at an arbitrary energy value E in a band
m is mass of electrons
and h is Planck’s constant

Fermi Energy:
Consider a conductor containing N free electrons, at absolute zero temperature. These
electrons fill the available energy states starting from lowest energy level i.e from the bottom
of the band according to Pauli’s exclusion principle. So, below a particular energy level all
the energy levels are completely filled and the ones above it will remain completely vacant.
The energy corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute zero temperature
is called Fermi energy, and the highest occupied energy level is called Fermi level.
Fermi energy at 0 kelvin is denoted by 𝐸𝐹0 and is written as

ℎ2 3𝑛 2/3
𝐸𝐹0 = ( ) ( )
8𝑚 𝜋
where m is mass of electrons
n is free electron concentration
and h is Planck’s constant
For all practical purposes Fermi energy (𝐸𝐹 ) at any temperature T is taken as Fermi energy
at 0 kelvin (𝐸𝐹0 ) itself except at extremely high temperature.
Expression for Fermi Energy at 0 K:

Let 𝑔(𝐸) be the density of states. Then the number of energy states in the range E and E+dE
is given by 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸. Let 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 be the number of electrons/unit volume which have energy
in the range E and E+dE,
𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = number of available energy states in the range E and E+dE
× probability of occupation of these levels by electrons
But, the probability of occupation of energy states by electrons is given by Fermi factor 𝑓(𝐸)
⸫ 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 × 𝑓(𝐸) ………………..(1)
Now, we need the number of electrons/unit volume of the material, which have got energy
from E = 0 to E = Emax (maximum energy possessed by electrons). It is represented by n and
evaluated by integrating equation (1) from E = 0 to E = Emax.
𝐸
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸
𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 ………………..(2)
But, 𝑓(𝐸) = 1 at T = 0 K
𝐸
𝑚𝑎𝑥
⸫ 𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 × 1 ………………..(3)
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2
We know that 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = [ ] 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
where m and h are mass of electron and Planck’s constant respectively.
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 1⁄2 8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 2 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
⸫𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = × [ 𝐸 3⁄2 ]
ℎ3 ℎ3 3 0
But at T = 0 K, the maximum energy that any electron of the material can have is 𝐸𝐹0 . Hence
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝐹0
 8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 2 3⁄2 8×23⁄2 𝑚3⁄2 𝜋 3⁄2
𝑛= × (𝐸𝐹0 ) =[ ] [ ] (𝐸𝐹0 )
ℎ3 3 ℎ3 3
𝟑 ⁄𝟐 𝒉𝟑 𝟑𝒏
⸫ (𝐸𝐹0 ) = (𝝅)
(𝟖𝒎)𝟑⁄𝟐

ℎ2 3𝑛 2⁄3
Or 𝐸𝐹0 = ( )(𝜋 )
8𝑚

Fermi Factor:
When a metal reaches an ordinary temperature starting from absolute zero temperature,
electrons near Fermi level can take up the thermal energy and reach unoccupied levels. This
kind of distribution of electrons in various energy levels is systematic in nature and is
governed by a statistical function once the system is in thermal equilibrium (steady
temperature state). The probability that a given energy with energy E is occupied at a steady
temperature T is represented by 𝑓(𝐸) and is called Fermi factor. Thus Fermi factor is defined
as the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal equilibrium.
It is given by
1
𝑓(𝐸) =
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 + 1

Variation of Fermi Factor with Temperature and Energy:

Variation of Fermi Factor with Temperature and Energy can be understood by considering
three different cases of probability of occupation as follows:
(i) At T = 0 kelvin and 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹
When T = 0 kelvin and 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 , the Fermi factor can written as follows:

1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =1
𝑒 −∞ + 1 0 + 1
which means all the energy levels below Fermi level are completely occupied at
T = 0 kelvin.
(ii) At T = 0 kelvin and 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹

1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =0
𝑒∞ +1 ∞
which means all the energy levels above Fermi level are unoccupied at T = 0 kelvin.
(iii) At T > 0 kelvin (ordinary temperature) and 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹
 1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 +1 1+1 2
which means the probability of occupation of Fermi level at ordinary temperature is 50 %. It
is also clear from the below diagram that the value of probability remains 1 for 𝐸 ≪ 𝐸𝐹 at
ordinary temperatures and starts decreasing from 1 as the values of E become closer to 𝐸𝐹 .
Further, the probability value falls off to zero rapidly when 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹 .

Fermi velocity:
The velocity of electrons which occupy fermi level is called Fermi velocity and is represented
by 𝑣𝐹 . If 𝐸𝐹 is the energy of electrons in Fermi level, then
1
𝐸𝐹 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐹2

2𝐸𝐹 1⁄2
⸫ 𝑣𝐹 = ( )
𝑚
Fermi temperature:
Fermi temperature (𝑇𝐹 ) is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of free
electrons in a sold becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0 K.
⸫ 𝑘𝑇𝐹 = 𝐸𝐹0 or 𝐸𝐹0 = 𝑘𝑇𝐹
But for all practical purposes, 𝐸𝐹0 ≃ 𝐸𝐹
𝐸𝐹
⸫ 𝑘𝑇𝐹 = 𝐸𝐹 whcih imlplies 𝑇𝐹 =
𝑘
Expression for electrical conductivity:
Sommerfeld suggested the following equation for electrical conductivity based on quantum
free electron theory.
 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎=
𝑚∗ 𝑣𝐹

where 𝑚∗ is the effective mass of electron, 𝜆 is mean free path, 𝑣𝐹 is Fermi velocity, 𝑛 is
number of electrons/unit volume and 𝑒 is the charge of electron.
Success of quantum free electron theory (Merits):
1. Specific heat: As per classical free electron theory, the specific heat of conduction
electrons is large as all conduction electrons are capable of absorbing heat energy at once.
But as per quantum free electron theory, only those electrons that occupy energy levels
close to 𝐸𝐹 can absorb heat energy and such electrons are very small in number. Hence the
specific heat is very low. Also, specific heat based on quantum free electron theory is
given by the equation 𝐶𝑣 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇, which is in agreement with the experimentally
observed values. Thus quantum free electron theory successfully explained the low
specific heat of conduction electrons.
2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
It has been experimentally observed that electrical conductivity of a metal is inversely
proportional to its temperature.
1
i.e 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ 𝑇

As per quantum free electron theory, the electrical conductivity of metals is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎=
𝑚∗ 𝑣𝐹

⸫𝜎∝𝜆 ………………..(1)
The waves associated with electrons suffer scattering by vibrating lattice ions while
moving in a conductor. These vibrating ions can be considered to be present effectively in
a cross-section of area 𝜋𝑟 2 , where the radius 𝑟 can be considered to be amplitude of
vibrations. And the vibrations of larger area of cross-section cause greater scattering of
waves. The increased scattering of waves results in reduction in mean free path 𝜆.
1
⸫𝜆 ∝ ………………..(2)
𝜋𝑟 2
But amplitude 𝑟 of vibrations is proportional to thermal energy, which in turn is
proportional to temperature T.
⸫ 𝑟 2 ∝ 𝑇 ………………..(3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we get
1
𝜆∝ ………………..(4)
𝑇
 1
Comparing the relations (1) and (4), we get 𝜎 ∝
𝑇
Thus quantum free electron theory successfully explained the relation between
conductivity and temperature.
3. Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:
According to quantum free electron theory, the conductivity of a conductor is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎= ∗( )
𝑚 𝑣𝐹
Thus, the conductivity depends on number of electrons/unit volume (𝑛) as well as the ratio
𝜆
(𝑣 ), and 𝑚∗ . If we compare the cases of copper and aluminium, the value of 𝑛 for
𝐹

𝜆
aluminium is 2.13 times higher than that of copper. But the value of (𝑣 ) for copper is
𝐹
∗
about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminium. Also, the value of 𝑚 for aluminium is
1.08 times that of copper. Thus copper has higher conductivity compared to aluminium.
 Superconductivity
Resistivity (𝝆)
For a material of uniform cross-section, the resistance (R) is directly proportional to its length
(L) and inversely proportional to area of cross-section (A)
𝐿
i.e. 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴
𝐿 𝐴
Therefore 𝑅 = 𝜌 (𝐴) or 𝜌 = 𝑅 (𝐿 )

where is 𝜌 is a constant of proportionality called resistivity and is defined as the property of a

material that gives the measure of opposition offered during the flow of current.
Mobility (𝝁):
The mobility of electrons is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 ) acquired by
electrons in a unit electric field (E).
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
Concept of Phonon:
When a metal is at a temperature well above 10 K, the positive ions, which are arranged in a
periodic array start vibrating like harmonic oscillators. Since, the ions are bound to each other
through elastic and electric forces, they vibrate similar to standing waves with fixed energies.
The ions may vibrate either due to their own thermal energy or outside forces may make them
vibrate. This kind of vibration generates mechanical waves that carry heat and sound through
the material. A packet of these waves can travel throughout the material with a
definite energy. So, in quantum mechanical terms the waves can be treated as a particle,
called a phonon. A phonon is a definite discrete unit or quantum of vibrational mechanical
energy, just as a photon is a quantum of electromagnetic or light energy. The phonon
concentration is strongly dependent on temperature. At low temperature, phonon number is
considerably low and is proportional to 𝑇 3 , whereas at higher temperature the phonon
number is proportional to 𝑇 5 , where T is absolute temperature.
Matthiessen’s rule (Effect of temperature and impurity on resistivity):
According to Matthiessen’s rule the total resistivity (𝜌) of a metal at any given temperature is
a sum of resistivity due to impurity scattering (𝜌𝑖 ) and phonon scattering (𝜌𝑝ℎ ) is given by
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑖 + 𝜌𝑝ℎ
The resistivity due to impurity scattering is also called residual resistivity and arises due to
scattering of electrons by lattice imperfections and impurities present in a metal. The phonon
scattering is due to lattice vibration at a temperature well above 10 K.
Introduction to superconductors:
As the temperature of certain materials is reduced, the resistance offered by them to the flow
of electric current decreases and the resistance abruptly drops to zero below a threshold
temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and the threshold temperature is
called critical temperature (Tc) or transition temperature. The materials exhibiting
superconductivity are called superconducting materials.
H. K. Onnes was the first to observe superconductivity in mercury in the year 1911. He also
found that materials regain resistivity when heated above transition temperature i.e. the
transition is reversible. Subsequently, superconductivity was discovered in lead, zinc,
aluminium and other metals as well as in a number of alloys. Superconductivity was strictly a
low temperature phenomenon till 1980’s. In 1986, high temperature superconductivity was
discovered in a particular type of ceramic, which remained a superconductor at a temperature
as high as 30 K.
Temperature dependence of resistivity:
The dependence of resistance of a superconductor on temperature is shown in the figure. The
resistance of a material in the non-superconducting state decreases with decrease in
temperature as in the case of a normal metal up to critical temperature (Tc). At Tc, the
resistance abruptly drops to zero, indicating the transition of the material from normal state to
superconducting state. The critical temperature is different for different superconductors. For
example; mercury loses its resistance completely and turns into a superconductor at 4.2
kelvin.
Properties of superconductors:
1. The Critical or Transition Temperature
Superconductors have a certain temperature threshold, known as the critical or transition
temperature. When the temperature of the material falls below this threshold, it changes from
an ordinary conductor to a superconductor.
2. Zero Electrical Resistance
A superconductor exhibits zero resistance in its superconducting state. This means that when
the material's temperature drops below the critical temperature, its electrical resistance
abruptly falls to zero. For instance, Lead, a common superconductor, shows zero resistance
below 7.2 kelvin.
3. Exclusion of Magnetic Field
Superconductors do not allow magnetic fields to penetrate them when their temperature is
below the critical temperature. This property is known as the Meissner Effect.
4. The Critical Magnetic Field
Superconductors have a certain magnetic field limit, known as the critical magnetic field. If
the magnetic field exceeds this limit, the superconductor becomes a normal conductor.
Interestingly, the value of the critical magnetic field is inversely proportional to the
temperature. This means as the temperature rises, the value of the critical magnetic field
decreases.

Meissner Effect:
When superconductors are cooled below their critical temperature in the presence of
magnetic field, the magnetic flux is expelled from the interior of the specimen and the
superconductor becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Thus phenomenon is known as Meissner
effect.
As the temperature of the specimen is lowered to Tc, the magnetic flux is suddenly and
completely expelled from it. The flux expulsion continues for T < Tc. The effect is reversible.
When the temperature is raised from below Tc, the flux suddenly penetrates the specimen at
T = Tc and the material returns to the normal state. Meissner Effect is the basic principle
behind the operation of Maglev trains.

Critical Field:
When a material is cooled below Tc in the absence of magnetic field, the material becomes
superconducting. When the magnetic field is applied and as its strength reaches a critical
value (Hc), the superconductivity in the material vanishes and the material becomes normal.
The strength of magnetic field required to just switch a material from superconducting state
to normal state is called critical field (Hc). At any temperature, the material remains
superconducting until a corresponding critical field is applied. When the magnetic field
exceeds the critical value, the material goes in to normal state.
Temperature dependence of Critical field:
If T is the temperature of a superconducting material, Tc the critical temperature, Hc the
critical field, and H0 the field required to turn the superconductor to a normal conductor at 0
kelvin, then the dependence of critical field on temperature is governed by the following
relation.
𝑇2
𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻𝑜 [1 − ]
𝑇𝑐2
The value of Hc varies with temperature as shown in the figure for a typical superconductor.
Under the influence of a magnetic field whose strength is greater than H0, the material can
never become superconducting even if the temperature is very low.
Types of Super Conductors:
Superconductors are classified into Type-1 and Type-2 superconductors based on the way in
which the transition from superconducting to normal state proceeds when the externally
applied magnetic field exceeds Hc.
1. Type-I superconductors (Soft superconductors):
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. In the presence of an external
magnetic field H< Hc, the material in superconducting state is a perfect diamagnet possessing
negative magnetic moment (-M). As the applied field H exceeds Hc, the magnetisation
suddenly drops to zero and the entire material becomes normal as shown in the figure. At this
stage, the magnetic flux penetrates throughout the material and resistance raises from zero to
some value applicable to a normal conductor. The value of Hc is too low for Type-I
superconductors.

2. Type-II superconductors (Hard superconductors):

Type-II superconductors are characterised by two critical fields 𝐻𝑐 1 (lower critical field) and
𝐻𝑐 2 (upper critical field) as shown in the figure. As the applied field H is increased from zero
to 𝐻𝑐 1 , the material expels magnetic field form its body completely and behaves as a perfect
diamagnet. When H exceeds 𝐻𝑐 1 , the flux penetrates and fills the body of the material
partially. With the further increase in H the flux filling also increases thereby decreasing the
diamagnetic property of the material. The flux fills the body completely when H becomes
equal to or greater than 𝐻𝑐 2 . That is when the material becomes a normal conductor. Between
𝐻𝑐 1 and 𝐻𝑐 2 , the material is in a mixed state (vortex state), in which the material still a
superconductor though there is flux penetration.

BCS theory:
In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer developed a quantum theory to explain
superconductivity, which is known as BCS theory. The BCS theory assumed the interaction
of two electrons through quanta of lattice vibrations (phonons). The major features of BCS
theory are:
(a) Formation of cooper pairs
(b) Their propagation throughout the lattice without resistance
To understand the formation of a Cooper pair, let us consider a situation in which an electron
moves through a lattice causing a slight deformation in it. The deformation occurs due to
displacement of positive ions in the electron’s path, towards the electron. The deformation
produces a region of increased positive charge. Another electron moving through the
polarised region will be attracted by the greater concentration of positive charge there. If the
attraction is stronger than the repulsion between the electrons, the electrons are effectively
coupled together into a Cooper pair. The electrons in a Cooper pair have equal and opposite
spins. The binding energy of a Copper pair, called energy gap is of the order of 10 -3 eV. That
is why superconductivity is a low temperature phenomenon. Also, according to BCS theory,
the energy gap of a superconductor at zero kelvin is given by the formula 𝐸𝑔 (0) = 3.53𝑘𝑇𝑐
where k is Boltzmann constant and 𝑇𝑐 is critical temperature. In a typical superconductor, a
dense cloud of Cooper pairs forms a collective state and the motion of all the Cooper pairs is
strongly correlated-one aiding the motion of the other. As a result, Cooper pairs drift
cooperatively through the material without experiencing any resistance due to absence of
scattering.
Josephson Junctions:
Josephson junction is a system of two superconducting metal films separated by a thin
insulating layer of thickness 1 nm. The superconductor-insulator-superconductor layer
constitutes Josephson junction. In 1962, Brian Josephson predicted that cooper pairs could
tunnel through the insulating layer.

The cooper pairs in a superconductor can be represented by a wave function, which is same
for all the cooper pairs. As the cooper pairs tunnel from one side of the junction to another,
the insulating material introduces a phase difference between the wave functions of cooper
pairs on both sides. Because of this phase difference, a super current appears across the
junction, even if the applied voltage is zero. This is known as dc Josephson Effect. If we
apply a dc voltage across the junction, it introduces an additional phase on cooper pairs
during tunnelling and generates an alternating current. This is called as ac Josephson Effect.
Quantum Tunnelling:
A cooper pair can traverse anywhere in the body of a superconductor but cannot come out of
it and hence it can be considered as a particle in a potential of wall height more than its own
energy. However, a cooper pair can tunnel through the wall of the potential well if the wall
thickness is narrow enough. So, tunnelling is a quantum mechanical phenomenon and is a
consequence of the wave nature of matter, where wave functions describe the state of a
particle or other physical systems. A particle on one side of the barrier has finite probability
of tunnelling through it, if there is an allowed state of equal energy available on the other side
of the barrier. Tunnelling is frequent on nanoscale, but negligible at the macroscopic
level. Particles with a small mass can effectively tunnel through barriers more easily than
those with larger mass. Quantum tunnelling finds applications in Scanning Tunnelling
Microscope, Nuclear Fusion, very-large-scale integration (VLSI) electronics and Quantum
Biology.
SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device):

SQUID is the acronym for superconducting quantum interference device. It is used to

measure extremely small magnetic fields of the order of 10-14 tesla. A SQUID is formed by
incorporating two Josephson junctions in the loop of a superconducting material as shown in
the figure. There are two types of SQUIDS. They are:
1. DC SQUID
2. RF SQUID (AC SQUID)

1. DC SQUID:
A DC (direct current) SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions employed in parallel in a
superconducting loop. It is based on DC Josephson effect.

When a constant biasing current I is passed through the DC SQUID in the absence of external
magnetic field, it divides into two parts, I1 and I2. When a small external magnetic field B is
applied perpendicular to the superconducting loop, an induced current J starts flowing
through the loop. This induced current J generates a magnetic field that opposes the external
flux according to Lenz’s law. The induced current J supports biasing current I in one branch
and opposes the biasing current I in the other branch. As a result of this the total current
increases in one branch and decreases in the other branch. When the current in any branch
exceeds the critical current IC of the Josephson junction, a voltage develops across the
junction. The voltage thus developed across the junctions also oscillates with the applied
magnetic field. The oscillating voltage can be detected and used to measure the magnetic
field.

2. RF SQUID (AC SQUID)

An RF (radio frequency) SQUID is made up of only one Josephson junction, which is
mounted on a superconducting ring. It is based on AC Josephson effect and is less sensitive
compared to a DC SQUID.

An RF SQUID loop is placed near an LC circuit which is connected to an RF AC source as

shown in the figure. The magnetic field whose flux  is to be measured is applied to RF
SQUID. If an oscillating current (I) is passed through the LC circuit from the RF source now,
a magnetic flux RF will be induced. Thus the total external flux will be Φ𝑒𝑥 = Φ + Φ𝑅𝐹.
If the flux  in the loop changes, there will be corresponding changes in ex as the loop is
linked to the LC circuit through mutual inductance.
The change in total flux ex will induce emf in the LC circuit following Faraday’s law. Thus
there is a change in voltage across LC circuit. By measuring the change in voltage across LC
circuit one can measure the external magnetic flux () and its variation with respect to time.