P-N JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER:

A rectifier is a device which converts an alternating voltage into a direct voltage.

The conversion of AC voltage into DC voltage is called rectification.
There are two types of rectifiers
(a) Half wave rectifier and
(b) Full wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier
The AC voltage, which be rectified is applied across the primary (P_{1}*P_{2}) of
transformer. The secondary (S_{1}*S_{2}) of transformer is connected in series with a
junction diode D and load resistance R_{L} The output is taken across the load resistance.
(1) When we apply AC input across primary (P_{1}*P_{2}) then AC voltage is developed
across the secondary (S_{1}*S_{2}) .
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage S_{1} is positive with respect to S_{2}
therefore the diode is forward biased. It conducts current and current flows through the
circuit i.e. through load resistance (R_{U}) and we get output across the load resistance.
Full wave rectifier:
The AC voltage which is to be rectified is applied across the primary (P_{1}*P_{2}) of
transformer. The secondary (S_{1}*S_{2}) of transformer are connected to diode D_{1} and
D_{2} The common terminal of diodes D_{1} and D_{2} is connected to central tap K through
load resistance. The output is taken across load resistance.
(ii) When we applied AC input across primary P_{1}*P_{2} then AC voltage is developed
across secondary.
Advantages of a full wave rectifier:
(1) Rectification take place in both the cycles of the AC input
(2) Efficiency of a full wave rectifier is higher than that of a half wave rectifier
(3) The ripple in a full wave rectifier is less than that in a half wave rectifier.
Ripple factor:
The output of rectifier consists of a small fraction of an AC component along with DC called
the ripple.
This ripple is undesirable and is responsible for the fluctuations in the rectifier output.
Following fig. shows the ripple in the output of a rectifier.
FILTER CIRCUITS:
The output of a rectifier is in the form of pulses as shown in output waveform of full wave
rectifier. The output is unidirectional but it does not have a steady value. It keeps fluctuating
due to the ripple component present in it. A filter circuit is used to remove the ripple from the
output of rectifier.
A filter circuit is a circuit which removes the AC component or the ripple from a rectifier
output and allows only the DC component.
ZENER DIODE:
It works on the principle of junction breakdown. The other diodes mentioned above make
use of photosensitivity, a very important and useful property of semiconductors.
Junction Breakdown:
When reverse bias voltage of an ordinary junction diode is increased beyond a critical
voltage, the reverse current increases sharply to high value. This critical voltage is called
reverse breakdown voltage. The diode is damaged at this stage. We will now discuss what
happens when there is a junction breakdown.
Electrical breakdown of any material can be due to (i) Avalanche breakdown (ii) Zener
breakdown. We will discuss only the zener breakdown in some details.
Zener Breakdown:
When the reverse voltage across a diode is increased, the electric field across the junction
increases resulting in a force of attraction on the negatively charged electron at the junction.
(ii) Covalent bonds are broken due to this force and electrons removed are then available for
electrical conduction and result in a large current.
(iii) When the applied voltage is increased, the electric field across the junction also
increases and more and more electrons are removed from their covalent bonds. Thus a net
current is developed which increases rapidly with applied voltage.
Zener diode characteristic:
(i) A Zener diode is a p-n junction diode designed to work in the breakdown region. It is used
as a voltage regulator or a voltage stabiliser.
b) I-V characteristic curve for Zener diode
(iii) This breakdown discussed previously occurs at a voltage called the Zener voltage V_{z}
The current suddenly increase if the applied voltage is increased beyond the Zener voltage.
(iv) It is interesting to note that the voltage remains constant at V_{z} for increasing current,
once the zener breakdown occurs. This property of zener diode is used in a voltage
regulator.
(v) For a heavily doped diode, the depletion layer is thin and breakdown occurs at a lower
reverse voltage. A lightly doped diode has higher breakdown voltage.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator
The experimental circuit for zener diode as a voltage regulator is as shown in the fig. 16.8. A
zener diode o breakdown voltage V_{z} is connected in reverse bias t an input voltage V_{i}
The resistor R_{S} connected in serie with the zener diode limits the current flow throug the
diode. The load resistance R_{L} is connected parallel with zener diode, so that the voltage
acros R_{L} is same as that of diode.
Working of Zener Regulator:
While designing zener regulator, the value of series resistance is determined by considering
the specification of zener diode.
Similarly, if the input voltage v_{i} decreases, the current through R_{S} and diode also
decreases. Hence V_{s} also decreases without any change in the voltage v_{z} across the
zener diode.
Applications of Zener diode:
The zener diode is used when a constant voltage is required.
It has a number of applications such as:- Voltage regulator, Fixed reference voltage provider
in transistor biasing circuit.
Peak clipper or limiter in a wave shaping circuit.
Protector against meter damage from accidenta fluctuations etc.
PHOTO DIODE:
(i)A photo diode is a special type of a p-n junction diode which converts light energy into
electrical energy.
(ii) It generates current when exposed to light.
(iii) It is also called as photodetector OR photosensor.
(iv) It operates in reverse biased mode.
Working principle of photodiode:
(i) When a p-n junction diode is reverse biased, a reverse saturation current flows through
the junction.
(ii) The magnitude of this current is constant for certain range of reverse bias voltage. This
current is due to the minority carriers on its either side.
(iii) The reverse current depends only on the concentration of the minority carriers and not
on the applied voltage
(iv) This current is called the dark current in a photodiode because it flows even when the
photodiode is not illuminated.
Dark resistance: It is defined as the ratio of the maximum reverse voltage and its dark
current.
Dark resistance (R) = Maximum reverse voltage /Dark current
Advantages of photodiode:
(1) Quick response when exposed to light.
(2) Linear response, the reverse current is linearly proportional to intensity of incident light.
(3) High speed of operations.
(4) Light weight and compact size.
(5) Wide spectral response.
(6) Relatively low cost.
Disadvantages of photodiode:
Its properties are temperature dependent similar to many other semiconductor devices.
(2) Low reverse current for low illumination levels.
Applications of photodiode:
A photodiode has many application in number of fields ranging from domestic to industrial
applications.
(1) Counters and switches
(2) Burglar alarm systems
(3) Detection of visible and invisible radiation
(4) Circuits in which fast switching and high speed operations are required.
(5) Fiber optic communication systems
(6) Optocouplers, used to provide an electric isolation between two electronic circuits
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):
i) Light emitting diodes are special semi conductor ( diode, when forward biased they emit
light of particular colour. Fig. 16.15 (a) shows the circuit symbol of LED.
(ii) The construction of LED is different from that of a normal diode. The n-region is heavily
doped than the p-region of the p-n junction.
(iii) The LED p-n junction is encased in dome-shaped transparent case so that light is
emitted uniformly in all directions and internal reflections are minimized.
(iv) Metal electrode attached on either side of the p-n junction serve as contacts for external
connection.
Working of a LED:
(i) When the diode is forward biased, electron from the semiconductor conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons
which emit a monochromatic light.
Advantages of LED:-
1) Energy efficient: More light output for lesser electrical power. LEDs are now capable of
producing 135 lumens/watt
1.Long lifetime: 50,000 hours or more if properly manufactured.
2.Rugged: LEDs are also called solid state light as they are made of solid material with no
filament or tube or bulb to break.
(4) Almost no warm up period: LEDs start emitting light in nanosecond.
(5) Excellent colour rendering: Colours produced by LED do not fade out making them
perfect for displays and retail applications.
(6) Environment friendly: LED do not contain mercury or other hazardous substances.
(7) Controllable: Brightness and colour of light emitted by LEDs can be controlled.
Disadvantages of LED:
Hazardous blue light quality, temperature dependence, voltage sensitivity, high initial cost.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT):
(1) A junction transistor is a semiconductor device having two junctions and three terminals.
The current in a transistor is carried by both the electrons and the holes. Hence, it is called a
bipolar junction transistor.
(ii) Transistor is a three terminal device in which thin slice of p-type semiconductor sandwich
between two bigger pieces of n-type semiconductor OR a thin slice for n-type semiconductor
sandwich between two bigger pieces of p-type semiconductor.
(iii) There are two type of transistor: n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor.
(iv) The three layers of a transistor are the emitter(E), base(B) and collector(C).
Depletion region: The depletion regions are formed at the emitter-base junction and the
base-formed junction.
Resistance: The emitter-base junction has low resistance while the base-collector junction
has a high resistance.
Working of a n-p-n transistor:
(i) Electrons are the majority carriers in the emitter of a n - p - n transistor. The emitter
current I_{E} is due to electrons. The current flowing through the E-B junction is large
because it is forward biased. The B-C junction is also large though the junction is reverse
biased.
Transistor configuration:
The possible configuration of transistor in a circuit are,
(a) Common Emitter mode (CE)
(b) Common Base mode (CB)
(c) Common Collector mode(CC)
TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER:
A device which increases the magnitude of a input signal is called as an amplifier.
(ii) The process of increasing the magnitude of input signal is called amplification.
(iii) We will discuss an amplifier using an n-p-n transistor in common emitter configuration.