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Communication System

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Introduction
• Communication system is a system which describes the
exchange of information or data between two stations, i.e.
between transmitter and receiver.

• To transmit signals in communication system, it must be first

processed by several stages, beginning from signal
representation, to signal shaping until encoding and
modulation.

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Application Areas
• Telephone/ Mobile
• Telegraph
• TV cable/ Radio
• Computer
• Defense/ military application
• Broadcasting, Mass Media or Journalism
• Satellite/ Space Communication
• Digital Signal Processing
• Image Processing
• And many more.....

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Essentials of Communication System

Text
Images b1b2 ...
x(t) bˆ1b2ˆ...
x̂(t)
Video m(t) mˆ(t)
Source Source
Encoder Transmitter Channel Receiver Decoder

Figure: Block Diagram of Digital Communication System

• Source encoder converts message into message signal or bits.

• Transmitter converts message signal or bits into format appropriate

for channel transmission (analog/digital signal).
• Channel introduces distortion, noise, and interference.
• Receiver decodes received signal back to message signal.
• Source decoder decodes message signal back into original message.
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Modes of Communication: Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

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 Simplex (SX) – one direction only, e.g. TV

 Half Duplex (HDX) – both directions but not at the same

time, e.g. CB radio

 Full Duplex (FDX) – transmit and receive simultaneously

between two stations, e.g. standard telephone system.

 Full/Full Duplex (F/FDX) - transmit and receive

simultaneously but not necessarily just between two
stations,
e.g. data communications circuits
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Medias for Communication

• Telephone Channel
• Mobile Radio Channel
• Optical Fiber Cable
• Satellite Channel

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Unit 1
• Introduction To Communication System: Modulation,
Demodulation, Radio Frequency Spectrum, Signals &
their classification, Limitations & Advantages of a
Communication System, Comparison of Analog & Digital
Communication Systems, Historical Perspectives.
• Noise: Sources of Noise, External & Internal Noise,
Noise Calculations, Noise Figure, Noise Figure
Calculation, Noise Temperature, Noise in Communication
Systems, Band Pass Noise Model, Cascaded States & its
Noise Figure Calculation, Signal in presence of Noise,
Pre-Emphasis & De- Emphasis, Noise Quieting Effect,
Capture Effect, Noise in Modulation Systems.

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Introduction to Communication System

• Modulation
• Demodulation
• Radio Frequency Spectrum
• Signals & their classification
• Systems & their classification
• Limitations & Advantages of a Communication
System
• Comparison of Analog & Digital Communication
Systems
• Historical Perspective
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What is Modulation?
In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control the
parameters of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.

The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
analogue – denoted by m(t)
digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.

The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:

vc t = Vc cos ωc t +φc 

• If the message signal m(t) controls amplitude – givesAMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
• If the message signal m(t) controls frequency – gives FREQUENCY MODULATION FM
• If the message signal m(t) controls phase- gives PHASE MODULATION PM or M

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What is Demodulation?
Demodulation is the reverse process (to modulation) to recover the message signal
m(t) or d(t) at the receiver.

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Summary of Modulation Technique.

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Frequency Spectrum

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Signals
• A Signal is the function of one or more independent
variables that carries some information to represent a
physical phenomenon. e.g. ECG, EEG

• Classification of signals:
1. Continuous & Discrete Signals
2. Randam & Diterminstic Signals
3. Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
4. Causal & Non Causal Signals
5. Energy & Power signals
6. Even & Odd signals

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Classification of Signals

Continuous-time Sinal: Signal

which is defined at every
instant of time, this means
that the signal is analog or
continuous in nature.

Discrete-time Sinal:
The Signal which is defined at
some instant of time, not at
every instant.
These signals are also known
as sampled signals.

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Examples: CT vs. DT Signals

x(t) x[n]

t n

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Periodic vs Aperiodic
• Asignal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive
constant To i.e x(t) = x (t+To) for all t
• A signal x(t) is said to be non periodic:
if x(t) ≠ x (t+To) for all t
The smallest value of Tothat satisfies the periodicity condition
of this equation is the fundamental period of x(t).

Periodic Signal Non Periodic Signal

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Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal
• A signal with finite energy and zero power is called
Energy Signal i.e.for energy signal
0<E<∞ and P =0
• Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area under
the square of the magnitude of the signal.

 Ex  x t  2 dt
• The units of signal energy depends on the unit of 
the signal.

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Energy and Power Signals Contd.

Power Signal
• Some signals have infinite signal energy. In that
case it is more convenient to deal with average
signal power.
• For power signals
0<P<∞ and E = ∞
• Average power of the signal is given by
T /2

Px  lim 1  x t  2 dt
T T
T /2

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Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals

Deterministic signals
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.ttime
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any
time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically.
For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.

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Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals Contd.

Non Deterministic or Random signals

• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not predictable
w.r.t time.
• There is an uncertainty with respect to its value at any
time.
• These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.
• For example Thermal Noise generated is non
deterministic signal.

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Causal vs Non-causal

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Even vs Odd Signal

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Even and Odd Signal

A real function xe(t) is said to be an even function of t if

A real function xo(t) is said to be an odd function of t if

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Systems
A system (plant) is a combination of
components, interrelated, independent
elements that are organized for a specific
purpose or task.

Classification of Systems:
1. Linear Time Invariant System (LTI System)
2. Linear Time Variant System (LTV System)
3. Continuous and Discrete time system
4. Causal and Non Causal Systems
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Classification of Systems
Linear Time Invarient System (LTI System)/
Linear Time Varient System (LTV System):
Linear: The system that satisfies both superposition &
homogeniety principle are said to be linear system.
Time Invarient: The output due to input x(t) is y(t) then
the output due to input x(t+T) is y(t+T) is identical or same
irrespective to the delay T in the input of the system.
Linear+ Time Invarient= LTI System
If the system does not obey's the Time Invarient Principle
are known as Linear Time varient system.

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Continuous and Discrete time system:

Continuous System A (Analog System):
continuous-time system is a device that operates on a
continuous-time input and output signals.
Discrete time system : A discrete system is a system
with a countable number of states.
A discrete-time system is a device that operates on a
discrete-time input and output signals.

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Causal and Non Causal Systems:

Causal system : A system is said to be causal system if
its output depends on present and past inputs only and
not on future inputs.

Non Causal system: A system whose present

response depends on future values of the inputs is
called as a non-causal system.

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Advantages of a Communication System

1. Speedy transmission: It requires only a few seconds to communicate
through electronic media because it supports quick transmission.

2. Wide coverage: World has become a global village and communication

around the globe requires a second only.

3. Low cost: Electronic communication saves time and money. For example,
Text SMS is cheaper than the traditional letter.

4.Exchange of feedback: Electronic communication allows the instant

exchange of feedback. So communication becomes perfect using electronic
media.

5.Managing global operation: Due to the advancement of electronic media,

business managers can easily control operation across the globe. Video or
teleconferencing e-mail and mobile communication are helping managers in
this regard
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Disadvantages of a Communication System

1. The volume of data: The volume of telecommunication information is
increasing at such a fast rate that business people are unable to absorb it
within the relevant time limit.

2.The cost of development: Electronic communication requires huge

investment for infrastructural development. Frequent change in technology
also demands further investment.

3.Legal status: Data or information, if faxed, may be distorted and will cause
zero value in the eye of law.

4. Undelivered data: Data may not be retrieved due to system error or fault
with the technology. Hence required service will be delayed

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Advantages of a Digital Communication

• Digital communication can be done over large distances though internet
and other things.
• Digital communication gives facilities like video conferencing which save a
lot of time, money and effort.

• It is easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques.

• The digital communication is fast, easier and cheaper.
• It can tolerat the noise interference.
• It can be detect and correct error easily because of channel coding.
• Used in military application.
• It has excellent processing techniques are available for digital signals such
as data compression, image processing, channel coding and equalization.
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Disadvantages of a Digital Communication

• Digital communication needs synchronization in synchronous

modulation.

• High power consumption.

• It required more bandwidth as compared to analog systems.

• It has sampling error.

• Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also

disadvantage of digital system.

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Historical Perspective

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History of Communication

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Introduction to Noise

• Sources of Noise
• External Noise
• Internal Noise
• S/N Ratio, Noise Figure
• Introduction
• Thermal Noise
• Shot Noise
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1. Introduction
Noise is a general term which is used to describe an unwanted signal
which affects a wanted signal. These unwanted signals arise from a
variety of sources which may be considered in one of two main
categories:-

• Interference, usually from a human source (man made)

• Naturally occurring random noise

Interference

Interference arises for example, from other communication systems

(cross talk), 50 Hz supplies (hum) and harmonics, switched mode
power supplies, thyristor circuits, ignition (car spark plugs) motors
… etc.
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1. Introduction (Cont’d)
Natural Noise

Naturally occurring external noise sources include atmosphere disturbance

(e.g. electric storms, lighting, ionospheric effect etc), so called ‘Sky Noise’
or Cosmic noise which includes noise from galaxy, solar noise and ‘hot
spot’due to oxygen and water vapour resonance in the earth’s atmosphere.

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2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)

This type of noise is generated by all resistances (e.g. a resistor,
semiconductor, the resistance of a resonant circuit, i.e. the real part of the
impedance, cable etc).

Experimental results (by Johnson) and theoretical studies (by Nyquist) give
the mean square noise voltage as _ 2
V  4 k TBR (volt 2 )
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 Joules per K
T = absolute temperature
B = bandwidth noise measured in (Hz)
R = resistance (ohms) 46
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2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Cont’d)

The law relating noise power, N, to the temperature and bandwidth is

N = k TB watts

Thermal noise is often referred to as ‘white noise’because it has a

uniform ‘spectral density’.

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3. Shot Noise
•Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random
fluctuations in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes
(called shot noise by analogy with lead shot).
•Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the liberation of
charge carriers.
• For pn junctions the mean square shot noise current is

I n2 2I DC 2 I o qe B (amps)2

Where
is the direct current as the pn junction (amps)
is the reverse saturation current (amps)
is the electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
B is the effective noise bandwidth (Hz)

•Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for thermal

noise 48
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4. Low Frequency or Flicker Noise

Active devices, integrated circuit, diodes, transistors etc also exhibits

a low frequency noise, which is frequency dependent (i.e. non
uniform) known as flicker noise or ‘one – over – f ’noise.

5. Excess Resistor Noise

Thermal noise in resistors does not vary with frequency, as previously
noted, by many resistors also generates as additional frequency
dependent noise referred to as excess noise.
6. Burst Noise or Popcorn Noise
Some semiconductors also produce burst or popcorn noise with a
spectral density which is proportional to  1 f 
2

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7. General Comments

For frequencies below a few KHz (low frequency systems), flicker

and popcorn noise are the most significant, but these may be ignored
at higher frequencies where ‘white’noise predominates.

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8. Noise Evaluation
The essence of calculations and measurements is to determine the
signal power to Noise power ratio, i.e. the (S/N) ratio or (S/N)
expression in dB.  S  S
N  
 ratio N
 S   S 
 N   1 0 log 10  
 dB  N 
Also recall that
 S (m W ) 
S d B m  1 0 lo g 10  
 1 mW 
 N (m W ) 
a n d N d B m  1 0 lo g 10  
 1 m W 

i.e.  S  10 log 10 S  1 0 lo g 10 N

 N  dB
 S 
N   S d Bm  N d Bm
 dB
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8. Noise Evaluation (Cont’d)

The probability of amplitude of noise at any frequency or in any band

of frequencies (e.g. 1 Hz, 10Hz… 100 KHz .etc) is a Gaussian
distribution.

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8. Noise Evaluation (Cont’d)

Noise may be quantified in terms of
noise power spectral density, po watts per
Hz, from which Noise power N may be
expressed as
N= po Bn watts
Ideal low pass filter
Bandwidth B Hz = Bn
N= po Bn watts
Practical LPF
3 dB bandwidth shown, but noise does not suddenly cease
at B3dB
Therefore, Bn > B3dB, Bn depends on actual filter.
N= p0 Bn
In general the equivalent noise bandwidth is > B3dB.
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9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems

Thermal Noise (Johnson noise)

This thermal noise may be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown below
____
V  4 k TBR (volt 2 )
2

(mean square value , power)

____
then V RMS = V 2  2 kTBR V n
i.e. Vn is the RMS noise voltage.

A) System BW = B Hz
N= Constant B (watts) = KB
B) System BW
N= Constant 2B (watts) = K2B

S  S
ForA, S  S For B,
N K 2B
N KB

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9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)

Resistors in Series
Assume that R1 at
temperature T1 and R2 at
temperature T2, then
____ ___ ___
V V V
2 2 2
n1 n2
n
____
 4 k T1 B R1
2
V n_1_
2
Vn2  4 k T2 B R2
____

 Vn
2
 4 k B (T1R1 T 2 R2 )
____

Vn
2
 4 kT B (R1  R2 )
i.e. The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a
single resistor 55
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9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)

Resistance in Parallel
R2 R1
Vo1 V n1 Vo2 Vn2
R1  R2 R1  R2

____

V
___ ___
V n
2
V o1
2
o2
2

 R1 R 2 
R 
____
4k B
V 
2 2
T1 R 1  R 12 T 2 R 2   
n
R1  R 2  2 2
 R R 
1 2 

_____
4 k B R 1 R 2 (T1R 1 T 2R 2 )
V 2

n
R1  R 2 2
_____
 RR 
V 2
 4kTB 1 2 
 R1  R 2 
n

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10. Matched Communication Systems

In communication systems we are usually concerned
with the noise (i.e. S/N) at the receiver end of the system.
The transmission path may be for example:-

Or

An equivalent circuit, when the line is connected to the receiver is shown below.

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10. Matched Communication Systems (Cont’d)

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11. Signal to Noise

The signal to noise ratio is given by
S  Signal Power
N Noise Power
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by
S S
  dB 10log 10  
N N
 S 
  d B S d B m  N d B m for S and N measured in mW.
 N 

12. Noise Factor- Noise Figure

Consider the network shown below,

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12. Noise Factor- Noise Figure (Cont’d)

•The amount of noise added by the network is embodied in the
Noise Factor F, which is defined by
S N 
SN 
IN
Noise factor F =
OUT

•F equals to 1 for noiseless network and in general F > 1. The

noise figure in the noise factor quoted in dB
i.e. Noise Figure F dB = 10 log10 F F ≥ 0 dB

•The noise figure / factor is the measure of how much a network

degrades the (S/N)IN, the lower the value of F, the better the
network.
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13. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements

For active elements with power gain G>1, we have

S N 
SN  = S IN NOUT S OUT  G S IN
IN
F= But
OUT
N IN SOUT
Therefore
F  SIN NOUT  NOUT
NIN G S IN G N IN
Since in general F v> 1 , then NOUT is increased by noise due to the active element i.e.

Na represents ‘added’noise measured at the output. This added noise may be referred to the
input as extra noise, i.e. as equivalent diagram is

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13. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements (Cont’d)

Ne is extra noise due to active elements referred to the input; the element is thus
effectively noiseless.

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14. Noise Temperature

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15. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Passive Elements

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16. Review of Noise Factor – Noise Figure –Temperature

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17. Cascaded Network

Areceiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active elements connected in
series.Atypical receiver block diagram is shown below, with example

In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise figure or noise
temperature must be determined. In order to do this all the noise must be referred to the same
point in the receiver, for example toA, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.

Te or Ne is the noise referred to the input.

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18. System Noise Figure

Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,

Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with NIN  N ae
from the aerial.

Now , N OUT  G 3 N IN 3  N e3 
G3 N IN 3  F3 1N IN 
Since N IN 3  G2 N IN 2  N e 2  G2 N IN 2  F2 1N IN 

similarly N IN 2  G 1 N a e  F 1  1 N IN 
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18. System Noise Figure (Cont’d)

NOUT  G3 G 2 G1 N ae  G1 F1 1N IN  G 2 F2 1N IN  G3 F3 1N IN
The overall system Noise Factor is

 NOUT NOUT
Fsys 
GN IN G1G 2G 3N ae
N IN  F2  1 N IN  F3  1 N IN
 1F1 1
N ae G1 N ae G1G 2 N ae

F2 1 F3 1 F4 1 ........... Fn 1

Fsys  F1 
G1 GG
1 2 GG
1 2G3 GG
1 2 ..........Gn1
The equation is called FRIIS Formula.
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19. System Noise Temperature

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