Computer Networks

(CSPC-207)
Dr Samayveer Singh

Physical Layer
Digital Transmission and
Analog Transmission
Digital transmission

We shall understand, how we can represent digital data by using digital

signals.
The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block coding, and
scrambling.
Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may
not be needed.

Figure: Digital communication

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Data rate and signal rate

Data rate is number of data elements (bits) transmitted per second

• Units is bits per second (bps)
• Also called bit rate

Signal rate is number of signal elements transmitted per second.

• Units is baud
• Also called pulse rate/modulation rate/ baud rate

Goal of signal communication is increase the data rate while

decreasing the signal rate.
• Increasing data rate increases speed of transmission
• Decreasing signal rate decreases band width requirements

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Line Coding

Line coding is the process of converting digital data into

digital signals.

Types of line coding

• Unipolar line coding
• Polar line coding
• Bipolar line coding
• Multilevel line coding

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Unipolar NRZ & RZ and Polar NRZ & RZ

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Polar RZ

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Manchester & Differential Manchester

Manchester and differential manchester coding are the type of polar line
coding.

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Bipolar NRZ and RZ

Bipolar NRZ

Bipolar RZ

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Polar Quaternary

It employs with four distinct symbols

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Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos,

which are treated is analog data. To transmit this analog data over
digital signals, we need analog to digital conversion.

To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM).

PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog

data into digital form. It involves three steps:
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding.

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Delta Modulation (DM)

 PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques have been

developed to reduce the complexity of PCM.

 The simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds the value of the

signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds the change from
the previous sample.

 Figure shows the process. Note that there are no code words
here; bits are sent one after another.

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Figure: The process of delta modulation

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Figure: Delta modulation components

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Figure: Delta demodulation components

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 Transmission Modes
 Of primary concern when we are considering the transmission
of data from one device to another is the wiring, and of primary
concern when we are considering the wiring is the data stream.

 Do we send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into larger

groups and, if so, how?

 The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.

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Figure: Data transmission modes

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1 Parallel Transmission

 Line coding is the process of converting digital

data to digital signals.
 We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers,
graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in
computer memory as sequences of bits.
 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital
signal.
 At the sender, digital data are encoded into a
digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are
recreated by decoding the digital signal.

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Figure: Parallel transmission

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2 Serial Transmission

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we

need only one communication channel rather than n to
transmit data between two communicating devices.

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Figure: Asynchronous transmission

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Figure: Synchronous transmission

Direction of flow
Frame Frame Frame

11110111 11111011 11110110 ••• 11110111 11110011

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 Figure: Isochronous transmission

 An isochronous data transfer system combines the features of an

asynchronous and synchronous data transfer system.

 Each transmission begins with a start packet. Once the start packet
is transmitted, the data must be delivered with a guaranteed
bandwidth.

 Isochronous data transfer is commonly used for where data must be

delivered within certain time constraints, like streaming video.

 Isochronous systems do not have an error detection mechanism

(acknowledgment of receipt of packet) because if an error were
detected, time constraints would make it impossible to resend the
data.
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Analog Transmission

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the

characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in
digital data.

Figure: Analog Communication

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Types of digital-to-analog conversion

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

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Frequency Shift Keying

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Phase Shift Keyeing

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Analog to analog conversion

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog

information by an analog signal.

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Amplitude Modulation

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Frequency Modulation

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Phase Modulation (PM)

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MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than

the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)

transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

Dividing a link into channels

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Categories of multiplexing

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Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

Analog multiplexing technique

For digital signals, they must be converted to analog signals first
Individual signals modulates different carrier frequencies
Each carrier frequency is separated by a guard band (unused bandwidth) to
prevent signals from overlapping In addition, choice of carrier frequencies
must ensure that they do not interfere with data being carried
These are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported over the data link

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WDM

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic
channels.

The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different

frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.

WDM is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable.

The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic
transmission cable.

Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.
Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.

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Time Division Multiplexing

Digital Multiplexing technique

Analog data should be digitized prior of TDM

Instead of sharing portion of bandwidth, time is shared

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Spread Spectrum
 In some applications, we have some concerns that outweigh
bandwidth efficiency.

 In wireless applications, stations must be able to share this

medium without interception by an eavesdropper and without
being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder.

 To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add

redundancy.

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Figure: Spread spectrum

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1 FHHS

 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of

transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier
among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.

 Each available frequency band is divided into sub-

frequencies. Signals rapidly change ("hop") among these in
a predetermined order.

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Figure: Frequency hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS)

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Figure: Frequency selection in FHSS

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Figure: FHSS cycles

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Figure: Bandwidth sharing

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2 DSSS

 The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also

expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process
is different.

 In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a

spreading code.

 In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called

chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the data bit. Next
figure shows the concept of DSSS.

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Figure: DSSS

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Figure: DSSS example

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Examples:

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per
level? Calculate the number of bits from the formula?

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100

pages per second. A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line. What is the required bit rate of the channel?

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this

channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

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