Basic Electricity

Inductor
- passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field
- They are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radars, and electric
motors.
- Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded
as an inductor.
- In order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical inductor is usually formed into
a cylindrical coil with many turns of conducting wire
- 1 henry equals 1 volt-second per ampere
- inductance can be increased by increasing the number of turns of coil, using
material with higher permeability as the core, increasing the cross-sectional area,
or reducing the length of the coil.
- Inductors may be fixed or variable. The core may be made of iron, steel, plastic,
or air.
- An ideal inductor does not dissipate energy. The energy stored in it can be
retrieved at a later time.
- The inductor takes power from the circuit when storing energy and delivers
power to the circuit when returning previously stored energy
Joseph Henry
- first secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
- conducted several experiments on electromagnetism and developed powerful
electromagnets that could lift objects weighing thousands of pounds
- Joseph Henry discovered electromagnetic induction before Faraday but failed to
publish his findings
Capacitor
- A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy in its electric field
- Capacitors are used extensively in electronics, communications, computers, and
power systems
- used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers and as dynamic memory elements in
computer systems
- It consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator.the plates may be
aluminum foil while the dielectric may be air, ceramic, paper, or mica.
- The capacitor is said to store the electric charge.
- The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly proportional to the
applied voltage so that in the equation. where C, the constant of proportionality,
is known as the capacitance of the capacitor.
- voltage it does not depend on q or It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor.
 - The surface area of the plates—the larger the area, the greater the capacitance.
- The spacing between the plates—the smaller the spacing, the greater the
capacitance.
- The permittivity of the material—the higher the permittivity, the greater the
capacitance.
Michae Faraday
- credit for generating electric current on a practical scale goes to the famous
English scientist
- Electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion
- When a magnet is moved inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current flows
through the wire.
- He had discovered the first method of generating electricity by means of motion
in a magnetic field.
- He also realized that the electric force is transmitted by an electric field
- coined such words as electrolysis, anode, and cathode
Complex Number and Phasor
- The mathematics used in Electrical Engineering to add together resistances,
currents or DC voltages use what are called “real numbers” used as either
integers or as fractions.
- In electrical engineering this type of number is called an “imaginary number” and
to distinguish an imaginary number from a real number the letter “ j ” known
commonly in electrical engineering as the j-operator, is used. Thus the letter “j” is
placed in front of a real number to signify its imaginary number operation.
- Complex Numbers represent points in a two dimensional complex or s-plane that
are referenced to two distinct axes. The horizontal axis is called the “real axis”
while the vertical axis is called the “imaginary axis”.
- The real and imaginary parts of a complex number are abbreviated as Re(z) and
Im(z), respectively.
- Complex numbers that are made up of real (the active component) and
imaginary (the reactive component) numbers can be added, subtracted and used
in exactly the same way as elementary algebra is used to analyse DC Circuits.
- In the rectangular form we can express a vector in terms of its
rectangular coordinates, with the horizontal axis being its real axis and
the vertical axis being its imaginary axis or j-component. In polar form
these real and imaginary axes are simply represented by “A ∠θ“.
- Rectangular form is best for adding and subtracting complex numbers as we saw
above, but polar form is often better for multiplying and dividing.
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current
 - A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a
current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately positive and
negative values.
- Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage are called ac circuits
- A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.
- ac is more efficient and economical to transmit over long distances
- A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or cosine function.
- Alternating current is the current which constantly changes in amplitude, and
which reverses direction at regular intervals.
Advantages of AC Generation
- Accomplished economically in large power plant that may be located where fuel
and water are abundant.
- Transmission over network of high-voltage lines to distant loads centres is
entirely practicable
- Widely used in Industrial Application such as Industrial motors, Transformer
equipment and control devices
Properties of Alternating Current
- Frequency
- number of complete cycles it goes through in a fixed period of time. For
standard measurements, the period of time is one second, so the
frequency of the wave is commonly measured in cycles per second
(cycles/ sec)
- expressed in units of Hertz (Hz). It is represented in mathematical
equations by the letter f
- Period
- know the amount of time required to complete one cycle of the waveform
- the reciprocal of frequency
- one cycle of the waveform, and is measured in seconds/ cycle.
- Wavelength
- length of one complete wave or cycle.
- Greek letter (lambda) is used to represent wavelength in mathematical
expressions.
- wavelength can be measured from any part of one cycle to the equivalent
point in the next cycle.
- wavelength is measured in distance per cycle while period is measured in
time per cycle.
- Waveforms
- representation of the variation of a voltage or a current plotted to a base of
time.
- for AC waveforms this horizontal base line represents zero condition of
either voltage or current.
 - The most common periodic signal waveforms that are used are sinusoidal
waveform
- AC waveforms can also take the shape of either complex waves, square
waves or triangular waves,etc
Peak Value
- greatest value of either voltage or current that the waveform reaches during each
half cycle measured from zero baseline.
Peak to Peak Value
- there are always two maximum or peak values, one for the positive half-cycle
and the other for the negative half-cycle.
- difference between the peak positive value, and the peak negative value called
the peak-to-peak value of the sine wave.
- This value is twice the maximum or peak value of the sine wave and is
sometimes used for measurement of ac voltages.
Instantaneous i(t)
- The value of alternating quantity at any instant.
average value
- expressed by that steady current which transformed by that alternating current
driving the same time.
- arithmetical average or mean of all the values of an alternating quantity over one
cycle.
Effective Value (RMS)
- The rms value of an alternating current is given by that steady state current(dc)
which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same
heat as produced by alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for
the same time.
- Defined as the square root of the average of the squares of the given quantity
taken over a complete period.
Crest Factor or Peak Factor
- ratio of the maximum value to the rms value
Form Factor
- ratio of the rms value to the average value
Phase

current had passed through the zero position of reference (𝝎t is the phase
- the fraction of time period of that alternating current which has elapsed since the

angle)
Phase angle
- difference in degrees between the voltage waveform and the current waveform
having the same periodic time.
Angular Frequency
- represents the phasor relationship between two or more waveforms.
 - rotational unit of angular frequency 2пf with units in radians per second, rad/s.
Phase Difference Value
- Leading
- Alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero value
earlier as compared to the other quantity.
- Lagging
- Alternating quantity is which reached its maximum or zero value later than
the other quantity.
Summation of In-Phase sinusoidal wave
- When two or more sinusoidal voltage or current waves are in - phase and have
the same frequency they may be added to yield a sine wave of a same
frequency. The resultant wave will then have a maximum value that is equal to
the arithmetical sum of the maximum values of the component waves.
- A sinusoid can be expressed in either sine or cosine form. When comparing two
sinusoids, it is expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive
amplitudes.
Power
- It is customary to refer to an AC load by using the term volt-amperes (VA) in
systems involving considerable loads
- it is a measure of such operational factors as current-carrying capacity of wires,
heating effect in electrical equipment, ratings of machines and others.
Apparent power
- also known as demand, is the measure of the amount of power used to run
machinery and equipment during a certain period. It is found by multiplying (kVA
= V x A). The result is expressed as kVA units.
Power Factor
- expression of energy efficiency. It is usually expressed as a percentage and the
lower the percentage, the less efficient power usage is.
- the ratio of working power, measured in kilowatts (kW), to apparent power,
measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).
- Type of power Factor
- Unity p.f
- the voltage and current are in phase (i.e. resistive loads)
- Lagging p.f
- the current lags the voltage by an acute angle theta (i.e. series RL
or inductive loads)

- Leading p.f
- the current leads the voltage by an acute angle theta.(i.e. series RC
or capacitive loads.
 - Zero p.f
- if the voltage and current are out of phase by exactly 90 degrees.
(i.e. ideal inductor or ideal capacitor loads
Power Factor Correction (PFC)
- technology which when installed allows the consumer to reduce their electricity
bill by maintaining the level of reactive power consumption.
- . One method of improving the power factor of an inductive load is to connect a
bank of capacitors in parallel with the load.
Conductance (G)
- It is the reciprocal of resistance, R and is given the symbol G.
- Conductance is defined as the ease at which a resistor (or a set of resistors)
allows current to flow when a voltage, either AC or DC is applied.

- It is the reciprocal of reactance, X and is given the symbol 𝜷.

Susceptance (B)

- circuits susceptance is defined as the ease at which a reactance (or a set of

reactances) allows current to flow when a voltage is applied.

- It is the reciprocal of impedance, Z and is given the symbol 𝜸.

Admittance (Y)

- admittance is defined as the ease at which a circuit composed of resistances and

reactances allows current to flow when a voltage is applied taking into account
the phase difference between the voltage and the current.
Three Phase System
- A balance three-phase supply connected to a set of balance three phase loads
- Balance Three-Phase Supply
- Set of three sinusoidal voltage with the same magnitude and
frequency with a phase difference of 120 degrees
- Balance Three-Phase load
- Set of three single phase load with the same complex impedance
and thus taking the same amount of current and power from the
supply

DC Machines
DC Generator
- An electrical machine which main function is to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy in the form of direct current

Parts of DC Generator
- Stator
 - The Stationary part of the generator which contains the field winding
responsible for producing magnetic field in the machine
- Rotor
- The Rotating part of the generator containing the armature winding which
cuts the magnetic field producing an induced emf in the machine
- Dead or Dummy Coil
- Electrically disconnected coil element in the armature used to balance
machine mechanically
- Commutator
- Serves as a rectifier for a DC generator which converts its AC output to
DC or as an inverter for a DC motor which converts DC input to AC.
- Interpole
- An auxiliary set of field poles carrying armature current to reduce the
effect of armature reactions.
- Compensating winding
- Used to neutralize the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction in DC
generator subjected to large fluctuation in load
- Diverter
- A low resistance connected in parallel with the series field winding to
adjust the compounding
General Type of Dc Armature Winding
- Lap Winding
- The finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator and to the
starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole and so on
- Wave Winding
- In a wave winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to a
commutator and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the
next pole and so on.
Type of DC Generator
- Separately-Excited DC Generator
- The field winding is energized using an external source (exciter)
- Generally used for testing purposes in laboratory or a supply source of DC
motor for speed control application
- Self-Excited DC Generator
- The field winding is energized from its own armature
- Series Wound DC Generator
- The series field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding.
- Commonly used in supplying field excitation in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking, booster in various types of distribution
system, or series arc lightning.
 - Shunt Wound DC Generator
- The shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding
- Commonly used for constant voltage application such as general
lighting, charge battery , excitation for alternators, or as a small
power supply.
- Compound Wound DC Generator
- Both the series and shunt field winding are connected to the
armature winding
- Long Shunt Compound Generator
- The series field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding and the combination in parallel with the
shunt field winding.
- Short Shunt Compound Generator
- The shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding and the combination in series with the
series field winding
- Type of compound Wound Generator
- Cumulative Compounded Generator
- The series and shunt field windings are connected
such that their magnetic flux aids each other
- Over Compounded
- The terminal voltage rises with the load
- Commonly used for lighting, power supply, and
other heavy power services
- Flat Compounded
- The full-load and no-load terminal voltage are
the same
- Commonly used in small distance operation,
such as power supply for hotels, offices,
homes, lodges, etc
- Under Compounded
- The terminal voltage falls as the load increases
- Differentially Compounded Generator
- The series and shunt field windings are connected
such that their magnetic flux opposes each other.
- Commonly used for arc welding
DC Motor
- An electrical machine which main function is to convert electrical energy in the
form of direct current (DC) into mechanical energy.
Type of DC Motor
 - Separately-Excited DC Motor
- The field winding is energized using an external source (exciter)
- Since the field current and armature current are independent, speed can
be controlled with very high accuracy
- Suitable for application which need speed variations such as paper
machines,rolling units,electric propulsion, etc.
- Self-Excited DC Motor
- The field winding is energized from its own armature
- Series Wound DC Motor
- The series field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding
- Variable speed with high starting torque.
- Suitable for high starting torque applications such as cranes, hoists,
elevator, trolleys, conveyors, electric locomotives, etc.
- During no load, the flux becomes very small, hence the speed
becomes very high(run away or racing condition). Therefore, a
series motor cannot be run during no load.
- Shunt Wound DC Motor
- The shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding
- Fairly constant speed with medium starting torque.
- Suitable for applications which require stable speed such as
blowers, fans, centrifugal and reciprocating pumps, lathe machines,
machine tools, milling machines, drilling machines, etc
- During operation, the field circuit must never be open or the motor
will achieve run away or racing condition
- Compound Wound DC Motor
- Both the series and shunt field winding are connected to the
armature winding
- Long Shunt Compound Motor
- The series field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding and the combination in parallel with the
shunt field winding

-
Short Shunt Compound Motor
- The Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding and the combination in series with the
series filed winding
Type of Compound Wound Motor
 - Cumulatively Compound Motor
- The series and shunt field winding are connected such that their magnetic
flux aids each other.
- Fairly efficient speed regulation with high starting torque
- Suitable for industrial applications such as rolling mills, punches, shears,
heavy planers, elevators, etc.
- Differentially Compound Motor
- The series and shunt field windings are connected such that their
magnetic flux opposes each other.
- Speed increases as load increases leading to instability
- Unsuitable for any applications

Formulas
Inductors
2 ❑
di N μA di
υ=L L= p=ν i=( L )i
dt l dt
 t t
1 1
i= ∫ υ(τ )d τ = ∫ υ (τ)d τ +i(t 0)
l −∞ l −t 0

t t
di
w= ∫ p(τ )d τ=L ∫ id τ
−∞ −∞ dτ
t
1 2 1 2
¿ L ∫ idi= Li (t)− L i (−∞) Since, I (−∞)=0
−∞ 2 2
1 2
w= L i
2
υ=Voltage (volts) L=Inductance (Henry)
i=Current ( Ampere) N=Number of Turns
2
A=cross sectional area(m ) l=Length(Meter )
p= power (watts) W =energy (Joules)
μ= permeability of the core(Henry per meter )

Mutual Inductance
N 2 ϕ 12 N 1 ϕ21
M= ∨¿
l1 l2
M =Mutual inductance(Henry (H ))
N 1∨N 2 =number of turns of coil 1∧2
I 1∨I 2=current flowing through coil 1∧2 (Ampere ( A))
ϕ 21=Magnetic Flux passing through coil 2 due ¿ coil 1(weber (Wb ))
ϕ 12=Magnetic Flux passing through coil 1 due ¿ coil 2(weber (Wb ))

Series Inductance Parallel Inductance

(neglecting Mutual Inductance) (Neglecting Mutual Inductance)
1 1 1 1 1
LT =L1+ L2 + L3 +..... L n = + + + ....
L T L1 L2 L3 Ln
I T =I 1=I 2=I 3=..... I n I T =I 1 + I 2+ I 3 +..... I n
V T =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 +.....V n V T =V 1=V 2=V 3=.....V n
Series Inductance Parallel Inductance
(With Mutual Inductance) (With Mutual Inductance)

Aiding
 2
L1 L2−M
LT =L1+ L2 +2 M L=
L1+ L2−2 M

Opposing
2
L1 L2−M
LT =L1+ L2−2 M L=
L1+ L2+2 M

Capacitor

εA dv dv
C= i=C q=C υ p=υ i=vC
d dt dt
t t
1 1
υ (t)= ∫
C −∞
i(τ )d τ = ∫ i(τ )d τ +υ(t 0 )
C −t 0

t t
dv
w= ∫ p(τ )d τ=C ∫ υ dτ
−∞ −∞ dτ
υ(t)
1 1
¿C ∫ vdv= Cv2 (t )− Cv2 (−∞)
2 2
Since, v (−∞ )=0
υ(−∞)

1 2
w= Cv
2
υ=Voltage (volts) C=Capacitance(Farad )
2
I =Current ( Ampere) A=cross sectional area(m )
p= power (watts) W =energy (Joules)
q=Charge (Coulombs)
d= Distance between the plates (Meter )
ε = permittivity of the dielectric material( Henry per meter )

Series Capacitance Parallel Capacitance

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +.... C T =C 1 +C2 +C 3 +.....C n
CT C 1 C2 C 3 Cn
QT =Q1=Q2=Q3 =.....Qn QT =Q1 +Q2+ Q3+ .....Qn
V T =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 +.....V n V T =V 1=V 2=V 3=.....V n

If for two capacitors C1 and C2 If in a two branched parallel circuit,

in series, VT is the total voltage C1 and C2 are the branch
then individual voltage drop are resistance, Qt the total charge,
then the charge distribution is
 C2 C1
V 1= V Q 1= Q
C 1+C 2 T C1 +C 2 T
C1 C2
V 2= V Q 2= Q
C 1+C 2 T C 1+C 2 T

Complex Number

Z=X + Jy

Z−is thecomplex number representingthe vector

x−is the real part∨the active component
y−is the imaginary part∨the reactive component
j∨i−defined by √❑

i=√ ❑ 2
i =−1
3
i =−√ ❑
4
i =1

A=x+ Jy B=w+ jz

Addition and Subtraction of Complex number (Rectangular Form)

A+ B=(x +w)+ j( y + z) A−B=(x −w)+ j( y−z)

Multiplication of Complex number (Rectangular Form)

2
A x B= xw+ x ( jz)+ w( jy)+ j ( yz ) *combine like terms
Division of Complex Number (Complex Conjugate) (Rectangular Form)

2
A x+ jy x + jy w− jZ xw−x ( jz)+w ( jy)− j ( yz )
= = x = *combine like terms
B w+ jZ w+ jZ w− jZ w2− j 2 (z 2)
Multiplication in Polar Form Division in Polar Form

Z1 x Z 2=C 1 x C 2 ∠ θ 1+θ 2
Z1 C1
=
Z2 C2( )∠ θ 1−θ2

Conversion (Rectangular to polar form)

−1 y
x +Jy → C ∠ θ C=√ ❑ θ=ta n
x

Conversion (polar form to rectangular)

C ∠ θ → x+ Jy x=Ccos θ y=Csin θ
AC CIRCUIT

Frequency and period

ω PN 1 2Π
f= f= T= =
2Π 120 f ω

ω=angular frequency(rad /s ) f =frequency(Hz)

p=no . of poles N=revolution(rpm)

Wavelength ( λ )
v
λ=
f
v=velocity of the wave(m/ s) f =frequency of the wave( Hz)
8
Radio wave−3 x 10 m/ s sound wave−344 m/s

Instantaneous Current and Voltage

i(t)=I m sin θ=I m sin ω t=I m sin 2 Π ft e (t)=Em sin θ=E m sin ω t= Em sin 2 Π ft

i(t)=Instantaneous Current e (t)=Instantaneous Voltage

I m=Maximum value of Current V m =Maximum value of Voltage
θ=Angular frequency∈degree t=time∈seconds
ω= Angular frequency∈radians /s f =frequency(Hz)
ω t=argument of the sinusoid

Phase Difference Value

Leading Lagging
i(t)=I m sin(ω t+θ) i(t)=I m sin(ω t−θ)
e (t)=Em sin(ω t +θ) e (t)=Em sin(ω t−θ)
From Phase Difference Value
Complex Voltage Complex Current
V =V rms ∠ θv I =I rms ∠ θ I
Waveforms

Waveform RMS AVERAGE FORM PEAK

FACTOR FACTOR

Max 2 1.111 1.414

Max
√❑ π

Max Max 1.571 2

2 π

Max Max 1.1155 1.732

√❑ 2

Π √❑
Max 1.0396 1.225
4

√❑
0.7 Max 1.1664 1.2247

Max Max 1 1
Wave and Vector Diagram Representation

Conversion of Phase Trigonometric Function

sin(ω t ± 180)=−sin ω t sin(ω t ± 90)=± cos ω t
cos (ω t ±180)=−cos ω t cos (ω t ±90)=∓sin ω t
Summation of Out-Phase Sinusoidal Wave
If out− phase by 90 °
I t= √ ❑ ´ θ
If out− phase by an angle
I t= √ ❑

I t=I 1 ∠ 0° + I 2 ∠θ ∑ of more thantwo out phase alternating waves

Σ I h=I 1 + I 2 cos θ 2+ I 3 cos θ3 Σ I v =I 2 sin θ2 + I 3 sin θ3
I t= √ ❑

¿ Complex Number
I t=I 1 ∠ 0° + I 2 ∠θ 2+ I 3 ∠ θ3
Standard Sign Conventions:
Vector current directed to the RIGHT (→), POSITIVE.
Vector current directed to the LEFT (←), NEGATIVE.
Vector current directed to the UPWARD (↑), POSITIVE.
Vector current directed to the DOWNWARD (↓), NEGATIVE.

Pure Resistance (AC)

Current and Voltage are in phase

e=E m sin ω t i=I m sin ω t
Em
I m= whereθ I =θ V
R
V =ZI; Z=R →V =RI
1 1
Y = = =G P=ei=¿ (E m sin ω t )(I m sin ω t )
Z R
e∨v=RMS Value of Voltage
i=RMS Value of Current
I m=Maximum value of Current
P=Power
Em =Maximum value of Voltage R=Resistance of the resistor
t=time∈seconds V =Complex VoltageI =Complex current
ω= Angular frequency∈radians /s Z=Impedance
Y = Admittance

G=Conductance
Pure Inductance (AC)

Current lags the voltage by 90°

e=E m sin ω t i=I m sin(ω t−90)
π
i=I m sin(ω t− )
2
Em
x L =ω L=2 π fL I m=
XL
1 1 1
Z= j X L V =ZI =( j X L )I Y= = =− j( )=− j B L
Z jXL XL
1 1 1
BL = = =
X L ω L 2 π fL
Em I M
P L=ei=(E ¿¿ msin ω t)(I m sin (ω t−90))¿ P L= sin 2 ω t
2

e∨v=RMS Value of Voltage i=RMS Value of Current

I m=Maximum value of Current V m =Maximum value of Voltage
ω= Angular frequency∈radians /s t=time∈seconds
X L =Inductive Reactance L=Inductance
f =Frequency Z=Impedance
V =Complex Voltage I =Complex current Y = Admittance
BL =Inductive Susceptance
P=Power G=Conductance

Pure Capacitance (AC)

Current leads the voltage by 90°
e=E m sin ω t i=I m sin(ω t +90)
π
i=I m sin(ω t + )
2
1 1 Em
x C= = I m=
ω C 2 π fC XC
Z=− j X C V =ZI =−( j X C )I
1 1 1 1
Y= = = j( )= j BC BC = =ω C=2 π fC
Z − jXC XC XC
Em I M
P L=ei=(E ¿¿ msin ω t)(I m sin (ω t+ 90))¿ P L= sin 2 ω t
2

e∨v=RMS Value of Voltage i=RMS Value of Current

I m=Maximum value of Current Em =Maximum value of Voltage
ω= Angular frequency∈radians /s t=time∈seconds
X C =Capacitive Reactance C=Capacitance
f =Frequency Z=Impedance
V =Complex Voltage I =Complex current Y = Admittance
BC =Capacitive Susceptance
P=Power G=Conductance

Series RL
Phasor Diagram Circuit Diagram
(Current Lags the voltage by angle θ)
Z t=√ ❑ Z=R+ j X L =Z ∠ θ❑
ET
V =IZ I T= E R=I t R E L =I t X L
ZT
2 2 2
ET =E R + E L → E T =√ ❑
❑
R XL
G eq = 2 2 Beq = ¿ I =¿ I R =¿ I L ¿ V =¿V R +¿ V L
R + XL R 2+ X 2L
1
Y = =G eq− jB eq=Y ∠−θ
Z
V R IR R P
Power Factor=cos θ= = = =
V IZ Z S
V L I LC X L Q
Reactive Factor=sin θ= = = =
V IZ Z S
Z=Impedance R=Resistance X L =Inductivereactance
V , ET =Total supply voltage I , I T =Total Current
E R=Voltage drop across the resistor E L =Voltage drop across the inductor
Geq =Conductance equivalent Beq =Susceptance Equivalent
Y = Admittance
Q=Reactive Power R=Real Power S= Aparent Power
Note :∗¿ Complex value of the voltage∨current
Series RC
Phasor Diagram Circuit Diagram
(Current Leads the voltage by angle θ)
Z t=√ ❑ Z=R− j X C =Z ∠−θ❑
ET
V =IZ I T= E R=I t R EC =I t X C
ZT
2 2 2
ET =E R + EC → E T =√❑
❑
R XC
G eq = 2 2 Beq =
R + XC R 2+ X 2L
¿ I =¿ I R =¿ I C ¿ V =¿V R +¿ V C
1
Y = =G eq + jB eq =Y ∠ θ
Z
V R IR R P
Power Factor=cos θ= = = =
V IZ Z S
V C I XC X C Q
Reactive Factor=sin θ= = = =
V IZ Z S
Z=Impedance R=Resistance X C =Capacitive reactance
V , ET =Total supply voltage I , I T =Total Current
E R=Voltage drop across the resistor EC =Voltage drop across the capacitor
Geq =Conductance equivalent Beq =Susceptance Equivalent
Y = Admittance
Note :∗¿ Complex value of the voltage∨current
Series RLC
Phasor Diagram Circuit Diagram

(Current Leads the voltage by angle θ if XL<XC)

(Current Lags the voltage by angle θ if XL>XC)
Z t=√ ❑ Z=R+ j( X L− X C )=Z ∠θ❑
 ET
V =IZ I T = E R=I t R EC =I t X C E L =I t X L
ZT
2 2
ET =E R +¿
R Beq =¿ X ❑L − X❑C ∨ ¿ ¿
G eq = 2 2
R +¿¿ R +¿¿
1
¿ I =¿ I R =¿ I C =¿ I L ¿ V =¿V R +¿ V C +¿ V L Y = =G eq ± jB eq=Y ∠ ± θ
Z
V R IR R P
Power Factor=cos θ= = = =
V IZ Z S
V C I XC X C Q
Reactive Factor=sin θ= = = =
V IZ Z S
Z=Impedance Y = Admittance
X C =Capacitive reactance EC =Voltage drop across the capacitor
X L =Inductivereactance E L =Voltage drop across the Inductor
V , ET =Total supply voltage I , I T =Total Current
R=Resistance E R=Voltage drop across the resistor
Geq =Conductance equivalent Beq =Susceptance Equivalent

Note :∗¿ Complex value of the voltage∨current

Parallel RL

(Current Lags the voltage by angle θ)

1
Y =Y R +Y L =G− j B L=Y ∠−θ❑ Z= =R eq + jX eq =Z ∠ θ
Y
❑
G BL 1 1
Req = 2 2 X eq= G= BL =
G + BL G2 +B 2L R XL
V =ZI ¿ I =¿ I R +¿ I L ¿ V =¿V R =¿ V L
Y =total admittance Y R=Resistor Admittance
Z=Impedance Y L=Inductor Admittance
Req =Circuit Resistance G=Conductance
X eq=Circuit Reactance BL =Inductive Susceptance
I =Total Current Note :∗¿ Complex value of the voltage∨current

Parallel RL

(Current Lags the voltage by angle θ)

1
Y =Y R +Y C =G+ j B C =Y ∠ θ❑ Z= =R eq− jX eq=Z ∠−θ
Y
❑
G BC 1 1
Req = 2 2 X eq= G= BC =
G + BC G2 +B 2C R XC
V =ZI ¿ I =¿ I R +¿ I C ¿ V =¿V R =¿ V C
Y =total admittance Y C =Capacitive Admittance
Z=Impedance G=Conductance
Req =Circuit Resistance BC =Capacitive Susceptance
X eq=Circuit Reactance V =Total Voltage
Y R=Resistor Admittance
I =Total Current Note :∗¿ Complex value of the voltage∨current

Parallel RLC

(Current Leads the voltage by angle θ if XL>XC)

(Current Lags the voltage by angle θ if XL<XC)
1
Y =Y R +Y L +Y C =G− j(B ¿ ¿ L−B C )¿ Z= =R eq ± jX eq=Z ∠ ± θ
Y
Req =
G |BL −BC| G= 1 BC =
1
BL =
1
X eq=
2
G +¿¿ 2
G +¿ ¿ R XC XL
V =ZI ¿ I =¿ I R +¿ I L +¿ I C ¿ V =¿V R =¿ V L =¿ V C
Y =total admittance Z=Impedance
Req =Circuit Resistance X eq=Circuit Reactance
Y R=Resistor Admittance G=Conductance
Y C =Capacitive Admittance Y L=Inductive Admittance
BC =Capacitive Susceptance BL =Inductive Susceptance
V =Total Voltage I =Total Current

Note :∗¿ Complex value of the voltage∨current

Impedance Triangle

Z eq=R eq ± j X eq=Z eq ∠± θ
+if inductive −if capacitive
2 2 2
Z eq=R eq + X eq Req =Z eq cos θ
X eq=Z eq sin θ X eq=R eq tan θ

Admittance Triangle

Z eq=R eq ∓ j X eq =Z eq ∠ ∓ θ
−if inductive +if capacitive
2 2 2
Y =G + B G=Ycos θ
B=G tanθ B=Ysin θ

Power
2 2 2
S =P +Q P=Scos θ
Q=P tanθ Q=Ssinθ
2
P=I R=VI cos θ(watts)
2
Q=I X=VI sinθ (VAR)
2
S=I Z=VI (VA )

I =effective Current
V =effective Voltage
θ=phase angle between the voltage∧the current phasor
θ=power factor angle R=effective resistance of the circuit
X =effective reactanceof the circuit Z=effective impedance of the circuit

Power Factor Reactive Factor

P VIcos θ Q VIsinθ
p . f .= = =cos θ r . f .= = =sin θ
S VI S VI